The double axe in Minoan Crete: a functional analysis of production and use
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Department of Archaeology and Classical Studies, Stockholm University
2007
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| 100 | 1 | |a Lowe Fri, Maria |d 1973- |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)137304706 |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a The double axe in Minoan Crete |b a functional analysis of production and use |c Maria Lowe Fri |
| 264 | 1 | |a Stockholm |b Department of Archaeology and Classical Studies, Stockholm University |c 2007 | |
| 300 | |a 288 S. |b Ill. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 502 | |a Zugl.: Stockholm, Univ., Diss., 2007 | ||
| 650 | 4 | |a Bronsåldern / Grekland | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Crete (Greece)--Antiquities | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Funde | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Axes, Prehistoric |z Greece |z Crete | |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Minoische Kultur |0 (DE-588)4074845-5 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Doppelaxt |0 (DE-588)4221419-1 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 651 | 4 | |a Kreta | |
| 651 | 4 | |a Griechenland | |
| 651 | 4 | |a Crete (Greece) |x Antiquities | |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804137929638936576 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | Contents
List of
figures
...............................................................................................7
List of tables
..............................................................................................10
Acknowledgements
...................................................................................11
1.
INTRODUCTION
...................................................................................13
Previous research
.......................................................................................................14
Typologies
.............................................................................................................14
Shape and function
................................................................................................16
Aim
..............................................................................................................................19
Method
........................................................................................................................20
The study objects
........................................................................................................22
Included double axes
.............................................................................................22
Excluded double axes
............................................................................................22
2.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR DOUBLE AXE PRODUCTION...
24
Metals
.........................................................................................................................24
Copper and copper sources in Crete
.....................................................................24
Copper sources outside Crete
...............................................................................28
Arsenic and arsenic-bronzes
.................................................................................29
Tin and tin-bronzes
................................................................................................30
Manufacturing
.............................................................................................................31
Moulds
...................................................................................................................31
Stone moulds
...................................................................................................32
Clay moulds
......................................................................................................33
Metal moulds
....................................................................................................34
The flask technique (wooden moulds)
..............................................................36
Other casting equipment
........................................................................................37
Crucibles
..........................................................................................................37
Bellows
.............................................................................................................39
Finishing treatments
....................................................................................................40
Conclusions
................................................................................................................42
3.
ANALYSES OF MANUFACTURING....
..................................................44
Problems with the analytical and interpretative process
..............................................46
Casting and casting defects
........................................................................................47
Casting
joints
.........................................................................................................48
Impressions
of sand
...............................................................................................50
Scabs
.....................................................................................................................50
Dirt inclusions
........................................................................................................51
Gas-and blowholes
...............................................................................................52
Traces of runners
...................................................................................................53
Shrinkage cavities
..................................................................................................56
Hot tears, hot cracks or cold tears
.........................................................................58
Cold lapping
...........................................................................................................59
Finishing treatments
....................................................................................................59
A new typology?
....................................................................................................60
The axe body
.........................................................................................................62
The long sides including the shaft hole
..................................................................64
The cutting edges
..................................................................................................66
Decoration
...................................................................................................................68
Incised motifs
.........................................................................................................69
Cast motifs
.............................................................................................................71
Conclusions
................................................................................................................73
4.
ANALYSES OF USE
.............................................................................74
Introduction to the analyses
........................................................................................74
Metal analyses
............................................................................................................76
Discussion
.............................................................................................................81
Use-wear on the cutting edges and the axe bodies
.....................................................82
Description and identification of use-wear on the cutting edges
.............................82
Description and identification of use-wear on the axe bodies
.................................89
Results of study of use-wear
.......................................................................................92
5.
EXPERIMENTS WITH MODERN CAST DOUBLE AXES
.......................93
Recording procedures of the experiments
...................................................................96
Manufacturing a modern double axe
...........................................................................96
Casting and casting defects
...................................................................................97
Finishing treatments of the modern double axes
....................................................98
Shafting
...............................................................................................................104
Chopping materials
...................................................................................................106
Felling a Scotch fir tree
........................................................................................110
Felling a birch tree
...............................................................................................111
Felling an oak tree
...............................................................................................113
Conclusions from felling trees
.........................................................................115
Dressing and splitting stone
.................................................................................116
Different use-wear from different kinds of stone?
