Udział szlachty polskiej w pospolitym ruszeniu w XIV i XV wieku: aspekty prawne i stan faktyczny
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| 1. Verfasser: | |
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Polish |
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2008
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| Ausgabe: | Wyd. 1. |
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| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Beschreibung: | Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Participation of the Polish nobility in the mass levy in 14th and 15th centuries |
| Beschreibung: | 428 s. 22 cm |
| ISBN: | 9788360448434 |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text | SPIS TREŚCI
Wstęp
7
Rozdział I
UWAGI OGÓLNE O SZLACHCIE POLSKIEJ
I POSPOLITYM RUSZENIU W
XIV
I
XV
WIEKU
18
1.
Szlachta polska w
XIV 1
XV
wieku
18
2.
Pospolite ruszenie i jego organizacja w
XIV 1
XV
wieku
34
Rozdział
II
PODSTAWA POWOŁYWANIA SZLACHTY
DO UDZIAŁU W POSPOLITYM RUSZENIU
68
1.
Poglądy historiografii o podstawach prawnych
powoływania szlachty do udziału w pospolitym
ruszeniu w późnym średniowieczu
68
2.
Geneza służby wojskowej jako ciężaru rzeczowego
-
stanowisko literatury
85
3.
Służba wojskowa jako ciężar rzeczowy
-
ustalenia
WŁASNE
121
Rozdział III
FORMY UDZIAŁU SZLACHTY W POSPOLITYM
RUSZENIU
159
1.
Udział osobisty
159
2.
Zwolnienia od obowiązku osobistego udziału
w wyprawie
176
3.
Zastępcy i ich wysyłanie na wojnę
219
4.
Kary za niewywiazanie
sie
z powinności wojskowych
225
Rozdział
IV
WYMIAR SŁUŻBY WOJSKOWEJ W POSPOLITYM
RUSZENIU
247
1.
Regulacje dotyczące wymiaru służby w pospolitym
ruszeniu w
xiv
i pierwszej połowie
xv
wieku
247
2.
Regulacje dotyczące wymiaru służby w pospolitym
ruszeniu w drugiej połowie
xv
wieku
272
Rozdział
V
ŚWIADCZENIA NA RZECZ UCZESTNIKÓW
POSPOLITEGO RUSZENIA
З12
1. xiv
i xv-wieczne
regulacje prawne dotyczące
świadczeń ze strony władcy na rzecz uczestników
pospolitego ruszenia 3l2
2.
Geneza świadczeń na rzecz uczestników pospolitego
ruszenia
з26
3.
Praktyczna realizacja postanowień w kwestii
świadczeń ze strony władcy na rzecz uczestników
pospolitego ruszenia
з47
4.
Chłopskie świadczenie wojenne
З71
Zakończenie
З75
Summary
З85
Wykaz skrótów
З95
Bibliografia
З98
Indeks nazwisk 4i8
Summary
PARTICIPATION OF THE POLISH NOBILITY
IN THE MASS LEVY IN 14th AND 15th
CENTURIES. LEGAL ASPECTS AND
ACTUAL STATE
(
he subject of the dissertation is participation of the Polish nobility in the
mass levy in the late Middle Ages,
i.e.
in 14th and 15th centuries. A choice
of the period resulted from the fact that the 14th century in the Kingdom
of Poland was the time of a final separation of the nobility as an exclusive so¬
cial group, marked by birth. Consequently, the problem of participation of the
nobility in the mass levy cannot be discussed in reference to previous centuries.
The dissertation covers period until
1498
when the Polish nobility was called to
arms for the last time in the
Іб 1
century, in view of a Turkish threat, although
there are also some references to later relations.
In my book I made an attempt to reconstruct a real picture of participation of
the Polish nobility in the mass levy. The term Polish nobility has been reserved
in my work for the nobles from the Kingdom of Poland
-
the name with which
not only lands ruled by
Władysław Łokietek
and
Kazimierz Wielki
but sometimes
385
SUMMARY
also all ethnically Polish lands, regardless of current political divisions, were des¬
cribed. My interest has been limited to the former, narrower meaning of the term
the Kingdom of Poland and the nobility who lived in the area.
The first chapter of the book, aimed at introducing a reader to the subject, has
been devoted to a problem of development of the nobility as a social group in the
discussed period. Basic military terminology has been discussed along with short
characteristics of different types of military expeditions. Basing on the existing
literature I have also presented organisation of the armed forces in 14th and
lo 1
centuries. One of their elements was the mass levy, but there were also different
military formations, such as court troops, mercenary troops or hired troops.
The mass levy, gathered by
a starost
by order of the king, was organized in
banners (squadrons). We can distinguish royal banners, including a court one,
land banners and private banners. The last one could belong to a family or a lord.
With the second chapter an actual analysis of problems connected with par¬
ticipation of the nobility in the mass levy begins. The chapter deals with issues
of a legal ground of military obligations of the nobility. Analysis of the nobility s
duty to take part in the mass levy as well as some legal aspects of the duty has
inclined me to verify some of previous opinions on organisation of the armed
forces in the 14th and
15*
centuries. Firstly, it seems that opinion of exclusively
noble character of the mass levy can no longer be supported. Even in terms of
organisation the view does not reflect the medieval reality. Sources show that
both the burghers and the peasants were obligated to take part in military ex¬
peditions within the mass levy. There were even attempts to impose military
service on the clergy
-
it applied not only to those clergymen who owned pri¬
vate lands but the whole Church. Obviously personal participation in military
expeditions was not considered. Instead the clergymen were supposed to put
up troops at their expense. Projects of imposing military service on lands of the
Church came not only from the royal court but also from different circles of
the nobility who did not approve of special privileges granted to the clergy. For
that reason the nobles justified plundering of the Church property committed
during almost every military expedition. The situation was common at least in
IS111 century. The Church managed to defend its privileged position. The hierar-
chs sometimes used to voluntarily put up troops for a war but such cases never
became a precedence for the future.
