The psychology of gender:
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Upper Saddle River, NJ
Prentice Hall
2005
|
| Ausgabe: | 2. ed. |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | XIX, 681 S. Ill. |
| ISBN: | 0131147269 |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text |
The Psychology
of GENDER
SECOND EDITION
VICKI S HELGESON
CARNEGIE MELLON UNIVERSITY
PEARSON
Prentice
Hall
UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NEW JERSEY 07458
BRIEF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 CONCEPTUALIZATION AND MEASUREMENT OF GENDER
ROLES AND GENDER-ROLE ATTITUDES 46
3 SEX-RELATED COMPARISONS: OBSERVATIONS 99
4 SEX-RELATED COMPARISONS: THEORY 134
5 AGGRESSION 183
6 ACHIEVEMENT 223
7 COMMUNICATION 269
8 FRIENDSHIP 312
9 ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS 348
10 SEX DIFFERENCES IN HEALTH: EVIDENCE AND EXPLANATIONS 400
11 RELATIONSHIPS AND HEALTH 450
12 WORK ROLES AND HEALTH 495
13 MENTAL HEALTH 535
CONTENTS
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xxi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
Definition of Terms 3
Cultural Differences in the Construal of Gender 9
Cultures with Multiple Genders • 9
Morocco 10
The Agta Negrito 11
Tahiti 11
Status and Culture 11
The Scientific Method 12
Correlational Study 15
Experimental Study 17
Field Experiment 20
Cross-Sectional Versus Longitudinal Designs 20
Difficulties in Conducting Research on Gender 21
Experimenter Effects 21
Participant Effects 28
The Setting: Laboratory Versus Field 29
Variables Confounded with Sex 30
Situational Influences 34
Philosophical and Political Issues Surrounding Gender 35
The Sex Difference Debate 35
Should We Study Gender? 36
Social Construction of Gender 37
Women's Movements 38
Men's Movements 39
This Book's Approach to the Study of Gender 41
Summary 42
Discussion Questions 43
vu
viii Contents
Suggested Reading 44
Key Terms 44
CONCEPTUALIZATION AND MEASUREMENT
OF GENDER ROLES AND GENDER-ROLE ATTITUDES 46
History of the Psychology of Gender 46
1894-1936: Sex Differences in Intelligence 46
1936-1954: M/F as a Global Personality Trait 48
1954-1982: Sex Typing and Androgyny 52
1982-Present: Gender as a Social Category 57
Gender-Role Attitudes 68
Attitudes Toward Men's and Women's Roles 68
Affective Component: Sexism 70
Cognitive Component: Gender-Role Stereotyping 75
Behavioral Component: Sex Discrimination 92
Summary 95
Discussion Questions 96
Suggested Reading 96
Key Terms 97
SEX-RELATED COMPARISONS: OBSERVATIONS 99
Maccoby and Jacklin's Psychology of Sex Differences 101
Meta-Analysis 102
Sex Comparisons in Cognitive Abilities 104
Spatial Ability 104
Mathematical Ability 109
Verbal Ability 111
Two Studies in Cognitive Abilities 112
Conclusions 115
Sex Comparisons in Social Domains 116
Empathy 116
Helping Behavior 117
Sexuality 118
Activity 121
General Personality Attributes 121
Conclusion 122
Sex Comparisons in Emotion 122
The Experience of Emotion 123
The Expression of Emotion 124
Physiological Measures of Emotion 126
Basis of Emotion 127
Conclusions 128
Contents ix
Sex Comparisons in Moral Development 128
Sex Comparisons in Social Development 130
Summary 131
Discussion Questions 132
Suggested Reading 133
Key Terms 133
SEX-RELATED COMPARISONS: THEORY 134
Biology 135
Genes 135
Hormones 136
The Brain 139
Summary 141
Evolutionary Theory and Sociobiology 141
Sexual Behavior 141
Mate Selection 142
The Hunter-Gatherer Society 142
A Final Note ' 143
Psychoanalytic Theory 143
Social Learning Theory 145
Reinforcement 145
Observational Learning or Modeling 145
Gender-Role Socialization 148
