Modern tort law:
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
London ; Sydney ; Portland, Or.
Cavendish Publ. Ltd.
2003
|
| Ausgabe: | 5. ed. |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Publisher description Contributor biographical information Table of contents Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | 467 S. |
| ISBN: | 1859418112 |
Internformat
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text | IMAGE 1
CONTENTS
PREFACE V
TABLE OF CASES XXV
TABLE OF STATUTES IV
TABLE OF STATUTORY INSTRUMENTS LIX
TABLE OF EUROPEAN LEGISLATION IXI
1 AN OVERVIEW OF THE LAW OF TORT 1
1.1 WHAT IS TORT? 1
1.2 TORT AND CONTRACT 1
1.2.1 DUTIES FIXED BY LAW 1
1.2.2 DUTIES TO WHOM? THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PARTIES 2
1.2.3 REDRESSABLE BY AN ACTION FOR UNLIQUIDATED DAMAGES 2
1.2.4 UNLIQUIDATED DAMAGES 4
1.3 TORT AND CRIMINAL LAW 5
1.4 OTHER DEFINITIONS OF TORT 5
1.5 INSURANCE AND THE LAW OF TORT 5
1.6 AN OVERVIEW OF THE LAW OF TORT 6
1.7 CASE LAW 8
1.8 OTHER SYSTEMS OF COMPENSATION 8
1.9 TORTS OF STRICT LIABILITY 9
1.10 HUMAN RIGHTS ACT 1998 10
1.10.1 THE FUTURE OF HUMAN RIGHTS AND TORT LAW 11
1.11 A SUMMARY OF THE OBJECTIVES OF TORT 11
1.11.1 AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE OPERATION OF THE TORT SYSTEM 12
1.11.2 THE SCENARIO 12
1.11.3 ARE THE OBJECTIVES OF TORT MET IN THIS CASE? 14
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 1 16
2 INTRODUCTION TO THE TORT OF NEGLIGENCE 19
2.1 FAULT 19
2.2 DONOGHUE V STEVENSON AND THE MODERN TORT OF NEGLIGENCE 19
2.2.1 THE POLICY ARGUMENTS 20
2.2.2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DECISION 21
2.3 ESTABLISHING LIABILITY FOR NEGLIGENCE 21
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MODERN TORT LAW
2.3.1 WHAT MUST BE PROVED: DUTY; BREACH; DAMAGE 22
2.3.2 DUTY OF CARE 22
2.3.3 BREACH OF DUTY 23
2.3.4 CAUSATION AND REMOTENESS OF DAMAGE 24
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 2 25
3 DUTY OF CARE - GENERAL PRINCIPLES 27
3.1 DUTY OF CARE 27
3.2 THE TEST FOR DETERMINING THE EXISTENCE OF A DUTY OF CARE 27
3.2.1 FORESIGHT 27
3.2.2 PROXIMITY 28
3.2.3 WHAT IS FAIR, JUST AND REASONABLE 29
3.3 THE OPERATION OF JUDICIAL POLICY IN NEGLIGENCE 30
3.4 DEFINITION OF POLICY 3U
3.5 FACTORS INFLUENCING JUDICIAL POLICY 30
3.5.1 LEGAL REASONING 3
3.6 LATENT POLICY DECISIONS 32
3.7 EXPLICIT POLICY DECISIONS 33
3.8 THE INCREMENTAL APPROACH - THE THREE-STAGE TEST 33
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 3 35
4 DUTY OF CARE - PSYCHIATRIC INJURY 37
4.1 WHAT IS NERVOUS SHOCK ? 37
4.1.1 RECOGNISED SYMPTOMS OF PSYCHIATRIC INJURY 38
4.2 DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAW 39
4.2.1 FEAR FOR RELATIVES AND FRIENDS 40
4.2.2 THE IMPACT THEORY 40
4.2.3 THE AREA OF SHOCK THEORY 41
4.2.4 RESCUERS 41
4.3 EXPANSION OF LIABILITY 42
4.3.1 CASES INVOLVING THE IMMEDIATE AFTERMATH 43
4.4 CONTRACTION OF LIABILITY FOR NERVOUS SHOCK 44
4.4.1 RESTRICTIONS ON THE SCOPE OF THE DUTY 44
4.4.2 PROXIMITY 45
4.4.3 THE CLOSE TIE OF LOVE AND AFFECTION 45
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CONTENTS
4.4.4 THE MEANS BY WHICH THE SHOCK WAS SUSTAINED
4.4.5 BREAKING BAD NEWS
4.5 THE IMMEDIATE EFFECTS OF ALCOCK
4.5.1 PRE-ACCIDENT TERROR
4.6 DEVELOPMENTS SINCE ALCOCK
4.6.1 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY VICTIMS
4.6.2 RESCUERS - A NEW APPROACH
4.6.3 THE ROLE OF FORESIGHT
4.6.4 EMPLOYEES
4.6.5 SUDDEN SHOCK OR SLOW APPRECIATION
4.6.6 THE IMMEDIATE AFTERMATH
4.6.7 A SUMMARY OF DEVELOPMENTS SINCE ALCOCK
4.7 THE LAW COMMISSION REPORT
4.8 THE FUTURE OF PSYCHIATRIC INJURY CLAIMS - A DEVELOPING AREA OF LAW
4.8.1 PSYCHIATRIC INJURY SUFFERED IN THE WORKPLACE
4.9 THE LAW IN SCOTLAND
4.10 HUMAN RIGHTS ACT CLAIMS