386
SUMMARY
Since it is certain that both the peasants and the burghers were obligated
to serve in the mass levy previous views on the grounds of this kind of service
should
-
in my opinion
-
be verified. In the discussed period it was undoubted¬
ly a tangible duty, connected with ownership of land. It is not clear however if
-
as it has been assumed in the previous literature
-
it applied only to those who
owned land by knightly law or had immunized land, or maybe owners of all
hereditary lands. By this term I refer to all lands
-
both inherited and acquired
in different ways
-
which could be at their free disposal and in case of their de¬
ath were inherited by their heirs. However sources did not connect immunized
lands or lands owned by knightly law with military obligations but on many
occasions they stressed connection between ownership of hereditary lands and
service in the mass levy.
In 14th and 15th centuries military service was a tangible duty. However,
contrary to some opinions expressed in literature I would support an opinion
that connection between obligatory service in the mass levy and ownership of
hereditary lands should probably be dated back to 13th century. It cannot be
proved that at the beginnings of the Polish statehood a level of development
of law culture was high enough to formulate a rule of participation of owners
of hereditary lands in military expeditions. It should be rather assumed that
military duties were imposed on all free men. Not all of them were however
actually used during offensive military actions, only particular individuals able
to equip themselves appropriately for demands of a battlefield
ofthat
time. In
result bonds of vassal character between a ruler and his warriors were probably
formed. Consequently it led to social stratification. A socially privileged group
was formed. A monarch who wanted to secure himself military forces was pro¬
bably ready to limit some public duties imposed on his warriors. Later, in result
of further development of state, law, society etc. military service probably beca¬
me a tangible duty. Many scholars are right to perceive this process as influence
of patterns known in Western Europe which were not adopted in Poland
-
apart
from Silesia
-
in the same form but underwent some transformation.
Military service as a tangible duty applied not only to owners of hereditary
lands but also their holders. If an owner rented or pawned his land military du¬
ties were passed on to a holder. A duty of serving in the mass levy applied also
to lands owned by women as a dowry. Consequently, women or their husbands
387
SUMMARY
were obligated to send troops to a war. The situation applied also to cases in
which women had some sums devised on lands as a dowry.
Finally it is also worth mentioning that in the discussed period duty of mili¬
tary service applied to the noblemen who performed functions of
sołtys
(a villa¬
ge administrator) or
wójt
(a commune head). In such cases military duties were
connected not only with ownership of hereditary lands but also with performed
functions.
Unlike cases described above holding royal lands in deposit probably did
not make a holder obligated to send troops to a war. Although these were also
landed properties they were not treated equally to others since they were a part
of estates of the realm and served the king s needs. There is no evidence that
ownership of such lands made the king obligated to send troops to a war. It was
no sooner than a half of 15th century, when in
1454
statutes of
Nieszawa
were
passed, that a tendency to treat estates of the realm as public lands can be obser¬
ved. The idea was realized during reign of
Zygmunt
August when the nobility
managed to take estates of the realm under control of the
Sejm. In
the meantime
however if holders of royal lands were obligated to military service it were only
specific cases and they were not a standard.
The third chapter has been devoted to participation of the nobility in the
mass levy. I made an attempt to examine cases in which a personal participation
was obligatory and in which one could be freed from the obligation. Ownership
or usufruct of hereditary lands imposed on an owner or a holder duty of service
in military expeditions. In case of indivisible lands the situation was quite spe¬
cific. Duty of participation in the mass levy was placed not on all joint-owners
but at least on one of them.
Despite the general rule of personal participation of an owner or a holder
of hereditary lands in expeditio there were some exceptions. Although statutes
of
Kazimierz Wielki
placed a duty of personal service in military expeditions
on clergymen in possession of hereditary lands, in reality, at least already in
Ιδ 1
century, sending replacements was allowed. It lets us suspect that situation
could have been similar in the second half of 14th century, even though adequate
legal regulations specified something else. On the other hand even in IS 1 cen¬
tury clergymen used to personally take part in expeditio ignoring the fact that
it was against law.
388
SUMMARY
Another group freed from duty of personal service in the mass levy were
women. They could be obligated to send troops to military expeditions as ow¬
ners or holders of lands or if they had dowry devised on lands. Cases of sending
replacements are known from not earlier than 15th century but it seems very li¬
kely that they were as old as connection between military duties and ownership
of hereditary lands and women s right to administrate land.
Exemption from duty of personal participation in the mass levy wasgran-
ted to persons who were not physically capable of military service. It concerned
adolescents, elders and ill. In case of adolescents ability to take part in military
expeditions was probably determined by certain age. Until then an adolescent
was obligated to send replacements. Unfortunately the age in which a person
was considered legally able to take part in military expeditions cannot be spe¬
cified. In case of elders not an age but general physical fitness was a decisive
factor. Ill persons were exempted from duty of personal participation because of
physical disabilities and weakness.
In some cases right to send replacements was also granted to persons able
to serve. For example it was allowed for sons to replace fathers in military ex¬
peditions unless of course they were not obligated to take part in the mass levy
themselves. In special situations the king could grant a privilege of exemption
from military expeditions to certain persons, changing the duty into obliga¬
tion to send a replacement. Sometimes the privilege could grant complete
exemption from military service without imposing any other obligation on
a person.
Exemption from duty of personal participation in the mass levy as well as
sending replacements was given to all persons who remained in the country in
order to defend towns and castles. The same applied to some officials, such as
burgrabia
(a burgrave), wojski
(a local security officer) or tax collectors. Also
nobles too poor to equip themselves for a war gained, at least in second half of
15*
century, a privilege of exemption from military duties.
Another group certainly able to serve were hired warriors. Cases of Poles
hired by Polish rulers are known as early as first half of IS 1 century. It was not
however until
1477
when first legal regulations regarding military duties of hi¬
red warriors were issued. In case of expeditio landholders who were in the pay
were obligated to send replacements who could not serve in the same banner
389
SUMMARY
(squadron). In reality the last condition was not kept and it happened that repla¬
cements served with noblemen who put them up.
Unfortunately, I have not managed to ascertain how a problem of military
duties was solved in case of noblemen who were a professional knights in foreign
service. No legal regulation in the matter has survived. Although there were ca¬
ses of threats against persons in foreign service or even cases of punishing those
who took such service against a monarch s will the practice was not completely
forbidden. There are many source records which confirm that Poles served as
knights in distant European countries, not only Christian ones. Therefore it sho¬
uld be assumed that Polish kings were not against military service of nobles at
foreign courts as long as it did not interfere with their own interest. We have ho¬
wever no source records to support a thesis that such persons were punished for
not reporting for military expeditions. We do not know if they were obligated
to send replacements although according to legal regulations they should have
taken part in the mass levy if they owned hereditary lands.