The Influence of Parents 150
- The Influence of Other People 155
Other Features of the Environment 156
Conclusion 163
Social Role Theory 163
Cognitive Development Theory 167
Gender Schema Theory 168
Considering the Context: Deaux and Major's Model 1 73
Perceiver 173
Target 174
Situation 175
Constructionist and Postmodern Perspectives 178
Summary 179
Discussion Questions 181
Suggested Reading 181
Key Terms 182
x Contents
AGGRESSION 183
Aggression/Violence 184
Research Evidence 184
Crime Statistics 187
Theories of Aggression 189
Biological Theories 189
Social Learning Theory 191
Gender-Role Theories 194
Cognitive Theories 196
Environmental Factors 197
Rape and Other Forms of Sexual Coercion 197
Definitions 197
Incidence 198
Characteristics of Perpetrator 200
Characteristics of Victim 202
Theories 202
Domestic Abuse 204
Incidence • 205
Characteristics of Perpetrator 209
Characteristics of Victim 210
Theories 210
Sexual Harassment 211
Definitions 212
Incidence 215
Characteristics of Perpetrator 218
Characteristics of Victim 219
Theories 219
Summary 220
Discussion Questions 221
Suggested Reading 222
Key Terms 222
ACHIEVEMENT 223
Individual Difference Factors 224
The Achievement Motive 224
Fear of Achievement 225
Self-Confidence 232
Response to Evaluative Feedback 236
Self-Esteem 238
Stereotype Threat 240
Conceptions of the Self 241
Attributions for Performance 246
Contents xi
Social Factors 250
Expectancy/Value Model of Achievement 250
The Influence of Parents 252
The Influence of Teachers 256
Peers and the Neighborhood 263
Summary 266
Discussion Questions 267
Suggested Reading 268
Key Terms 268
COMMUNICATION 269
Interaction Styles in Childhood 270
Children's Styles of Play 271
Girls' Difficulty in Influencing Boys 272
Explaining the Different Styles of Play 273
Summary 274
Interaction Styles in Adulthood 275
Language 277
Qualifiers to Sex Differences 280
Effects of Language on Perception 282
Nonverbal Behavior 283
Smiling 284
Gazing 284
Decoding 285
Sending 285
Touching 285
Summary 287
Influenceability 287
Who Is Influenced? 287
Who Is Influential? 290
Influence Strategies 292
Explanations for Sex Differences in Communication 293
Sex-Segregated Interactions in Early Life 293
Status Theory 294
Social Role Theory 299
Leadership 300
Who Emerges as a Leader 300
Leadership Styles 302
Views of Leaders 303
Summary 305
Support Provision in Interactions 306
Summary 308
xii Contents
Discussion Questions 310
Suggested Reading 310
Key Terms 311
8 FRIENDSHIP 312
Network Size 313
The Nature of Friendship 314
Sex Differences 314
Sex Similarities 316
Closeness of Friendship 317
Barriers to Closeness in Male Friendship 322
Homophobia 322
Competition 323
Emotional Inexpressiveness 323
Self-Disclosure 323
Sex of Discloser 324
Sex of Recipient 325
Situational Variables 325
Barriers to Male Self-Disclosure 327
Definition of Intimacy 328
Conflict in Friendship 330
Changes Over the Life Span 333
Early Adulthood: Marriage and Family 333
Late Adulthood: Retirement and Empty Nest 334
Cross-Sex Friendship 334
Comparisons to Same-Sex Friendship 335
Obstacles 337
Changes Over the Life Span 339
Friendship at Work 340
Friendships of Lesbians and Gay Men 343
Summary 345
Discussion Questions 346
Suggested Reading 346
Key Terms 347
9 ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS 348
Relationship Development 349
Interest in Relationships 349
Standards for Relationships 350
Characteristics Desired in a Mate 352
Relationship Initiation 358
Contents
The Nature of Romantic Relationships
Intimacy
Love
Sexuality
Maintaining Relationships
Maintenance Strategies
Marital Satisfaction