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 4
5 DUTY OF CARE-ECONOMIC LOSS 71
5.1 ECONOMIC LOSS CAUSED BY CARELESS STATEMENTS 71
5.1.1 STATEMENTS MADE BY THE DEFENDANT 71
5.1.2 THE SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP 72
5.1.3 RELIANCE 73
5.1.4 RELIANCE MUST BE REASONABLE 73
5.1.5 DISCHARGING THE DUTY 74
5.1.6 A CASE BY CASE APPROACH 74
5.1.7 SUMMARY OF CAPARO V DICKMAN 75
5.1.8 FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS 76
5.1.9 WRONGFUL BIRTH CASES 79
5.1.10 STATEMENTS MADE BY A THIRD PARTY 79
5.1.11 ADVISE AS OPPOSED TO INFORMATION 81
5.1.12 JUDICIAL DISCRETION 82
5.1.13 MISREPRESENTATION ACT 1967 82
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MODERN TORT LAW
5.2 ECONOMIC LOSS CAUSED BY NEGLIGENT ACTS 83
5.2.1 PURE ECONOMIC LOSS DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER
TYPES OF ECONOMIC LOSS 83
5.2.2 EXPANSION OF LIABILITY 84
5.2.3 THE HIGH-WATER MARK 85
5.2.4 CONTRACTION OF LIABILITY 86
5.2.5 THE COURTS RECOGNISE THE ARTIFICIAL DISTINCTIONS MADE IN PREVIOUS
CASES 87
5.2.6 THE NEW LIMITS ON LIABILITY 87
5.2.7 SUMMARY 88
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 5 90
6 MISCELLANEOUS SITUATIONS 93
6.1 THE NO DUTY 7 CASES 93
6.1.1 LAWYERS 93
6.1.2 LEGAL PROCEEDINGS 94
6.1.3 OTHER CAUSES OF ACTION 94
6.1.4 OTHER SOURCES OF COMPENSATION 94
6.1.5 CLAIMANT IS A MEMBER OF AN INDETERMINATELY
LARGE CLASS OF PERSONS 94
6.1.6 WRONGFUL LIFE 95
6.1.7 THE POLICE 95
6.1.8 THE HUMAN RIGHTS ARGUMENTS 101
6.2 CLAIMANT CAUSED HIS OR HER OWN MISFORTUNE 101
6.3 RESCUE CASES 101
6.4 PUBLIC AUTHORITIES 102
6.4.1 HEALTH AUTHORITIES AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES 103
6.4.2 DUTY OF THE EMERGENCY SERVICES 107
6.5 ADDITIONAL SITUATIONS 109
6.6 CONCLUSION 112
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 6 113
7 BREACH OF DUTY-THE STANDARD OF CARE 115
7.1 THE REASONABLE MAN TEST 115
7.2 THE CASES 116
7.2.1 REASONABLE ASSESSMENT OF RISK 116
7.2.2 UNFORESEEABLE RISK CANNOT BE ANTICIPATED 118
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CONTENTS XI
7.2.3 THE UTILITY OF THE CONDUCT 118
7.2.4 THE EXPENSE OF TAKING PRECAUTIONS 119
7.2.5 LACK OF SPECIAL SKILLS 120
7.2.6 CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE AND THE STANDARD OF CARE 120
7.2.7 CHILDREN 120
7.2.8 THE SICK AND DISABLED 121
7.2.9 CARERS AND ORGANISERS 121
7.2.10 DRIVERS 123
7.2.11 EXPERTS, PROFESSIONALS AND PEOPLE WITH SPECIAL SKILLS 124
7.2.12 SOME CRITICISMS OF BOLAM 125
7.2.13 CHALLENGES TO BOLAM: THE BOLITHO TEST 125
7.2.14 ACCEPTABLE PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS 130
7.2.15 TRAINEE EXPERTS 134
7.2.16 CLINICAL NEGLIGENCE 134
7.2.17 PROFESSIONAL NEGLIGENCE CLAIMS GENERALLY 135
7.3 PROOF OF BREACH AND RES IPSA LOQUITUR 136
7.3.1 UNKNOWN CAUSE 136
7.3.2 LACK OF PROPER CARE 137
7.3.3 CONTROL BY THE DEFENDANT 137
7.4 RES IPSA LOQUITUR AND MEDICAL CASES 137
7.5 EFFECTS OF RES IPSA LOQUITUR 138
7.6 CONSUMER PROTECTION ACT 1987 138
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 7 139
8 CAUSATION AND REMOTENESS OF DAMAGE 141
8.1 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CAUSATION AND REMOTENESS OF DAMAGE 141
8.2 CAUSATION 141
8.2.1 A TYPICAL EXAMINATION PROBLEM 141
8.2.2 THE BUT FOR TEST 142
8.2.3 NOVUS ACTUS INTERVENIENS 143
8.2.4 THE DILEMMA PRINCIPLE 143
8.2.5 THE CLAIMANT WAS NOT RESPONSIBLE FOR HIS OWN ACTS 144
8.2.6 THE FORESEEABILITY OF THE INTERVENING ACT 144
8.2.7 OMISSIONS 145
8.2.8 SEVERAL CAUSES 145
8.3 PROBLEMS IN PROVING CAUSATION 146
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MODERN TORT LAW
8.4 CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE AND CAUSATION 151
8.4.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAUSATION IN LEGAL PRACTICE 151