...........................................117
Cutting up a lamb
.................................................................................................118
Cutting cattle bones
.............................................................................................122
Conclusions from cutting up bones
.................................................................124
5
Conclusions
..............................................................................................................125
6.
USE AND USERS
...............................................................................128
The use of the Minoan
double
axes
..........................................................................131
Axes with dents on cutting edges and small degree of mushroom-edges (categories
1
and1A)
.............................................................................................................131
Axes with dents on cutting edges, an overall bluntness and mushroom-edges
(categories
1,
1A and
2).......................................................................................132
Axes with blunt cutting edges (categories
2,
2A and
3)........................................134
Axes with other types of use-wear
.......................................................................138
Find locations and find contexts
................................................................................139
Mortuary contexts
................................................................................................140
Habitation areas
...................................................................................................141
Psychro cave
.......................................................................................................143
Uncertain find locations
........................................................................................144
Conclusions
..............................................................................................................145
7.
SUMMARY
..........................................................................................147
8.
CATALOGUE
......................................................................................151
Catalogue of studied double axes
.............................................................................152
Catalogue of non-studied double axes
......................................................................174
9.
GLOSSARY
........................................................................................258
10.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
................................................................................264
APPENDIX I. THE MODERN CAST DOUBLE AXES
...............................284
APPENDIX II. OTHER MANUFACTURED TOOLS
..................................287
List of figures
Figure
1.
Copper sources discussed in Chapter
2
(after Davaras
1976,
Map
2)......................................................................................................26
Figure
2.
Stone mould from Mallia (permission from Evely
1993,
Fig.
21)...32
Figure
3.
The metal mould from Vasiliki (permission from Evely
1993,
Fig.
21)....................................................................................................35
Figure
4.
A moulding-box made out of wood. The two wooden frames are put
together and the piece of wood which will create the runner has been
positioned. This particular mould is today in use at
Bäckedals
Folkhögskola.....................................................................................
37
Figure
5.
Clay crucibles
M
21
and
M
19
found at Kommos (after Blitzer
1995,
PI.
8.104)..........................................................................................38
Figure
6.
A pot bellows
M
42
from Kommos (after Blitzer
1995,
PI. 8.105)..40
Figure
7.
Cold-working the cutting edge with a stone on a stone anvil
........41
Figure
8.
Grinding and sharpening the cutting edge with a pumice stone.
..41
Figure
9.
Double axe terminology (after Evely
1993,
Fig.
18).....................47
Figure
10.
The casting joint as identified on no.
2
(Drawing by M. Lowe
Fri).
.........................................................................................................49
Figure
11.
Impressions of sand and dirt inclusions on axe A, cast at
Bäckedals Folkhögskola.
The impressions of sand are the smaller
holes mostly concentrated to the centre of the axe and the dirt
inclusions are the larger and more irregular ones
..............................50
Figure
12.
Scabs are sand grains which have been trappd by molten metal
during casting and are stuck to the axe surface. If left on the axe they
look like lumps, and if they are removed the scabs causes small holes
in the axe surface
..............................................................................51
Figure
13.
Gas- and blowholes as they appear on the axe body of no.
7.
On
the right there is a crack situated in the centre of the cutting edge. This
crack is caused by cold lapping (drawing by R.
Lindberg)
..................53
7
Figure
15.
Traces
of runners as identified on seventeen double axes. On this
drawing both the traces of runners are connected to the shaft hole
(permission from Evely
1993,
Fig.
19)...............................................55
Figure
16.
Some of the shrinkage cavities look exactly like the small
impression on this drawing, though they can also be undulating in the
whole shaft hole (permission from Evely
1993,
Fig.
18).....................57
Figure
17.
Tears or cracks as they are situated on the long side of no.
9
(Drawing by M. Lowe
Fri)
..................................................................58
Figure
18.