As regards the replacements they could come from any social group. The
only limitation was ownership of hereditary lands, which made a person ob¬
ligated to personal participation in an expedition. This limitation was slightly
moderated in the second half of IS 1 century when legal regulations concer¬
ning service in the mass levy were issued. A new group of noblemen appeared,
exempted from duty of participation in the mass levy due to a lack of appropria¬
te property. For appropriate payment these noblemen could take up duties of
replacements.
It is impossible to reconstruct any rules which regulated way of sending
replacements. They were sent by their kinsmen s, their neighbours or local offi¬
cials side. It is not clear what criteria were applied or even why they were sent by
somebody s side in the first place. It would be understandable in case of forming
a retinue of a knight, but sometimes noblemen put up whole lances (squadrons)
and still they were sent by somebody s side.
Failure to fulfil military duties by noblemen was threatened with different
punishments. It concerned not only cases of not reporting for an expedition,
but also cases of breaking discipline
-
such as abandonment of one s banner
(squadron) or a place in line, desertion from an expedition etc. It was specified
already in the statutes of
Kazimierz Wielki.
There was however no mention of
390
SUMMARY
sanctions against those noblemen who did not report for the mass levy apart
from threat of confiscation of property directed against clergymen in possession
of hereditary lands who did not report for a military expedition. It is highly
probable that a similar punishment was applied to all noblemen, but it was only
in a chronicle of
Janko
of
Czarnków
where we can find a mention of sanctions
against those who failed to report for an expedition.
Ludwik Węgierski
threa¬
tened those who would not report under command of
Sedziwoj
of Szubin with
confiscation of property as well as deprivation of nobility or offices. It is impo¬
ssible to establish which interpretation of a Latin term honor reflects intentions
of the ruler. Later a threat of confiscation of property preserved, there appeared
also a threat of death penalty, although there are no records of any actual execu¬
tions. The earliest known cases of confiscation of property for failure to report
for a military expedition come from reign of
Władysław Jagiełło.
Sometimes
persons who did not fulfil their military obligations were punished with a fine.
Such situation took place in the first half of
15*
century. Since fine was imposed
by officials and confiscation was a result of delation it is right to assume that
officials were not entitled to proclaim confiscations. This limitation could have
been introduced in connection with the privilege of
Czerwińsk
of
1422
which
forbade to confiscate property of a nobleman without a court sentence.
At the same time, in 15th century a rule had been established according to
which confiscated properties were given to a third person, usually a delator. We
cannot ascertain if any property was ever confiscated for the Treasury as a pu¬
nishment for failure to fulfil military duties. In such way denunciation became
a way of control of fulfilment of military duties by the noblemen. In result it led
to pressing false charges in hope of extending one s own property. Thus the idea
of this control, which initially was supposed to discipline the noblemen, was
distorted, becoming just a mean of material gains. That is why so many confisca¬
tions in the end of
lo 1
century were not executed. It was not only because accu¬
sations were groundless but also because noblemen often concluded agreements
and
-
in return for giving up accusations
-
obtained material benefits.
In the next chapter I have dealt with a problem of regulation of range of
service in the mass levy. Since there military duties depended on ownership of
hereditary lands it was in a ruler s interest to make the most of the nobility s eco¬
nomic potential. Therefore as early as the statutes of
Kazimierz Wielki
were is-
391
SUMMARY
sued there appeared attempts to regulate range of service in the mass levy. Such
regulations were already in use in nearby Silesia, in state of the Teutonic Order
as well as in Hungary. Following an example of the Teutonic Order s state soon
after they were gradually implemented in Masovia. Many scholars were of the
opinion that there was a self-contradiction in the statutes in terms of regulation
of range of military service of the nobility. However 17th article of the statutes
of the Great Poland, which imposed on the nobility a duty of service within
borders of the Kingdom of Poland the best they can, was not, in my opinion,
aimed at regulating a range of military service of the noblemen. It concerned
only a necessity to defend a country, which was expressed more explicitly in
later privileges granted to the nobility. It is suggested by a context of the article,
in which it was subsequently stated that military duties of the nobility did not
include participation in expeditions abroad. It would be strange if the ruler re¬
gulated range of service only inside the country and did it in a way that allowed
such arbitrariness. The monarch stressed only the fact that the nobility was to
defend the country in any possible way. Only 37th article of the statutes of the
Great Poland was to specify range of service in the mass levy. According to it,
the noblemen were obligated to put up troops dependently on their income and
property. The rule regarded owners of lands immunized by the knightly law so
it is not clear if it concerned all the noblemen. It must however be emphasized
that 37th article had never legal effect and remained only a legislative project.
As the time passed it could lose this character and become treated equally as all
legislative legacy of
Kazimierz Wielki.
Although the statutes of
Kazimierz Wielki
obligated the clergymen and vil¬
lage representatives to service in the mass levy dependently on their property
as well as offered similar solutions for the noblemen they did not specify ran¬
ge of service. Therefore we cannot say if those regulations had any practical
importance. Perhaps there were some customs but so far they have remained
unknown. Indeed in times of
Kazimierz Wielki
and later in
Ruthenia
there were
rules that specified a number of armed men which were to be put up as well
as their equipment but even there detailed rules according to which particular
lands were burdened with particular duties remain obscure.
It was only times of the Thirteen Years War that first precise regulations con¬
cerning range of service of the nobility in the mass levy come from. Later, in
1474
392
SUMMARY
and
1477
those norms were subsequently completed. They specified range of mi¬
litary service dependently on income or property. In reality however range of mi¬
litary service was still arbitrarily specified by the noblemen themselves since there
is no mention of assessment of properties of the nobility. In result everything must
have depended on a will of individuals. Although officials kept on controlling if
the noblemen fulfilled military duties their actual knowledge of material status of
persons obligated to take part in the mass levy was rather general.