8.5 REMOTENESS OF DAMAGE 151
8.5.1 DIRECT CONSEQUENCES 151
8.5.2 WAS THE DIRECT CONSEQUENCES RULE FAIR? 152
8.5.3 WHAT DAMAGE MUST BE FORESEEABLE? 153
8.5.4 CONFUSION BETWEEN THE DUTY AND REMOTENESS LEVELS 155
8.5.5 THE THIN SKULL RULE 155
8.5.6 POLICY ISSUES IN REMOTENESS 156
8.5.7 APPLYING THE RULES: AN EXAMPLE 157
8.6 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE REMOTENESS RULES 157
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 8 158
9 BREACH OF STATUTORY DUTY 161
9.1 WHAT MUST BE PROVED? 162
9.1.1 THE STATUTE WAS INTENDED TO CREATE CIVIL LIABILITY 162
9.1.2 THE STATUTORY DUTY WAS OWED TO THE INDIVIDUAL CLAIMANT 164
9.1.3 THE STATUTORY DUTY WAS IMPOSED ON THE PARTICULAR DEFENDANT 166
9.1.4 THE DEFENDANT WAS IN BREACH OF THE STATUTORY DUTY 166
9.1.5 THE DAMAGE MUST BE OF A TYPE WHICH THE STATUTE CONTEMPLATED 168
9.1.6 THE INJURY MUST HAVE BEEN CAUSED BY THE DEFENDANT S
BREACH OF STATUTORY DUTY 169
9.1.7 BREACHES OF EUROPEAN LEGISLATION 169
9.2 DEFENCES 170
9.2.1 CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE 170
9.2.2 DELEGATION 170
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 9 171
10 OCCUPIERS LIABILITY 175
10.1 INTRODUCTION 175
10.1.1 APPLICATION OF COMMON LAW 175
10.2 LIABILITY UNDER THE OCCUPIERS LIABILITY ACT 1957 177
10.2.1 WHAT IS MEANT BY THE WORD OCCUPIER ? 178
10.2.2 WHAT IS MEANT BY THE WORD PREMISES ? 178
10.2.3 WHAT IS THE COMMON DUTY OF CARE ? 179
10.3 CHILDREN 179
10.3.1 THE ALLUREMENT PRINCIPLE 179
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CONTENTS XIII
10.3.2 DUTIES TO CONTRACTORS 180
10.3.3 RISKS ORDINARILY INCIDENTAL TO PARTICULAR OCCUPATIONS 180
10.4 DISCHARGE OF THE DUTY OF CARE 181
10.4.1 EXAMPLES OF WARNING NOTICES 182
10.5 EXCLUSION OF LIABILITY 183
10.5.1 BUSINESS OCCUPIERS 183
10.5.2 PRIVATE OCCUPIERS 184
10.5.3 THE OCCUPIERS LIABILITY ACT 1984 CONCESSION TO BUSINESS
OCCUPIERS 184
10.5.4 EXCLUSIONS OF LIABILITY TO CONTRACTORS 185
10.5.5 LIABILITY OF OCCUPIERS FOR DAMAGE AND INJURY CAUSED BY
INDEPENDENT CONTRACTORS 185
10.6 DEFENCES AVAILABLE UNDER THE OCCUPIERS LIABILITY ACT 1957 186
10.6.1 VOLENTI (CONSENT) 186
10.6.2 CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE 186
10.7 LIABILITY FOR PERSONS OTHER THAN VISITORS 186
10.7.1 TRESPASSERS DEFINED 187
10.7.2 THE HARSH COMMON LAW CASES 187
10.7.3 A CHANGE OF POLICY 187
10.7.4 THE DUTY OF COMMON HUMANITY 188
10.8 LIABILITY UNDER THE OCCUPIERS LIABILITY ACT 1984 189
10.8.1 PERSONS EXERCISING A STATUTORY RIGHT OF WAY 189
10.8.2 PERSONS EXERCISING A PRIVATE RIGHT OF WAY 189
10.8.3 TRESPASSERS, BOTH CHILDREN AND ADULTS 190
10.9 THE NATURE OF THE STATUTORY DUTY 192
10.10 EXCLUDING LIABILITY UNDER THE OCCUPIERS LIABILITY ACT 1984 193
10.11 LIABILITY OF PEOPLE OTHER THAN OCCUPIERS FOR DANGEROUS PREMISES
193
10.11.1 INDEPENDENT CONTRACTORS 193
10.11.2 LANDLORDS 194
10.11.3 BUILDERS 195
10.11.4 DEVELOPMENTS AT COMMON LAW 196
10.11.5 LIMITATIONS TO S 1 196
10.12 COUNTRYSIDE AND RIGHTS OF WAY ACT 2000 198
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 10 200
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MODERN TORT LAW
11 TORTS RELATING TO LAND 2 03
11.1 INTRODUCTION 2 03
11.2 TRESPASS TO LAND 2 03
11.2.1 OUTLINE DEFINITION 203
11.2.2 DIRECT INTERFERENCE 204
11.2.3 ENTERING UPON LAND 204
11.2.4 TRESPASS TO THE AIRSPACE 204
11.2.5 TRESPASS TO THE GROUND BENEATH THE SURFACE 205
11.2.6 TRESPASS BY ENTRY ONTO THE LAND ITSELF 205
11.2.7 TRESPASS BY REMAINING ON LAND 206
11.2.8 TRESPASS BY PLACING THINGS ON LAND 207
11.2.9 TRESPASS TO THE HIGHWAY * 207
11.2.10 IN THE POSSESSION OF THE CLAIMANT 207
11.2.11 WITHOUT LAWFUL JUSTIFICATION (DEFENCES) 208
11.2.12 TRESPASS IS ACTIONABLE PER SE 210
11.3 REMEDIES FOR TRESPASS 211
11.3.1 DAMAGES 211
11.3.2 INJUNCTIONS 211
11.3.3 A CLAIM FOR RECOVERY OF THE LAND 211
11.3.4 RE-ENTRY AND DEFENCE OF PROPERTY 211
11.3.5 AN ACTION FOR MESNE PROFITS 212
11.3.6 DISTRESS DAMAGE FEASANT 212
11.4 NUISANCE 213
11.5 STATUTORY NUISANCE 213
11.6 PUBLIC NUISANCE 213
11.6.1 OUTLINE DEFINITION 213
11.6.2 MATERIALITY 214
11.6.3 REASONABLE COMFORT AND CONVENIENCE 214
11.6.4 A CLASS OF HER MAJESTY S SUBJECTS 215
11.7 HIGHWAY NUISANCE 215
11.7.1 UNREASONABLE USE AND OBSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHWAY 215
11.7.2 THREATS TO THE HIGHWAY FROM ADJOINING PREMISES 216
11.7.3 DEFENCES TO PUBLIC NUISANCE 217
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CONTENTS XV
11.8 REMEDIES FOR PUBLIC NUISANCE 218
11.8.1 DAMAGES 218
11.8.2 INJUNCTIONS 218