Evely s typology (permission from Evely
1993,
Figs.
19-20).......62
Figure
19.
The incision on axe no.
13
(drawing by M. Lowe
Fri)
.................69
Figure
20.
The cast motif of no.
3
(drawing by M. Lowe
Fri)
........................72
Figure
21.
These are the different activities presented by Gordon A,
breaking, B, cutting, and C, splitting (after Gordon
1985,
Fig.
2)........75
Figure
22.
The cutting edge on on.
16
has both dents which are
concentrated (upper part) and randomly (downmost part) (drawing by
G.Lowe)
...........................................................................................84
Figure
23.
On no.
14
the downmost point has a slight mushroom-edge and
above this hard dents are visible (drawing by R.
Lindberg)
................84
Figure
24.
Axe no.
14
has varying degrees of mushroom-edges and an
overall bluntness in the range of
2
to
3
mm in width (drawing by R.
Lindberg)
..........................................................................................85
Figure
25.
On no.
15
a blunt cutting edge and dents with striations within the
dents was identified (drawing by G. Lowe)
.........................................86
Figure
26.
An extremely blunt cutting edge on axe
21
(drawing by G. Lowe).
.........................................................................................................87
Figure
27.
Core box, core and pattern prepared to cast modern double axes.
.........................................................................................................97
Figure
28.
Preparing the flask moulds for casting and casting the prepared
moulds. The bricks are places on the mould when cast to prevent the
mould from separating
.......................................................................98
Figure
29.
The newly cast double axes with flash and traces of the running
system left in place. The black surface of the cast axes also appear
very different from the axe cast at
Bäckedals Folkhögskola
(Fig. 11). 99
Figure
30.
Removing flash with one of the chisels
....................................100
8
Figure
31.
Axe A after one of the cutting edges was hammered. The cutting
edge which was hammered became slightly convex, which also gave
the axe body a concave appearance
...............................................102
Figure
32.
A corner of the axe broke off during finishing treatments. The two
different colours, depending on the grain structure, can be seen on
both the small pice that broke off and in the cut in the axe
...............103
Figure
33.
The grinder made to sharpen the axes used for fellling the oak
tree and cutting lamb and cattle bones. The grinder can be
maneuvered by one person, but if two persons worked at it at the same
time, one holding the axe and the other one the grinder s handle the
sharpening of the axes where more precise and went faster
............104
Figure
34.
The first shaft made with a shoulder and a split end where a
wedge was hammered down
...........................................................105
Figure
35.
Axe A after twenty-one minutes of use
....................................111
Figure
36.
Axe A after forty-three minutes of use
.....................................112
Figure
37.
Axe
D
after sixty minutes of use
..............................................114
Figure
38.
Axe A, the uppermost photograph shows the sharp cutting edge
when used on granite. The lower photograph shows the thicker cutting
edge when used on granite
.............................................................117
Figure
39.
The three axes
(G, H
and I) prepared and shafted for the bone
experiments
....................................................................................118
Figure
40.
The boneparts discussed in this chapter (modified after Halstead
et al.
2004, 32, Fig. 2.10..................................................................119
Figure
41.
Suitable pieces of lamb for a stew?
.........................................120
Figure
42.
Cutting the lamb s ribs
............................................................121
Figure
43.
Cutting all through the femur bone
..........................................123
Figure
44.
The difference of the cutting edges after cutting the lamb and the
cattle bones. The cutting edge used on lamb is the photograph at the
top and the lower one was used on the cattle bones
........................125
Figure
45.
A ball-peen hammer (drawing by M. Lowe
Fri)
........................258
List of tables
Table
1.
Casting defects on the examined double axes
..............................48
Table
2.
Finishing treatments of the examined axe bodies
.........................63
Table
3.
Finishing treatments on the examined axe s long sides including the
shaft hole
..........................................................................................65
Table
4.
Finishing treatments of the cutting edges
(ce.),
of the examined
double axes
......................................................................................67
Table
5.
Decoration
...................................................................................68
Table
6.