In the last chapter I have devoted my attention to benefits owed to the nobi¬
lity for service in the mass levy. In 14th century privileges granted to the nobility
broadened range of benefits from the king. Most of them regarded participa¬
tion in military expeditions abroad. It is not clear exactly such benefits were
introduced on Polish lands. The earliest mentions of some payments for the
knights come already from 12th century. We do not know however if they can
be linked with payment for foreign expeditions known from the late Middle
Ages. Especially that in Western Europe only in 12th century vassals managed
to obtain limitation of spatial and time range of military service. Consequen¬
tly, a senior who wanted to use service of his vassals had to secure appropriate
benefits for them. Limitations of spatial range of military service were in use in
neighbouring countries: in Silesia, in Bohemia, in Brandenburg, in the Teutonic
Knights state and in Hungary. In my opinion it seems much more probable that
there was connection between benefits for service in the mass levy and pay¬
ments for expeditions abroad made to the knights by
Bolesław Wstydliwy
and
promised by
Wacław
II in the late Middle Ages.
The widest range of benefits granted to the nobility by the ruler would in¬
clude: a pay for those who took part in expeditions abroad, a compensation
for losses suffered in course of expeditions outside borders of the kingdom
as well as in result of foreign invasion. It should be assumed that payment for
participants of expeditio extra terras were a permanent element of rights of the
nobility in the discussed period. They probably originated as early as in
ІЗ*
century but we cannot tell if rulers actually settled them. Already
Kazimierz
Wielki
left himself a legal possibility of not paying the nobility for using the
mass levy outside the country. He just had to obtain a consent of the noblemen.
Although following privileges did not leave such field for manoeuvre to rulers at
least in IS* century they were not inclined to settle their financial obligations to
393
SUMMARY
participants of expeditions abroad. The problem remained a source of conflicts
between kings and the nobility. A trick often used by kings
-
presumably by
Władysław Warneńczyk
and
Kazimierz Jagiellończyk
-
based on the fact that
the privileges did not describe borders of the kingdom. Consequently after
Wła¬
dysław Warneńczyk
seized a crown of Hungary he could maintain that borders
of the kingdom referred also to Hungarian territory.
Kazimierz Jagiellończyk
in
1454
proclaimed incorporation of Prussia, in result of which expeditions against
the Teutonic Order undertaken during the Thirteen Years War were treated as
expeditio infra terras.
As regards compensation for losses suffered by the noblemen the earliest
mentions can be found in first privileges for the nobility from second half of 14th
century. Apart from that only privilege of Cracow fro
m
1386
extended the com¬
pensation on losses suffered in result of a foreign invasion, which was proved by
events of
1431.
It is difficult to establish if a ruler tried conscientiously to cover
losses suffered by the noblemen during expeditions abroad. We may rather get
the impression that compensation was finally given only to those who persisten¬
tly strived for it and that compensations were never granted on mass scale.
Finally, last obligation of a ruler regarded compensation for captivity. It was
directly mentioned for the first time in privilege of Koszyce of
1374,
in which
a promise was made of compensation for captivity to which noblemen would be
taken in course of expeditions abroad. In his privileges
Jagiełło
also promised
compensation for captivity suffered in result of foreign invasions. Such obliga¬
tions could mean that a ruler either used to make personal efforts to liberate
prisoners or simply made a refund of costs born in result of captivity, mostly
sums spent on ransom. It should be stressed that it is difficult to point out situ¬
ations in which a monarch personally bought prisoners out of captivity. Usually
he was making other efforts. We do however know cases of royal compensation
for persons who already regained their freedom.
It cannot be maintained that the king collected means for military actions,
including a pay for participants of the mass levy, from
a wojenne
tax.
Wojenne
was a peasant tax of different height paid directly to a landlord of a village. Not
all peasants were obligated to pay it.
Mikołaj Gładysz
394
|
| adam_txt |
SPIS TREŚCI
Wstęp
7
Rozdział I
UWAGI OGÓLNE O SZLACHCIE POLSKIEJ
I POSPOLITYM RUSZENIU W
XIV
I
XV
WIEKU
18
1.
Szlachta polska w
XIV 1
XV
wieku
18
2.
Pospolite ruszenie i jego organizacja w
XIV 1
XV
wieku
34
Rozdział
II
PODSTAWA POWOŁYWANIA SZLACHTY
DO UDZIAŁU W POSPOLITYM RUSZENIU
68
1.
Poglądy historiografii o podstawach prawnych
powoływania szlachty do udziału w pospolitym
ruszeniu w późnym średniowieczu
68
2.
Geneza służby wojskowej jako ciężaru rzeczowego
-
stanowisko literatury
85
3.
Służba wojskowa jako ciężar rzeczowy
-
ustalenia
WŁASNE
121
Rozdział III
FORMY UDZIAŁU SZLACHTY W POSPOLITYM
RUSZENIU
159
1.
Udział osobisty
159
2.
Zwolnienia od obowiązku osobistego udziału
w wyprawie
176
3.
Zastępcy i ich wysyłanie na wojnę
219
4.
Kary za niewywiazanie
sie
z powinności wojskowych
225
Rozdział
IV
WYMIAR SŁUŻBY WOJSKOWEJ W POSPOLITYM
RUSZENIU
247
1.
Regulacje dotyczące wymiaru służby w pospolitym
ruszeniu w
xiv
i pierwszej połowie
xv
wieku
247
2.
Regulacje dotyczące wymiaru służby w pospolitym
ruszeniu w drugiej połowie
xv
wieku
272
Rozdział
V
ŚWIADCZENIA NA RZECZ UCZESTNIKÓW
POSPOLITEGO RUSZENIA
З12
1. xiv
i xv-wieczne
regulacje prawne dotyczące
świadczeń ze strony władcy na rzecz uczestników
pospolitego ruszenia 3l2
2.
Geneza świadczeń na rzecz uczestników pospolitego
ruszenia
з26
3.
Praktyczna realizacja postanowień w kwestii
świadczeń ze strony władcy na rzecz uczestników
pospolitego ruszenia
з47
4.