11.9 THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE NUISANCE 219
11.10 PRIVATE NUISANCE 219
11.10.1 OUTLINE DEFINITION 219
11.10.2 CONTINUOUS INTERFERENCE 220
11.10.3 UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE 221
11.10.4 INDIRECT INTERFERENCE 226
11.10.5 INTERFERENCE WITH THE USE OR ENJOYMENT OF LAND
OR SOME RIGHT OVER OR IN CONNECTION WITH IT 226
11.10.6 WHO CAN SUE IN PRIVATE NUISANCE? 229
11.10.7 PROOF OF DAMAGE IS USUALLY NECESSARY 231
11.10.8 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRIVATE NUISANCE AND
NEGLIGENCE 231
11.10.9 WHO CAN BE SUED FOR PRIVATE NUISANCE? 233
11.11 DEFENCES TO PRIVATE NUISANCE 234
11.11.1 PRESCRIPTION 234
11.11.2 STATUTORY AUTHORITY 235
11.12 REMEDIES FOR PRIVATE NUISANCE 235
11.12.1 DAMAGES 235
11.12.2 INJUNCTION 236
11.12.3 ABATEMENT OF THE NUISANCE 236
11.12.4 PARTY WALL, ETC, ACT 1996 AND HIGH HEDGES BILL 2003 237
11.13 THE RULE IN RYLANDS V FLETCHER 237
11.13.1 FACTS OF THE CASE 238
11.13.2 THE RULE 238
11.13.3 THE PERSON WHO BRINGS ONTO HIS LAND 238
11.13.4 FOR HIS OWN PURPOSES 238
11.13.5 NON-NATURAL USER 238
11.13.6 SOMETHING LIKELY TO DO MISCHIEF 239
11.13.7 ESCAPE 239
11.13.8 WHO CAN SUE UNDER RYLANDS V FLETCHER AND FOR WHAT DAMAGE 239
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MODERN TORT LAW
11.13.9 IS PRIMA FACIE ANSWERABLE FOR ALL THE DAMAGE WHICH IS THE
NATURAL CONSEQUENCE OF THE ESCAPE
11.13.10 DEFENCES
11.13.11 WHAT WILL BECOME OF THE RULE IN RYKNDS V FLETCHER!
11.14 LIABILITY FOR FIRE
11.14.1 COMMON LAW
11.14.2 STATUTE
11.15 DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN VARIOUS TORTS TO LAND
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 11
12 LIABILITY FOR ANIMALS
12.1 COMMON LAW RELATING TO ANIMALS
12.1.1 THE COMMON LAW RULES
12.1.2 NUISANCE
12.1.3 TRESPASS
12.1.4 DEFAMATION
12.1.5 STATUTORY NUISANCES
12.2 THE ANIMALS ACT 1971
12.2.1 DANGEROUS SPECIES
12.2.2 NON-DANGEROUS SPECIES
12.2.3 DAMAGE
12.2.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARTICULAR ANIMAL
12.2.5 THE LIKELIHOOD OF THE DAMAGE BEING CAUSED OR OF ITS BEING SEVERE
12.2.6 CHARACTERISTICS KNOWN TO THAT KEEPER, ETC
12.2.7 DEFENCES
12.2.8 DAMAGE BY DOGS TO LIVESTOCK
12.3 LIVESTOCK
12.3.1 TRESPASSING LIVESTOCK
12.3.2 DEFINITION
12.3.3 DEFENCES
12.4 REMOTENESS OF DAMAGE
12.5 DAMAGES
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 12
240
240
241
242
242
243
244
245
251
251
251
252
252
252
252
253
253
254
255
255
256
256
256
257
258
258
258
258
260
260
261
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CONTENTS
13 TRESPASS TO THE PERSON
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
13.10
INTRODUCTION
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CIVIL LAW AND CRIMINAL INJURIES COMPENSATION
THE CRIMINAL INJURIES COMPENSATION SCHEME
COMPENSATION ORDERS
13.4.1 AN IMPORTANT DRAWBACK
ACTIONS AGAINST THE POLICE
ASSAULT AND BATTERY
13.6.1 ASSAULT
13.6.2 BATTERY
FALSE IMPRISONMENT
13.7.1 RESTRAINT IS NECESSARY
13.7.2 RESTRAINT MUST BE TOTAL
13.7.3 KNOWLEDGE OF THE RESTRAINT AT THE TIME IS NOT NECESSARY
13.7.4 EXAMPLES
DEFENCES TO ASSAULT, BATTERY AND FALSE IMPRISONMENT
13.8.1 SELF-DEFENCE
13.8.2 CONSENT
13.8.3 SPORTS
13.8.4 BRAWLS
13.8.5 REASONABLE CHASTISEMENT
13.8.6 MEDICAL TREATMENT
13.8.7 CONSENT TO THE TAKING OF BODILY SAMPLES
13.8.8 LAWFUL ARREST, DETENTION AND STOP AND SEARCH
REMEDIES
THE TORT IN WILKINSON V DOWNTON
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 13
14 EMPLOYERS LIABILITY
14.1
14.2
PRIMARY LIABILITY
14.1.1 INDEPENDENT CONTRACTORS
14.1.2 NON-DELEGABLE DUTIES
COMMON LAW DUTIES OF EMPLOYERS TO EMPLOYEES
14.2.1 DUTY TO EMPLOY COMPETENT STAFF
14.2.2 DUTY TO PROVIDE PROPER PLANT AND EQUIPMENT
263
263
263
264
264
264
265
266
266
267
268
268
269
269
270
271
271
271
272
272
272
272
276
276
278
278
280
283
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283
285
285
286
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MODERN TORT LAW
14.2.3 DUTY TO PROVIDE A SAFE WORKPLACE 286
14.2.4 DUTY TO PROVIDE SAFE WORK SYSTEMS 287
14.2.5 DUTY TO ENSURE HEALTH AND SAFETY 290
14.3 BREACH OF STATUTORY DUTY 293
14.4 NEW STATUTORY DUTIES 294
14.5 AN OVERVIEW 294
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 14 297
15 PRODUCT LIABILITY 299
15.1 THE POSITION IN CONTRACT 299
15.1.1 DISADVANTAGES OF CONTRACT 299
15.2 CREDIT USERS 299
15.3 THE POSITION IN TORT 300
15.3.1 DISADVANTAGES OF TORT 300
15.3.2 CONTINUED RELEVANCE OF NEGLIGENCE 302
15.4 CONSUMER PROTECTION ACT 1987 302