Chemical composition and qualities for sand-cast tin-bronze alloys
(modern samples)
.............................................................................78
Table
7.
Metal analyses
.............................................................................79
Table
8.
Different use-wear, which appears on the cutting edges
(ce)
.......83
Table
9.
The working activities of the Minoan double axes
.......................139
10
|
| adam_txt |
Contents
List of
figures
.7
List of tables
.10
Acknowledgements
.11
1.
INTRODUCTION
.13
Previous research
.14
Typologies
.14
Shape and function
.16
Aim
.19
Method
.20
The study objects
.22
Included double axes
.22
Excluded double axes
.22
2.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR DOUBLE AXE PRODUCTION.
24
Metals
.24
Copper and copper sources in Crete
.24
Copper sources outside Crete
.28
Arsenic and arsenic-bronzes
.29
Tin and tin-bronzes
.30
Manufacturing
.31
Moulds
.31
Stone moulds
.32
Clay moulds
.33
Metal moulds
.34
The flask technique (wooden moulds)
.36
Other casting equipment
.37
Crucibles
.37
Bellows
.39
Finishing treatments
.40
Conclusions
.42
3.
ANALYSES OF MANUFACTURING.
.44
Problems with the analytical and interpretative process
.46
Casting and casting defects
.47
Casting
joints
.48
Impressions
of sand
.50
Scabs
.50
Dirt inclusions
.51
Gas-and blowholes
.52
Traces of runners
.53
Shrinkage cavities
.56
Hot tears, hot cracks or cold tears
.58
Cold lapping
.59
Finishing treatments
.59
A new typology?
.60
The axe body
.62
The long sides including the shaft hole
.64
The cutting edges
.66
Decoration
.68
Incised motifs
.69
Cast motifs
.71
Conclusions
.73
4.
ANALYSES OF USE
.74
Introduction to the analyses
.74
Metal analyses
.76
Discussion
.81
Use-wear on the cutting edges and the axe bodies
.82
Description and identification of use-wear on the cutting edges
.82
Description and identification of use-wear on the axe bodies
.89
Results of study of use-wear
.92
5.
EXPERIMENTS WITH MODERN CAST DOUBLE AXES
.93
Recording procedures of the experiments
.96
Manufacturing a modern double axe
.96
Casting and casting defects
.97
Finishing treatments of the modern double axes
.98
Shafting
.104
Chopping materials
.106
Felling a Scotch fir tree
.110
Felling a birch tree
.111
Felling an oak tree
.113
Conclusions from felling trees
.115
Dressing and splitting stone
.116
Different use-wear from different kinds of stone?
.117
Cutting up a lamb
.118
Cutting cattle bones
.122
Conclusions from cutting up bones
.124
5
Conclusions
.125
6.
USE AND USERS
.128
The use of the Minoan
double
axes
.131
Axes with dents on cutting edges and small degree of mushroom-edges (categories
1
and1A)
.131
Axes with dents on cutting edges, an overall bluntness and mushroom-edges
(categories
1,
1A and
2).132
Axes with blunt cutting edges (categories
2,
2A and
3).134
Axes with other types of use-wear
.138
Find locations and find contexts
.139
Mortuary contexts
.140
Habitation areas
.141
Psychro cave
.143
Uncertain find locations
.144
Conclusions
.145
7.
SUMMARY
.147
8.
CATALOGUE
.151
Catalogue of studied double axes
.152
Catalogue of non-studied double axes
.174
9.
GLOSSARY
.258
10.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
.264
APPENDIX I. THE MODERN CAST DOUBLE AXES
.284
APPENDIX II. OTHER MANUFACTURED TOOLS
.287
List of figures
Figure
1.
Copper sources discussed in Chapter
2
(after Davaras
1976,
Map
2).26
Figure
2.
Stone mould from Mallia (permission from Evely
1993,
Fig.
21).32
Figure
3.
The metal mould from Vasiliki (permission from Evely
1993,
Fig.
21).35
Figure
4.