Chłopskie świadczenie wojenne
З71
Zakończenie
З75
Summary
З85
Wykaz skrótów
З95
Bibliografia
З98
Indeks nazwisk 4i8
Summary
PARTICIPATION OF THE POLISH NOBILITY
IN THE MASS LEVY IN 14th AND 15th
CENTURIES. LEGAL ASPECTS AND
ACTUAL STATE
(
he subject of the dissertation is participation of the Polish nobility in the
mass levy in the late Middle Ages,
i.e.
in 14th and 15th centuries. A choice
of the period resulted from the fact that the 14th century in the Kingdom
of Poland was the time of a final separation of the nobility as an exclusive so¬
cial group, marked by birth. Consequently, the problem of participation of the
nobility in the mass levy cannot be discussed in reference to previous centuries.
The dissertation covers period until
1498
when the Polish nobility was called to
arms for the last time in the
Іб"1
century, in view of a Turkish threat, although
there are also some references to later relations.
In my book I made an attempt to reconstruct a real picture of participation of
the Polish nobility in the mass levy. The term "Polish nobility" has been reserved
in my work for the nobles from the Kingdom of Poland
-
the name with which
not only lands ruled by
Władysław Łokietek
and
Kazimierz Wielki
but sometimes
385
SUMMARY
also all ethnically Polish lands, regardless of current political divisions, were des¬
cribed. My interest has been limited to the former, narrower meaning of the term
"the Kingdom of Poland" and the nobility who lived in the area.
The first chapter of the book, aimed at introducing a reader to the subject, has
been devoted to a problem of development of the nobility as a social group in the
discussed period. Basic military terminology has been discussed along with short
characteristics of different types of military expeditions. Basing on the existing
literature I have also presented organisation of the armed forces in 14th and
lo"1
centuries. One of their elements was the mass levy, but there were also different
military formations, such as court troops, mercenary troops or hired troops.
The mass levy, gathered by
a starost
by order of the king, was organized in
banners (squadrons). We can distinguish royal banners, including a court one,
land banners and private banners. The last one could belong to a family or a lord.
With the second chapter an actual analysis of problems connected with par¬
ticipation of the nobility in the mass levy begins. The chapter deals with issues
of a legal ground of military obligations of the nobility. Analysis of the nobility's
duty to take part in the mass levy as well as some legal aspects of the duty has
inclined me to verify some of previous opinions on organisation of the armed
forces in the 14th and
15*
centuries. Firstly, it seems that opinion of exclusively
noble character of the mass levy can no longer be supported. Even in terms of
organisation the view does not reflect the medieval reality. Sources show that
both the burghers and the peasants were obligated to take part in military ex¬
peditions within the mass levy. There were even attempts to impose military
service on the clergy
-
it applied not only to those clergymen who owned pri¬
vate lands but the whole Church. Obviously personal participation in military
expeditions was not considered. Instead the clergymen were supposed to put
up troops at their expense. Projects of imposing military service on lands of the
Church came not only from the royal court but also from different circles of
the nobility who did not approve of special privileges granted to the clergy. For
that reason the nobles justified plundering of the Church property committed
during almost every military expedition. The situation was common at least in
IS111 century. The Church managed to defend its privileged position. The hierar-
chs sometimes used to voluntarily put up troops for a war but such cases never
became a precedence for the future.
386
SUMMARY
Since it is certain that both the peasants and the burghers were obligated
to serve in the mass levy previous views on the grounds of this kind of service
should
-
in my opinion
-
be verified. In the discussed period it was undoubted¬
ly a tangible duty, connected with ownership of land. It is not clear however if
-
as it has been assumed in the previous literature
-
it applied only to those who
owned land by knightly law or had immunized land, or maybe owners of all
hereditary lands. By this term I refer to all lands
-
both inherited and acquired
in different ways
-
which could be at their free disposal and in case of their de¬
ath were inherited by their heirs. However sources did not connect immunized
lands or lands owned by knightly law with military obligations but on many
occasions they stressed connection between ownership of hereditary lands and
service in the mass levy.
In 14th and 15th centuries military service was a tangible duty. However,
contrary to some opinions expressed in literature I would support an opinion
that connection between obligatory service in the mass levy and ownership of
hereditary lands should probably be dated back to 13th century. It cannot be
proved that at the beginnings of the Polish statehood a level of development
of law culture was high enough to formulate a rule of participation of owners
of hereditary lands in military expeditions. It should be rather assumed that
military duties were imposed on all free men. Not all of them were however
actually used during offensive military actions, only particular individuals able
to equip themselves appropriately for demands of a battlefield
ofthat
time. In
result bonds of vassal character between a ruler and his warriors were probably
formed. Consequently it led to social stratification. A socially privileged group
was formed. A monarch who wanted to secure himself military forces was pro¬
bably ready to limit some public duties imposed on his warriors. Later, in result
of further development of state, law, society etc. military service probably beca¬
me a tangible duty. Many scholars are right to perceive this process as influence
of patterns known in Western Europe which were not adopted in Poland
-
apart
from Silesia
-
in the same form but underwent some transformation.
Military service as a tangible duty applied not only to owners of hereditary
lands but also their holders. If an owner rented or pawned his land military du¬
ties were passed on to a holder. A duty of serving in the mass levy applied also
to lands owned by women as a dowry. Consequently, women or their husbands
387
SUMMARY
were obligated to send troops to a war. The situation applied also to cases in
which women had some sums devised on lands as a dowry.
Finally it is also worth mentioning that in the discussed period duty of mili¬
tary service applied to the noblemen who performed functions of
sołtys
(a villa¬
ge administrator) or
wójt
(a commune head). In such cases military duties were
connected not only with ownership of hereditary lands but also with performed
functions.
Unlike cases described above holding royal lands in deposit probably did
not make a holder obligated to send troops to a war. Although these were also
landed properties they were not treated equally to others since they were a part
of estates of the realm and served the king's needs. There is no evidence that
ownership of such lands made the king obligated to send troops to a war. It was
no sooner than a half of 15th century, when in
1454
statutes of
Nieszawa
were
passed, that a tendency to treat estates of the realm as public lands can be obser¬
ved. The idea was realized during reign of
Zygmunt
August when the nobility
managed to take estates of the realm under control of the
Sejm. In
the meantime
however if holders of royal lands were obligated to military service it were only
specific cases and they were not a standard.