15.4.1 WHO IS LIABLE? 302
15.4.2 JOINT AND SEVERAL LIABILITY 303
15.4.3 DEFINITION OF A PRODUCT 303
15.4.4 DEFINITION OF A DEFECT 304
15.4.5 WARNINGS, LABELLING AND GET-UP 305
15.4.6 TIMING 305
15.4.7 THE TYPE OF DAMAGE TO WHICH STRICT LIABILITY APPLIES 306
15.4.8 LIMITATIONS 307
15.4.9 DEFENCES UNDER THE CONSUMER PROTECTION ACT 1987 (S 4) 307
15.5 WHAT DIFFERENCE DOES THE CONSUMER PROTECTION ACT 1987 REALLY MAKE?
309
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 15 312
16 VICARIOUS LIABILITY 315
16.1 VICARIOUS LIABILITY 315
16.2 EMPLOYEES OR INDEPENDENT CONTRACTORS? 316
16.3 THE NATURE OF THE EMPLOYMENT TEST 316
16.4 THE CONTROL TEST 317
16.4.1 PROFESSIONAL PEOPLE S PERCEPTIONS AND THE CONTROL TEST 317
16.4.2 SKILLED WORKERS PERCEPTIONS AND THE CONTROL TEST 318
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CONTENTS XIX
16.5 THE INTEGRAL PART OF THE BUSINESS TEST 319
16.5.1 WHO OWNS THE TOOLS? 320
16.5.2 IS THE WORKER PAID A WAGE OR A LUMP SUM FOR THE JOB? 320
16.5.3 WAS THE WORKER IN BUSINESS ON HIS OWN ACCOUNT? 320
16.5.4 WHO HAD THE POWER TO HIRE AND FIRE THE EMPLOYEE? 320
16.6 SOME MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS 320
16.6.1 EMPLOYEES ON LOAN 320
16.6.2 CARS ON LOAN 321
16.7 THE COURSE OF EMPLOYMENT 322
16.7.1 AUTHORISED AND UNAUTHORISED ACTS 322
16.7.2 WRONGFUL MODES OF DOING AUTHORISED ACTS 322
16.8 THE LISTER V ROMFORD ICE PRINCIPLE 324
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 16 325
17 TRESPASS TO GOODS 327
17.1 THE COMMON LAW 327
17.1.1 TRESPASS TO GOODS 327
17.1.2 CONVERSION 327
17.1.3 ACTION FOR DAMAGE TO REVERSIONARY INTERESTS IN GOODS 329
17.1.4 TORTS (INTERFERENCE WITH GOODS) ACT 1977 329
17.1.5 REMEDIES FOR CONVERSION 330
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 17 331
18 DEFAMATION AND OTHER TORTS AFFECTING THE REPUTATION 333
18.1 FREEDOM OF SPEECH, THE MEDIA AND THE LAW 333
18.2 LIBEL AND SLANDER 335
18.2.1 DISTINCTION 336
18.3 WHO CAN SUE FOR DEFAMATION? 337
18.4 A WORKING DEFINITION OF DEFAMATION 337
18.4.1 PUBLICATION 338
18.4.2 EXAMPLES OF PUBLICATION 338
18.4.3 STATEMENTS WHICH WERE NOT PUBLISHED 339
18.4.4 A DEFAMATORY STATEMENT 339
18.4.5 WHO DECIDES? 341
18.4.6 INNUENDO 341
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MODERN TORT LAW
18.4.7 REFERRING TO THE CLAIMANT 342
18.4.8 MALICE 3 43
18.5 WITHOUT LAWFUL JUSTIFICATION - DEFENCES 343
18.5.1 INNOCENT DISSEMINATION 343
18.5.2 VOLENTI (CONSENT) 344
18.5.3 ACCORD AND SATISFACTION 345
18.5.4 APOLOGY AND PAYMENT INTO COURT 345
18.5.5 APOLOGY AND MITIGATION 345
18.5.6 OFFER OF AMENDS PROCEDURE UNDER S 3 OF THE DEFAMATION ACT 1996,
EMBODIED IN CPR PT 53 345
18.5.7 UNQUALIFIED OFFER OF AMENDS UNDER S 2 OF THE DEFAMATION ACT 1996
346
18.5.8 JUSTIFICATION OR TRUTH 346
18.5.9 UNINTENTIONAL DEFAMATION 348
18.5.10 ABSOLUTE PRIVILEGE 349
18.5.11 QUALIFIED PRIVILEGE 351
18.5.12 FAIR COMMENT ON A MATTER OF PUBLIC INTEREST 355
18.5.13 LIMITATION PERIOD 356
18.6 REMEDIES FOR DEFAMATION 357
18.6.1 INJUNCTIONS 357
18.6.2 DAMAGES 357
18.7 A NEW APPROACH RELYING ON ART 10 OF THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON
HUMAN RIGHTS 359
18.8 PROPOSALS TO REFORM THE LAW OF DEFAMATION 361
18.8.1 THE FAULKS COMMITTEE S PROPOSALS 361
18.8.2 THE LORD CHANCELLOR S PROPOSALS 362
18.8.3 DEFAMATION ACT 1996 362
18.9 MALICIOUS FALSEHOOD 363
18.10 MALICIOUS PROSECUTION 364
18.10.1 A PROSECUTION 364
18.10.2 WITHOUT REASONABLE AND PROBABLE CAUSE 365
18.10.3 INITIATED BY MALICE 365
18.10.4 THE CASE MUST BE RESOLVED IN THE CLAIMANT S FAVOUR 366
18.10.5 DAMAGE 366
18.11 MALICIOUS ABUSE OF PROCESS 366
18.12 A WIDER PROTECTION FOR PRIVACY? 366
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 18 368
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CONTENTS XXI
19 REMEDIES IN TORT 371
19.1 DAMAGES 371
19.1.1 HOW ACCURATE IS TORT COMPENSATION? 371
19.1.2 HOW FAIR IS TORT COMPENSATION? 372
19.1.3 HOW EFFICIENT IS TORT COMPENSATION? 373
19.2 TYPES OF DAMAGES 375
19.2.1 NOMINAL DAMAGES 375
19.2.2 COMPENSATORY DAMAGES 375
19.2.3 CONTEMPTUOUS DAMAGES 375
19.2.4 AGGRAVATED DAMAGES 375
19.2.5 PUNITIVE OR EXEMPLARY DAMAGES 376
19.3 CALCULATION OF SPECIAL DAMAGES 377
19.3.1 REASONABLE EXPENSES TO THE DATE OF THE TRIAL 378
19.3.2 EXPENSES TO COVER SPECIAL FACILITIES 380
19.4 CALCULATION OF GENERAL DAMAGES 380
19.5 PECUNIARY LOSSES 380
19.5.1 LOSS OF FUTURE EARNINGS AND INITIAL CARE 380
19.5.2 INCOME TAX 383
19.5.3 THE LOST YEARS 384
19.5.4 LOSS OF FUTURE EARNINGS AND VERY YOUNG CLAIMANTS 384