A moulding-box made out of wood. The two wooden frames are put
together and the piece of wood which will create the runner has been
positioned. This particular mould is today in use at
Bäckedals
Folkhögskola.
37
Figure
5.
Clay crucibles
M
21
and
M
19
found at Kommos (after Blitzer
1995,
PI.
8.104).38
Figure
6.
A pot bellows
M
42
from Kommos (after Blitzer
1995,
PI. 8.105).40
Figure
7.
Cold-working the cutting edge with a stone on a stone anvil
.41
Figure
8.
Grinding and sharpening the cutting edge with a pumice stone.
.41
Figure
9.
Double axe terminology (after Evely
1993,
Fig.
18).47
Figure
10.
The casting joint as identified on no.
2
(Drawing by M. Lowe
Fri).
.49
Figure
11.
Impressions of sand and dirt inclusions on axe A, cast at
Bäckedals Folkhögskola.
The impressions of sand are the smaller
holes mostly concentrated to the centre of the axe and the dirt
inclusions are the larger and more irregular ones
.50
Figure
12.
Scabs are sand grains which have been trappd by molten metal
during casting and are stuck to the axe surface. If left on the axe they
look like lumps, and if they are removed the scabs causes small holes
in the axe surface
.51
Figure
13.
Gas- and blowholes as they appear on the axe body of no.
7.
On
the right there is a crack situated in the centre of the cutting edge. This
crack is caused by cold lapping (drawing by R.
Lindberg)
.53
7
Figure
15.
Traces
of runners as identified on seventeen double axes. On this
drawing both the traces of runners are connected to the shaft hole
(permission from Evely
1993,
Fig.
19).55
Figure
16.
Some of the shrinkage cavities look exactly like the small
impression on this drawing, though they can also be undulating in the
whole shaft hole (permission from Evely
1993,
Fig.
18).57
Figure
17.
Tears or cracks as they are situated on the long side of no.
9
(Drawing by M. Lowe
Fri)
.58
Figure
18.
Evely's typology (permission from Evely
1993,
Figs.
19-20).62
Figure
19.
The incision on axe no.
13
(drawing by M. Lowe
Fri)
.69
Figure
20.
The cast motif of no.
3
(drawing by M. Lowe
Fri)
.72
Figure
21.
These are the different activities presented by Gordon A,
breaking, B, cutting, and C, splitting (after Gordon
1985,
Fig.
2).75
Figure
22.
The cutting edge on on.
16
has both dents which are
concentrated (upper part) and randomly (downmost part) (drawing by
G.Lowe)
.84
Figure
23.
On no.
14
the downmost point has a slight mushroom-edge and
above this hard dents are visible (drawing by R.
Lindberg)
.84
Figure
24.
Axe no.
14
has varying degrees of mushroom-edges and an
overall bluntness in the range of
2
to
3
mm in width (drawing by R.
Lindberg)
.85
Figure
25.
On no.
15
a blunt cutting edge and dents with striations within the
dents was identified (drawing by G. Lowe)
.86
Figure
26.
An extremely blunt cutting edge on axe
21
(drawing by G. Lowe).
.87
Figure
27.
Core box, core and pattern prepared to cast modern double axes.
.97
Figure
28.
Preparing the flask moulds for casting and casting the prepared
moulds. The bricks are places on the mould when cast to prevent the
mould from separating
.98
Figure
29.
The newly cast double axes with flash and traces of the running
system left in place. The black surface of the cast axes also appear
very different from the axe cast at
Bäckedals Folkhögskola
(Fig. 11). 99
Figure
30.
Removing flash with one of the chisels
.100
8
Figure
31.
Axe A after one of the cutting edges was hammered. The cutting
edge which was hammered became slightly convex, which also gave
the axe body a concave appearance
.102
Figure
32.
A corner of the axe broke off during finishing treatments. The two
different colours, depending on the grain structure, can be seen on
both the small pice that broke off and in the cut in the axe
.103
Figure
33.
The grinder made to sharpen the axes used for fellling the oak
tree and cutting lamb and cattle bones. The grinder can be
maneuvered by one person, but if two persons worked at it at the same
time, one holding the axe and the other one the grinder's handle the
sharpening of the axes where more precise and went faster
.104
Figure
34.