The third chapter has been devoted to participation of the nobility in the
mass levy. I made an attempt to examine cases in which a personal participation
was obligatory and in which one could be freed from the obligation. Ownership
or usufruct of hereditary lands imposed on an owner or a holder duty of service
in military expeditions. In case of indivisible lands the situation was quite spe¬
cific. Duty of participation in the mass levy was placed not on all joint-owners
but at least on one of them.
Despite the general rule of personal participation of an owner or a holder
of hereditary lands in expeditio there were some exceptions. Although statutes
of
Kazimierz Wielki
placed a duty of personal service in military expeditions
on clergymen in possession of hereditary lands, in reality, at least already in
Ιδ"1
century, sending replacements was allowed. It lets us suspect that situation
could have been similar in the second half of 14th century, even though adequate
legal regulations specified something else. On the other hand even in IS"1 cen¬
tury clergymen used to personally take part in expeditio ignoring the fact that
it was against law.
388
SUMMARY
Another group freed from duty of personal service in the mass levy were
women. They could be obligated to send troops to military expeditions as ow¬
ners or holders of lands or if they had dowry devised on lands. Cases of sending
replacements are known from not earlier than 15th century but it seems very li¬
kely that they were as old as connection between military duties and ownership
of hereditary lands and women's right to administrate land.
Exemption from duty of personal participation in the mass levy wasgran-
ted to persons who were not physically capable of military service. It concerned
adolescents, elders and ill. In case of adolescents ability to take part in military
expeditions was probably determined by certain age. Until then an adolescent
was obligated to send replacements. Unfortunately the age in which a person
was considered legally able to take part in military expeditions cannot be spe¬
cified. In case of elders not an age but general physical fitness was a decisive
factor. Ill persons were exempted from duty of personal participation because of
physical disabilities and weakness.
In some cases right to send replacements was also granted to persons able
to serve. For example it was allowed for sons to replace fathers in military ex¬
peditions unless of course they were not obligated to take part in the mass levy
themselves. In special situations the king could grant a privilege of exemption
from military expeditions to certain persons, changing the duty into obliga¬
tion to send a replacement. Sometimes the privilege could grant complete
exemption from military service without imposing any other obligation on
a person.
Exemption from duty of personal participation in the mass levy as well as
sending replacements was given to all persons who remained in the country in
order to defend towns and castles. The same applied to some officials, such as
burgrabia
(a burgrave), wojski
(a local security officer) or tax collectors. Also
nobles too poor to equip themselves for a war gained, at least in second half of
15*
century, a privilege of exemption from military duties.
Another group certainly able to serve were hired warriors. Cases of Poles
hired by Polish rulers are known as early as first half of IS"1 century. It was not
however until
1477
when first legal regulations regarding military duties of hi¬
red warriors were issued. In case of expeditio landholders who were in the pay
were obligated to send replacements who could not serve in the same banner
389
SUMMARY
(squadron). In reality the last condition was not kept and it happened that repla¬
cements served with noblemen who put them up.
Unfortunately, I have not managed to ascertain how a problem of military
duties was solved in case of noblemen who were a professional knights in foreign
service. No legal regulation in the matter has survived. Although there were ca¬
ses of threats against persons in foreign service or even cases of punishing those
who took such service against a monarch's will the practice was not completely
forbidden. There are many source records which confirm that Poles served as
knights in distant European countries, not only Christian ones. Therefore it sho¬
uld be assumed that Polish kings were not against military service of nobles at
foreign courts as long as it did not interfere with their own interest. We have ho¬
wever no source records to support a thesis that such persons were punished for
not reporting for military expeditions. We do not know if they were obligated
to send replacements although according to legal regulations they should have
taken part in the mass levy if they owned hereditary lands.
As regards the replacements they could come from any social group. The
only limitation was ownership of hereditary lands, which made a person ob¬
ligated to personal participation in an expedition. This limitation was slightly
moderated in the second half of IS"1 century when legal regulations concer¬
ning service in the mass levy were issued. A new group of noblemen appeared,
exempted from duty of participation in the mass levy due to a lack of appropria¬
te property. For appropriate payment these noblemen could take up duties of
replacements.
It is impossible to reconstruct any rules which regulated way of sending
replacements. They were sent by their kinsmen's, their neighbours' or local offi¬
cials' side. It is not clear what criteria were applied or even why they were sent by
somebody's side in the first place. It would be understandable in case of forming
a retinue of a knight, but sometimes noblemen put up whole lances (squadrons)
and still they were sent by somebody's side.
Failure to fulfil military duties by noblemen was threatened with different
punishments. It concerned not only cases of not reporting for an expedition,
but also cases of breaking discipline
-
such as abandonment of one's banner
(squadron) or a place in line, desertion from an expedition etc. It was specified
already in the statutes of
Kazimierz Wielki.
There was however no mention of
390
SUMMARY
sanctions against those noblemen who did not report for the mass levy apart
from threat of confiscation of property directed against clergymen in possession
of hereditary lands who did not report for a military expedition. It is highly
probable that a similar punishment was applied to all noblemen, but it was only
in a chronicle of
Janko
of
Czarnków
where we can find a mention of sanctions
against those who failed to report for an expedition.
Ludwik Węgierski
threa¬
tened those who would not report under command of
Sedziwoj
of Szubin with
confiscation of property as well as deprivation of nobility or offices. It is impo¬
ssible to establish which interpretation of a Latin term honor reflects intentions
of the ruler. Later a threat of confiscation of property preserved, there appeared
also a threat of death penalty, although there are no records of any actual execu¬
tions. The earliest known cases of confiscation of property for failure to report
for a military expedition come from reign of
Władysław Jagiełło.
Sometimes
persons who did not fulfil their military obligations were punished with a fine.
Such situation took place in the first half of
15*
century. Since fine was imposed
by officials and confiscation was a result of delation it is right to assume that
officials were not entitled to proclaim confiscations. This limitation could have
been introduced in connection with the privilege of
Czerwińsk
of
1422
which
forbade to confiscate property of a nobleman without a court sentence.