19.5.5 DEDUCTIONS 385
19.5.6 DEDUCTIONS FROM THE MULTIPLIER 387
19.5.7 OTHER FUTURE LOSSES 387
19.6 NON-PECUNIARY LOSSES 393
19.6.1 PAIN AND SUFFERING 393
19.6.2 LOSS OF AMENITY 394
19.6.3 LEVELS OF GENERAL DAMAGES 394
19.6.4 DAMAGES FOR THE INJURY ITSELF 395
19.6.5 DAMAGES FOR BEREAVEMENT 396
19.6.6 INTERFERENCE WITH CONSORTIUM 396
19.7 DAMAGES PAYABLE ON DEATH 397
19.7.1 SURVIVAL OF EXISTING CAUSES OF ACTION 397
19.7.2 DEATH AS A CAUSE OF ACTION: LOSS OF DEPENDENCY 398
19.7.3 WHO ARE THE DEPENDANTS? 399
19.7.4 ADJUSTING THE MULTIPLIER 400
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MODERN TORT LAW
19.7.5 FINANCIAL DEPENDENCY 400
19.7.6 NON-FINANCIAL DEPENDENCY 401
19.7.7 THE LAW COMMISSION REPORTS 402
19.8 INTEREST ON DAMAGES 402
19.9 NEW METHODS OF PAYING DAMAGES IN PERSONAL INJURY CASES 403
19.9.1 SPLIT TRIALS AND INTERIM DAMAGES 404
19.9.2 PROVISIONAL DAMAGES 404
19.9.3 STRUCTURED SETTLEMENTS 405
19.10 PROPERTY DAMAGE 406
19.11 ECONOMIC LOSS 406
19.12 INJUNCTIONS 407
19.13 OTHER REMEDIES IN TORT 408
19.14 JOINT AND SEVERAL TORTFEASORS 408
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 19 409
20 DEFENCES 413
20.1 CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE 413
20.1.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAW 413
20.1.2 THE LAST OPPORTUNITY RULE 413
20.1.3 LAW REFORM (CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE) ACT 1945 414
20.1.4 THE STANDARD OF CARE IN CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE 414
20.1.5 CAUSATION IN CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE 415
20.1.6 DRUNK DRIVERS 416
20.1.7 WHO BENEFITS FROM THE RULE? 417
20.2 VOLENTI NON FIT INJURIA (CONSENT) 418
20.2.1 DANGEROUS JOBS 419
20.2.2 DANGEROUS SPORTS 420
20.2.3 DRUNK DRIVERS 420
20.2.4 RESCUERS 420
20.3 CONSENT IN THE MEDICAL CONTEXT 421
20.3.1 TRESPASS TO THE PERSON 421
20.3.2 NEGLIGENCE 424
20.3.3 INFORMED CONSENT 424
20.4 EXCLUSION CLAUSES AND CONSENT 424
20.5 EX TURPI CAUSA NON ORITUR ACTIO (ILLEGALITY) 425
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CONTENTS
20.6 INEVITABLE ACCIDENT
20.7 MISTAKE
20.8 NECESSITY
20.9 SELF-DEFENCE AND DEFENCE OF PROPERTY
20.10 LIMITATION OF ACTIONS
20.10.1 LIMITATION PERIOD IN TORT
20.10.2 LIMITATION PERIOD IN DEFAMATION
20.10.3 LIMITATION PERIOD IN PERSONAL INJURIES CASES
20.10.4 LATENT DAMAGE
20.10.5 CONSUMER PROTECTION ACT 1987
20.10.6 PERSONS UNDER A DISABILITY
20.11 ACCRUAL OF THE CAUSE OF ACTION
20.11.1 CLAIMS OUTSIDE THE LIMITATION PERIOD
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 20
21 CRITICISMS OF TORT - REFORMS
21.1 SOME CRITICISMS OF THE RULES OF TORT
21.1.1 FAULT
21.1.2 UNCERTAINTY
21.1.3 FAILURE TO MEET ITS OBJECTIVES
21.1.4 INEFFICIENCY
21.2 CRITICISMS OF THE LEGAL SYSTEM
21.3 REFORM OF TORT
21.3.1 CIVIL PROCEDURE RULES 1998
21.3.2 FUNDING OF CLAIMS
21.3.3 REFORM OF TORT LAW THROUGH THE HUMAN RIGHTS ACT 1998
21.4 THE VALUE OF TORT
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 21
FURTHER READING
INDEX
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428
428
428
429
429
429
429
430
430
430
431
432
434
439
439
439
439
440
440
440
441
441
443
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447
453
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| adam_txt |
IMAGE 1
CONTENTS
PREFACE V
TABLE OF CASES XXV
TABLE OF STATUTES IV
TABLE OF STATUTORY INSTRUMENTS LIX
TABLE OF EUROPEAN LEGISLATION IXI
1 AN OVERVIEW OF THE LAW OF TORT 1
1.1 WHAT IS TORT? 1
1.2 TORT AND CONTRACT 1
1.2.1 DUTIES FIXED BY LAW 1
1.2.2 DUTIES TO WHOM? THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PARTIES 2
1.2.3 REDRESSABLE BY AN ACTION FOR UNLIQUIDATED DAMAGES 2
1.2.4 UNLIQUIDATED DAMAGES 4
1.3 TORT AND CRIMINAL LAW 5
1.4 OTHER DEFINITIONS OF TORT 5
1.5 INSURANCE AND THE LAW OF TORT 5
1.6 AN OVERVIEW OF THE LAW OF TORT 6
1.7 CASE LAW 8
1.8 OTHER SYSTEMS OF COMPENSATION 8
1.9 TORTS OF STRICT LIABILITY 9
1.10 HUMAN RIGHTS ACT 1998 10
1.10.1 THE FUTURE OF HUMAN RIGHTS AND TORT LAW 11
1.11 A SUMMARY OF THE OBJECTIVES OF TORT 11
1.11.1 AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE OPERATION OF THE TORT SYSTEM 12
1.11.2 THE SCENARIO 12
1.11.3 ARE THE OBJECTIVES OF TORT MET IN THIS CASE? 14
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 1 16
2 INTRODUCTION TO THE TORT OF NEGLIGENCE 19
2.1 FAULT 19
2.2 DONOGHUE V STEVENSON AND THE MODERN TORT OF NEGLIGENCE 19
2.2.1 THE POLICY ARGUMENTS 20
2.2.2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DECISION 21
2.3 ESTABLISHING LIABILITY FOR NEGLIGENCE 21