Conflict
Areas of Conflict
Conflict Management
Demand/Withdraw Pattern
Jealousy
Gay and Lesbian Relationships
Relationship Development
Intimacy and Sexuality
Relationship Satisfaction
Jealousy
Sex Versus Status
Cohabiting Relationships
Who Cohabits
Outcomes of Cohabitation
Summary
Discussion Questions
Suggested Reading
Key Terms
SEX DIFFERENCES IN HEALTH: EVIDENCE AND EXPLANATIONS
Sex Differences in Mortality
Life Span
Leading Causes of Death
Sex Differences in Morbidity
Explanations for Sex Differences in Health
Biology
Genes
Hormones
Immune System
Cardiovascular Reactivity
Socioeconomic Status
Artifacts
Proxy
Physicians Bias
XUl
xiv Contents
Health Behaviors 418
Preventive Health Care 419
Smoking 420
Alcohol 427
Drugs 428
Prediction of Smoking, Alcohol Use, and Drug Use 429
Overweight and Obesity 432
Exercise 434
Men's and Women's Social Roles 436
Job Characteristics 436
Driving 437
Risky Behavior 437
Concerns with Health 438
Nurturant Roles 439
Gender-Related Traits 440
Symptom Perception 441
Evidence 441
Explanations 442
Illness Behavior 443
Implications for Morbidity 443
Implications for Mortality 444
Conclusions 446
Summary 446
Discussion Questions 448
Suggested Reading 448
Key Terms 449
1 1 RELATIONSHIPS AND HEALTH 450
Effects of Marriage on Health 451
Evidence 452
Explanations 454
Summary 458
Effect of Bereavement on Health 458
Evidence 460
Explanations 461
Summary 462
Effect of Relationship Dissolution on Health 462
Breakup of Dating Relationships 462
Breakup of Marriage: Separation and Divorce 463
Explanations 464
Summary 467
Contents xv
Effect of Marital Quality on Health 467
Evidence 467
Explanations 471
Summary 471
Division of Labor 471
Who Does What? 471
What Determines Who Does What? 475
Satisfaction 477
Effects on Weil-Being 479
Summary 479
Parenting and Health 480
Effects of Parental Status on Health 481
Effect of Quality of Parent Role on Health 483
Effect of Parenthood on Marriage 484
Summary 485
Effect of Social Support on Health 485
Sex Comparisons 485
Evidence: Relations to Health 488
Summary 491
Discussion Questions 493
Suggested Reading 493
Key Terms 494
12 WORK ROLES AND HEALTH 495
Work Role 496
Women's Employment 497
Unemployment 503
Retirement 504
Summary 505
Quality of Work Role 506
Characteristics of Work 507
Effects on Health 508
Discrimination 509
Pay Disparity 510
Denial of Discrimination 519
Summary 521
The Multiple Roles Question 521
Differential Exposure vs Differential Vulnerability 524
Difficulties in Combining Roles 525
Summary 527
xvi Contents
Role Buffering and Role Exacerbation 527
Does Work Role Buffer or Exacerbate Family Stress? 527
Do Family Roles Buffer or Exacerbate Work Stress? 529
Summary 531
Discussion Questions 532
Suggested Reading 532
Key Terms 533
1 3 MENTAL HEALTH 535
Sex Differences in Depression 535
Methodological Artifacts 540
Clinician Bias 540
Response Bias 541
Different Manifestations of Depression 542
Theories of Depression 543
Biology 544
Learned Helplessness 546
Attributional Styles • 547
Coping 548
Stressful Life Events 555
The Female Gender Role 559
Challenges of Adolescence 562
Adjustment to Chronic Illness 566
Male Gender Role 569
Female Gender Role 571
Eating Disorders 572
Definitions and Prevalence 572
Consequences 573
Etiology 575
Suicide 579
Incidence 579
Attempts 581
The Gender Paradox 581
Factors Associated with Suicide Among Adults 582
Factors Associated with Suicide Among Adolescents 583
Summary 584
Discussion Questions 586
Suggested Reading 586
Key Terms 587
References 588
Author Index 653
Subject Index 667 |
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