At the same time, in 15th century a rule had been established according to
which confiscated properties were given to a third person, usually a delator. We
cannot ascertain if any property was ever confiscated for the Treasury as a pu¬
nishment for failure to fulfil military duties. In such way denunciation became
a way of control of fulfilment of military duties by the noblemen. In result it led
to pressing false charges in hope of extending one's own property. Thus the idea
of this control, which initially was supposed to discipline the noblemen, was
distorted, becoming just a mean of material gains. That is why so many confisca¬
tions in the end of
lo"1
century were not executed. It was not only because accu¬
sations were groundless but also because noblemen often concluded agreements
and
-
in return for giving up accusations
-
obtained material benefits.
In the next chapter I have dealt with a problem of regulation of range of
service in the mass levy. Since there military duties depended on ownership of
hereditary lands it was in a ruler's interest to make the most of the nobility's eco¬
nomic potential. Therefore as early as the statutes of
Kazimierz Wielki
were is-
391
SUMMARY
sued there appeared attempts to regulate range of service in the mass levy. Such
regulations were already in use in nearby Silesia, in state of the Teutonic Order
as well as in Hungary. Following an example of the Teutonic Order's state soon
after they were gradually implemented in Masovia. Many scholars were of the
opinion that there was a self-contradiction in the statutes in terms of regulation
of range of military service of the nobility. However 17th article of the statutes
of the Great Poland, which imposed on the nobility a duty of service within
borders of the Kingdom of Poland the best they can, was not, in my opinion,
aimed at regulating a range of military service of the noblemen. It concerned
only a necessity to defend a country, which was expressed more explicitly in
later privileges granted to the nobility. It is suggested by a context of the article,
in which it was subsequently stated that military duties of the nobility did not
include participation in expeditions abroad. It would be strange if the ruler re¬
gulated range of service only inside the country and did it in a way that allowed
such arbitrariness. The monarch stressed only the fact that the nobility was to
defend the country in any possible way. Only 37th article of the statutes of the
Great Poland was to specify range of service in the mass levy. According to it,
the noblemen were obligated to put up troops dependently on their income and
property. The rule regarded owners of lands immunized by the knightly law so
it is not clear if it concerned all the noblemen. It must however be emphasized
that 37th article had never legal effect and remained only a legislative project.
As the time passed it could lose this character and become treated equally as all
legislative legacy of
Kazimierz Wielki.
Although the statutes of
Kazimierz Wielki
obligated the clergymen and vil¬
lage representatives to service in the mass levy dependently on their property
as well as offered similar solutions for the noblemen they did not specify ran¬
ge of service. Therefore we cannot say if those regulations had any practical
importance. Perhaps there were some customs but so far they have remained
unknown. Indeed in times of
Kazimierz Wielki
and later in
Ruthenia
there were
rules that specified a number of armed men which were to be put up as well
as their equipment but even there detailed rules according to which particular
lands were burdened with particular duties remain obscure.
It was only times of the Thirteen Years War that first precise regulations con¬
cerning range of service of the nobility in the mass levy come from. Later, in
1474
392
SUMMARY
and
1477
those norms were subsequently completed. They specified range of mi¬
litary service dependently on income or property. In reality however range of mi¬
litary service was still arbitrarily specified by the noblemen themselves since there
is no mention of assessment of properties of the nobility. In result everything must
have depended on a will of individuals. Although officials kept on controlling if
the noblemen fulfilled military duties their actual knowledge of material status of
persons obligated to take part in the mass levy was rather general.
In the last chapter I have devoted my attention to benefits owed to the nobi¬
lity for service in the mass levy. In 14th century privileges granted to the nobility
broadened range of benefits from the king. Most of them regarded participa¬
tion in military expeditions abroad. It is not clear exactly such benefits were
introduced on Polish lands. The earliest mentions of some payments for the
knights come already from 12th century. We do not know however if they can
be linked with payment for foreign expeditions known from the late Middle
Ages. Especially that in Western Europe only in 12th century vassals managed
to obtain limitation of spatial and time range of military service. Consequen¬
tly, a senior who wanted to use service of his vassals had to secure appropriate
benefits for them. Limitations of spatial range of military service were in use in
neighbouring countries: in Silesia, in Bohemia, in Brandenburg, in the Teutonic
Knights' state and in Hungary. In my opinion it seems much more probable that
there was connection between benefits for service in the mass levy and pay¬
ments for expeditions abroad made to the knights by
Bolesław Wstydliwy
and
promised by
Wacław
II in the late Middle Ages.
The widest range of benefits granted to the nobility by the ruler would in¬
clude: a pay for those who took part in expeditions abroad, a compensation
for losses suffered in course of expeditions outside borders of the kingdom
as well as in result of foreign invasion. It should be assumed that payment for
participants of expeditio extra terras were a permanent element of rights of the
nobility in the discussed period. They probably originated as early as in
ІЗ*
century but we cannot tell if rulers actually settled them. Already
Kazimierz
Wielki
left himself a legal possibility of not paying the nobility for using the
mass levy outside the country. He just had to obtain a consent of the noblemen.
Although following privileges did not leave such field for manoeuvre to rulers at
least in IS* century they were not inclined to settle their financial obligations to
393
SUMMARY
participants of expeditions abroad. The problem remained a source of conflicts
between kings and the nobility. A trick often used by kings
-
presumably by
Władysław Warneńczyk
and
Kazimierz Jagiellończyk
-
based on the fact that
the privileges did not describe borders of the kingdom. Consequently after
Wła¬
dysław Warneńczyk
seized a crown of Hungary he could maintain that borders
of the kingdom referred also to Hungarian territory.
Kazimierz Jagiellończyk
in
1454
proclaimed incorporation of Prussia, in result of which expeditions against
the Teutonic Order undertaken during the Thirteen Years War were treated as
expeditio infra terras.
As regards compensation for losses suffered by the noblemen the earliest
mentions can be found in first privileges for the nobility from second half of 14th
century. Apart from that only privilege of Cracow fro
m
1386
extended the com¬
pensation on losses suffered in result of a foreign invasion, which was proved by
events of
1431.
It is difficult to establish if a ruler tried conscientiously to cover
losses suffered by the noblemen during expeditions abroad. We may rather get
the impression that compensation was finally given only to those who persisten¬
tly strived for it and that compensations were never granted on mass scale.