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MODERN TORT LAW
2.3.1 WHAT MUST BE PROVED: DUTY; BREACH; DAMAGE 22
2.3.2 DUTY OF CARE 22
2.3.3 BREACH OF DUTY 23
2.3.4 CAUSATION AND REMOTENESS OF DAMAGE 24
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 2 25
3 DUTY OF CARE - GENERAL PRINCIPLES 27
3.1 DUTY OF CARE 27
3.2 THE TEST FOR DETERMINING THE EXISTENCE OF A DUTY OF CARE 27
3.2.1 FORESIGHT 27
3.2.2 PROXIMITY 28
3.2.3 WHAT IS FAIR, JUST AND REASONABLE 29
3.3 THE OPERATION OF JUDICIAL POLICY IN NEGLIGENCE 30
3.4 DEFINITION OF 'POLICY' 3U
3.5 FACTORS INFLUENCING JUDICIAL POLICY 30
3.5.1 LEGAL REASONING 3
3.6 LATENT POLICY DECISIONS 32
3.7 EXPLICIT POLICY DECISIONS 33
3.8 THE INCREMENTAL APPROACH - THE THREE-STAGE TEST 33
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 3 35
4 DUTY OF CARE - PSYCHIATRIC INJURY 37
4.1 WHAT IS'NERVOUS SHOCK'? 37
4.1.1 RECOGNISED SYMPTOMS OF PSYCHIATRIC INJURY 38
4.2 DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAW 39
4.2.1 FEAR FOR RELATIVES AND FRIENDS 40
4.2.2 THE IMPACT THEORY 40
4.2.3 THE 'AREA OF SHOCK' THEORY 41
4.2.4 RESCUERS 41
4.3 EXPANSION OF LIABILITY 42
4.3.1 CASES INVOLVING THE 'IMMEDIATE AFTERMATH' 43
4.4 CONTRACTION OF LIABILITY FOR NERVOUS SHOCK 44
4.4.1 RESTRICTIONS ON THE SCOPE OF THE DUTY 44
4.4.2 PROXIMITY 45
4.4.3 THE CLOSE TIE OF LOVE AND AFFECTION 45
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CONTENTS
4.4.4 THE MEANS BY WHICH THE SHOCK WAS SUSTAINED
4.4.5 BREAKING 'BAD' NEWS
4.5 THE IMMEDIATE EFFECTS OF ALCOCK
4.5.1 PRE-ACCIDENT TERROR
4.6 DEVELOPMENTS SINCE ALCOCK
4.6.1 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY VICTIMS
4.6.2 RESCUERS - A NEW APPROACH
4.6.3 THE ROLE OF FORESIGHT
4.6.4 EMPLOYEES
4.6.5 SUDDEN SHOCK OR SLOW APPRECIATION
4.6.6 THE IMMEDIATE AFTERMATH
4.6.7 A SUMMARY OF DEVELOPMENTS SINCE ALCOCK
4.7 THE LAW COMMISSION REPORT
4.8 THE FUTURE OF PSYCHIATRIC INJURY CLAIMS - A DEVELOPING AREA OF LAW
4.8.1 PSYCHIATRIC INJURY SUFFERED IN THE WORKPLACE
4.9 THE LAW IN SCOTLAND
4.10 HUMAN RIGHTS ACT CLAIMS
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 4
5 DUTY OF CARE-ECONOMIC LOSS 71
5.1 ECONOMIC LOSS CAUSED BY CARELESS STATEMENTS 71
5.1.1 STATEMENTS MADE BY THE DEFENDANT 71
5.1.2 THE SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP 72
5.1.3 RELIANCE 73
5.1.4 RELIANCE MUST BE REASONABLE 73
5.1.5 DISCHARGING THE DUTY 74
5.1.6 A'CASE BY CASE'APPROACH 74
5.1.7 SUMMARY OF CAPARO V DICKMAN 75
5.1.8 FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS 76
5.1.9 WRONGFUL BIRTH CASES 79
5.1.10 STATEMENTS MADE BY A THIRD PARTY 79
5.1.11 ADVISE AS OPPOSED TO INFORMATION 81
5.1.12 JUDICIAL DISCRETION 82
5.1.13 MISREPRESENTATION ACT 1967 82
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MODERN TORT LAW
5.2 ECONOMIC LOSS CAUSED BY NEGLIGENT ACTS 83
5.2.1 'PURE' ECONOMIC LOSS DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER
TYPES OF ECONOMIC LOSS 83
5.2.2 EXPANSION OF LIABILITY 84
5.2.3 THE 'HIGH-WATER' MARK 85
5.2.4 CONTRACTION OF LIABILITY 86
5.2.5 THE COURTS RECOGNISE THE ARTIFICIAL DISTINCTIONS MADE IN PREVIOUS
CASES 87
5.2.6 THE NEW LIMITS ON LIABILITY 87
5.2.7 SUMMARY 88
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 5 90
6 MISCELLANEOUS SITUATIONS 93
6.1 THE 'NO DUTY 7 CASES 93
6.1.1 LAWYERS 93
6.1.2 LEGAL PROCEEDINGS 94
6.1.3 OTHER CAUSES OF ACTION 94
6.1.4 OTHER SOURCES OF COMPENSATION 94
6.1.5 CLAIMANT IS A MEMBER OF AN INDETERMINATELY
LARGE CLASS OF PERSONS 94
6.1.6 WRONGFUL LIFE 95
6.1.7 THE POLICE 95
6.1.8 THE HUMAN RIGHTS ARGUMENTS 101
6.2 CLAIMANT CAUSED HIS OR HER OWN MISFORTUNE 101
6.3 RESCUE CASES 101
6.4 PUBLIC AUTHORITIES 102
6.4.1 HEALTH AUTHORITIES AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES 103
6.4.2 DUTY OF THE EMERGENCY SERVICES 107
6.5 ADDITIONAL SITUATIONS 109
6.6 CONCLUSION 112
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 6 113
7 BREACH OF DUTY-THE STANDARD OF CARE 115
7.1 THE 'REASONABLE MAN' TEST 115
7.2 THE CASES 116
7.2.1 REASONABLE ASSESSMENT OF RISK 116
7.2.2 UNFORESEEABLE RISK CANNOT BE ANTICIPATED 118
IMAGE 5
CONTENTS XI
7.2.3 THE UTILITY OF THE CONDUCT 118
7.2.4 THE EXPENSE OF TAKING PRECAUTIONS 119
7.2.5 LACK OF SPECIAL SKILLS 120
7.2.6 CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE AND THE STANDARD OF CARE 120
7.2.7 CHILDREN 120
7.2.8 THE SICK AND DISABLED 121
7.2.9 CARERS AND ORGANISERS 121
7.2.10 DRIVERS 123
7.2.11 EXPERTS, PROFESSIONALS AND PEOPLE WITH SPECIAL SKILLS 124