The first shaft made with a shoulder and a split end where a
wedge was hammered down
.105
Figure
35.
Axe A after twenty-one minutes of use
.111
Figure
36.
Axe A after forty-three minutes of use
.112
Figure
37.
Axe
D
after sixty minutes of use
.114
Figure
38.
Axe A, the uppermost photograph shows the sharp cutting edge
when used on granite. The lower photograph shows the thicker cutting
edge when used on granite
.117
Figure
39.
The three axes
(G, H
and I) prepared and shafted for the bone
experiments
.118
Figure
40.
The boneparts discussed in this chapter (modified after Halstead
et al.
2004, 32, Fig. 2.10.119
Figure
41.
Suitable pieces of lamb for a stew?
.120
Figure
42.
Cutting the lamb's ribs
.121
Figure
43.
Cutting all through the femur bone
.123
Figure
44.
The difference of the cutting edges after cutting the lamb and the
cattle bones. The cutting edge used on lamb is the photograph at the
top and the lower one was used on the cattle bones
.125
Figure
45.
A ball-peen hammer (drawing by M. Lowe
Fri)
.258
List of tables
Table
1.
Casting defects on the examined double axes
.48
Table
2.
Finishing treatments of the examined axe bodies
.63
Table
3.
Finishing treatments on the examined axe's long sides including the
shaft hole
.65
Table
4.
Finishing treatments of the cutting edges
(ce.),
of the examined
double axes
.67
Table
5.
Decoration
.68
Table
6.
Chemical composition and qualities for sand-cast tin-bronze alloys
(modern samples)
.78
Table
7.
Metal analyses
.79
Table
8.
Different use-wear, which appears on the cutting edges
(ce)
.83
Table
9.
The working activities of the Minoan double axes
.139
10 |
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| spelling | Lowe Fri, Maria 1973- Verfasser (DE-588)137304706 aut The double axe in Minoan Crete a functional analysis of production and use Maria Lowe Fri Stockholm Department of Archaeology and Classical Studies, Stockholm University 2007 288 S. Ill. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Zugl.: Stockholm, Univ., Diss., 2007 Bronsåldern / Grekland Crete (Greece)--Antiquities Funde Axes, Prehistoric Greece Crete Minoische Kultur (DE-588)4074845-5 gnd rswk-swf Doppelaxt (DE-588)4221419-1 gnd rswk-swf Kreta Griechenland Crete (Greece) Antiquities (DE-588)4113937-9 Hochschulschrift gnd-content Minoische Kultur (DE-588)4074845-5 s Doppelaxt (DE-588)4221419-1 s DE-604 Digitalisierung BSBMuenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016678759&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Lowe Fri, Maria 1973- The double axe in Minoan Crete a functional analysis of production and use Bronsåldern / Grekland Crete (Greece)--Antiquities Funde Axes, Prehistoric Greece Crete Minoische Kultur (DE-588)4074845-5 gnd Doppelaxt (DE-588)4221419-1 gnd |
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| title | The double axe in Minoan Crete a functional analysis of production and use |
| title_auth | The double axe in Minoan Crete a functional analysis of production and use |
| title_exact_search | The double axe in Minoan Crete a functional analysis of production and use |
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| title_full | The double axe in Minoan Crete a functional analysis of production and use Maria Lowe Fri |
| title_fullStr | The double axe in Minoan Crete a functional analysis of production and use Maria Lowe Fri |
| title_full_unstemmed | The double axe in Minoan Crete a functional analysis of production and use Maria Lowe Fri |
| title_short | The double axe in Minoan Crete |
| title_sort | the double axe in minoan crete a functional analysis of production and use |
| title_sub | a functional analysis of production and use |
| topic | Bronsåldern / Grekland Crete (Greece)--Antiquities Funde Axes, Prehistoric Greece Crete Minoische Kultur (DE-588)4074845-5 gnd Doppelaxt (DE-588)4221419-1 gnd |
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