Finally, last obligation of a ruler regarded compensation for captivity. It was
directly mentioned for the first time in privilege of Koszyce of
1374,
in which
a promise was made of compensation for captivity to which noblemen would be
taken in course of expeditions abroad. In his privileges
Jagiełło
also promised
compensation for captivity suffered in result of foreign invasions. Such obliga¬
tions could mean that a ruler either used to make personal efforts to liberate
prisoners or simply made a refund of costs born in result of captivity, mostly
sums spent on ransom. It should be stressed that it is difficult to point out situ¬
ations in which a monarch personally bought prisoners out of captivity. Usually
he was making other efforts. We do however know cases of royal compensation
for persons who already regained their freedom.
It cannot be maintained that the king collected means for military actions,
including a pay for participants of the mass levy, from
a wojenne
tax.
Wojenne
was a peasant tax of different height paid directly to a landlord of a village. Not
all peasants were obligated to pay it.
Mikołaj Gładysz
394 |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| any_adam_object_boolean | 1 |
| author | Ginter, Karol |
| author_facet | Ginter, Karol |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Ginter, Karol |
| author_variant | k g kg |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV035024620 |
| contents | Bibliogr. s. 398-417. Indeks |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)233515145 (DE-599)BVBBV035024620 |
| edition | Wyd. 1. |
| era | Geschichte 1300-1500 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1300-1500 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Polen (DE-588)4046496-9 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Polen |
| id | DE-604.BV035024620 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T21:47:27Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T21:20:28Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9788360448434 |
| language | Polish |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-016693692 |
| oclc_num | 233515145 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | 428 s. 22 cm |
| publishDate | 2008 |
| publishDateSearch | 2008 |
| publishDateSort | 2008 |
| publisher | Avalon |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Ginter, Karol Verfasser aut Udział szlachty polskiej w pospolitym ruszeniu w XIV i XV wieku aspekty prawne i stan faktyczny Karol Ginter Wyd. 1. Kraków Avalon 2008 428 s. 22 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Participation of the Polish nobility in the mass levy in 14th and 15th centuries Bibliogr. s. 398-417. Indeks Geschichte 1300-1500 gnd rswk-swf Siły zbrojne / mobilizacja / Polska / 14 w jhpk Siły zbrojne / mobilizacja / Polska / 15 w jhpk Szlachta / Polska / 14 w jhpk Szlachta / Polska / 15 w jhpk Siły zbrojne - mobilizacja - Polska - 14 w jhpk Siły zbrojne - mobilizacja - Polska - 15 w jhpk Szlachta - Polska - 14 w jhpk Szlachta - Polska - 15 w jhpk Adel (DE-588)4000464-8 gnd rswk-swf Landwehr Militär (DE-588)4166669-0 gnd rswk-swf Polen (DE-588)4046496-9 gnd rswk-swf Polen (DE-588)4046496-9 g Adel (DE-588)4000464-8 s Landwehr Militär (DE-588)4166669-0 s Geschichte 1300-1500 z DE-604 Digitalisierung BSBMuenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016693692&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016693692&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Ginter, Karol Udział szlachty polskiej w pospolitym ruszeniu w XIV i XV wieku aspekty prawne i stan faktyczny Bibliogr. s. 398-417. Indeks Siły zbrojne / mobilizacja / Polska / 14 w jhpk Siły zbrojne / mobilizacja / Polska / 15 w jhpk Szlachta / Polska / 14 w jhpk Szlachta / Polska / 15 w jhpk Siły zbrojne - mobilizacja - Polska - 14 w jhpk Siły zbrojne - mobilizacja - Polska - 15 w jhpk Szlachta - Polska - 14 w jhpk Szlachta - Polska - 15 w jhpk Adel (DE-588)4000464-8 gnd Landwehr Militär (DE-588)4166669-0 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4000464-8 (DE-588)4166669-0 (DE-588)4046496-9 |
| title | Udział szlachty polskiej w pospolitym ruszeniu w XIV i XV wieku aspekty prawne i stan faktyczny |
| title_auth | Udział szlachty polskiej w pospolitym ruszeniu w XIV i XV wieku aspekty prawne i stan faktyczny |
| title_exact_search | Udział szlachty polskiej w pospolitym ruszeniu w XIV i XV wieku aspekty prawne i stan faktyczny |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Udział szlachty polskiej w pospolitym ruszeniu w XIV i XV wieku aspekty prawne i stan faktyczny |
| title_full | Udział szlachty polskiej w pospolitym ruszeniu w XIV i XV wieku aspekty prawne i stan faktyczny Karol Ginter |
| title_fullStr | Udział szlachty polskiej w pospolitym ruszeniu w XIV i XV wieku aspekty prawne i stan faktyczny Karol Ginter |
| title_full_unstemmed | Udział szlachty polskiej w pospolitym ruszeniu w XIV i XV wieku aspekty prawne i stan faktyczny Karol Ginter |
| title_short | Udział szlachty polskiej w pospolitym ruszeniu w XIV i XV wieku |
| title_sort | udzial szlachty polskiej w pospolitym ruszeniu w xiv i xv wieku aspekty prawne i stan faktyczny |
| title_sub | aspekty prawne i stan faktyczny |
| topic | Siły zbrojne / mobilizacja / Polska / 14 w jhpk Siły zbrojne / mobilizacja / Polska / 15 w jhpk Szlachta / Polska / 14 w jhpk Szlachta / Polska / 15 w jhpk Siły zbrojne - mobilizacja - Polska - 14 w jhpk Siły zbrojne - mobilizacja - Polska - 15 w jhpk Szlachta - Polska - 14 w jhpk Szlachta - Polska - 15 w jhpk Adel (DE-588)4000464-8 gnd Landwehr Militär (DE-588)4166669-0 gnd |
| topic_facet | Siły zbrojne / mobilizacja / Polska / 14 w Siły zbrojne / mobilizacja / Polska / 15 w Szlachta / Polska / 14 w Szlachta / Polska / 15 w Siły zbrojne - mobilizacja - Polska - 14 w Siły zbrojne - mobilizacja - Polska - 15 w Szlachta - Polska - 14 w Szlachta - Polska - 15 w Adel Landwehr Militär Polen |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016693692&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016693692&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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