7.2.12 SOME CRITICISMS OF BOLAM 125
7.2.13 CHALLENGES TO BOLAM: THE BOLITHO TEST 125
7.2.14 ACCEPTABLE PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS 130
7.2.15 TRAINEE EXPERTS 134
7.2.16 CLINICAL NEGLIGENCE 134
7.2.17 PROFESSIONAL NEGLIGENCE CLAIMS GENERALLY 135
7.3 PROOF OF BREACH AND RES IPSA LOQUITUR 136
7.3.1 UNKNOWN CAUSE 136
7.3.2 LACK OF PROPER CARE 137
7.3.3 CONTROL BY THE DEFENDANT 137
7.4 RES IPSA LOQUITUR AND MEDICAL CASES 137
7.5 EFFECTS OF RES IPSA LOQUITUR 138
7.6 CONSUMER PROTECTION ACT 1987 138
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 7 139
8 CAUSATION AND REMOTENESS OF DAMAGE 141
8.1 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CAUSATION AND REMOTENESS OF DAMAGE 141
8.2 CAUSATION 141
8.2.1 A TYPICAL EXAMINATION PROBLEM 141
8.2.2 THE "BUT FOR' TEST 142
8.2.3 NOVUS ACTUS INTERVENIENS 143
8.2.4 THE 'DILEMMA' PRINCIPLE 143
8.2.5 THE CLAIMANT WAS NOT RESPONSIBLE FOR HIS OWN ACTS 144
8.2.6 THE FORESEEABILITY OF THE INTERVENING ACT 144
8.2.7 OMISSIONS 145
8.2.8 SEVERAL CAUSES 145
8.3 PROBLEMS IN PROVING CAUSATION 146
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MODERN TORT LAW
8.4 CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE AND CAUSATION 151
8.4.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAUSATION IN LEGAL PRACTICE 151
8.5 REMOTENESS OF DAMAGE 151
8.5.1 DIRECT CONSEQUENCES 151
8.5.2 WAS THE DIRECT CONSEQUENCES RULE FAIR? 152
8.5.3 WHAT DAMAGE MUST BE FORESEEABLE? 153
8.5.4 CONFUSION BETWEEN THE DUTY AND REMOTENESS LEVELS 155
8.5.5 THE THIN SKULL RULE 155
8.5.6 POLICY ISSUES IN REMOTENESS 156
8.5.7 APPLYING THE RULES: AN EXAMPLE 157
8.6 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE REMOTENESS RULES 157
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 8 158
9 BREACH OF STATUTORY DUTY 161
9.1 WHAT MUST BE PROVED? 162
9.1.1 THE STATUTE WAS INTENDED TO CREATE CIVIL LIABILITY 162
9.1.2 THE STATUTORY DUTY WAS OWED TO THE INDIVIDUAL CLAIMANT 164
9.1.3 THE STATUTORY DUTY WAS IMPOSED ON THE PARTICULAR DEFENDANT 166
9.1.4 THE DEFENDANT WAS IN BREACH OF THE STATUTORY DUTY 166
9.1.5 THE DAMAGE MUST BE OF A TYPE WHICH THE STATUTE CONTEMPLATED 168
9.1.6 THE INJURY MUST HAVE BEEN CAUSED BY THE DEFENDANT'S
BREACH OF STATUTORY DUTY 169
9.1.7 BREACHES OF EUROPEAN LEGISLATION 169
9.2 DEFENCES 170
9.2.1 CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE 170
9.2.2 DELEGATION 170
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 9 171
10 OCCUPIERS'LIABILITY 175
10.1 INTRODUCTION 175
10.1.1 APPLICATION OF COMMON LAW 175
10.2 LIABILITY UNDER THE OCCUPIERS' LIABILITY ACT 1957 177
10.2.1 WHAT IS MEANT BY THE WORD'OCCUPIER'? 178
10.2.2 WHAT IS MEANT BY THE WORD 'PREMISES'? 178
10.2.3 WHAT IS 'THE COMMON DUTY OF CARE'? 179
10.3 CHILDREN 179
10.3.1 THE ALLUREMENT PRINCIPLE 179
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CONTENTS XIII
10.3.2 DUTIES TO CONTRACTORS 180
10.3.3 RISKS ORDINARILY INCIDENTAL TO PARTICULAR OCCUPATIONS 180
10.4 DISCHARGE OF THE DUTY OF CARE 181
10.4.1 EXAMPLES OF WARNING NOTICES 182
10.5 EXCLUSION OF LIABILITY 183
10.5.1 BUSINESS OCCUPIERS 183
10.5.2 PRIVATE OCCUPIERS 184
10.5.3 THE OCCUPIERS' LIABILITY ACT 1984 CONCESSION TO BUSINESS
OCCUPIERS 184
10.5.4 EXCLUSIONS OF LIABILITY TO CONTRACTORS 185
10.5.5 LIABILITY OF OCCUPIERS FOR DAMAGE AND INJURY CAUSED BY
INDEPENDENT CONTRACTORS 185
10.6 DEFENCES AVAILABLE UNDER THE OCCUPIERS' LIABILITY ACT 1957 186
10.6.1 VOLENTI (CONSENT) 186
10.6.2 CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE 186
10.7 LIABILITY FOR PERSONS OTHER THAN'VISITORS' 186
10.7.1 TRESPASSERS DEFINED 187
10.7.2 THE HARSH COMMON LAW CASES 187
10.7.3 A CHANGE OF POLICY 187
10.7.4 THE DUTY OF COMMON HUMANITY 188
10.8 LIABILITY UNDER THE OCCUPIERS' LIABILITY ACT 1984 189
10.8.1 PERSONS EXERCISING A STATUTORY RIGHT OF WAY 189
10.8.2 PERSONS EXERCISING A PRIVATE RIGHT OF WAY 189
10.8.3 TRESPASSERS, BOTH CHILDREN AND ADULTS 190
10.9 THE NATURE OF THE STATUTORY DUTY 192
10.10 EXCLUDING LIABILITY UNDER THE OCCUPIERS'LIABILITY ACT 1984 193
10.11 LIABILITY OF PEOPLE OTHER THAN OCCUPIERS FOR DANGEROUS PREMISES
193
10.11.1 INDEPENDENT CONTRACTORS 193
10.11.2 LANDLORDS 194
10.11.3 BUILDERS 195
10.11.4 DEVELOPMENTS AT COMMON LAW 196
10.11.5 LIMITATIONS TO S 1 196
10.12 COUNTRYSIDE AND RIGHTS OF WAY ACT 2000 198
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 10 200
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MODERN TORT LAW
11 TORTS RELATING TO LAND 2 03
11.1 INTRODUCTION 2 03
11.2 TRESPASS TO LAND 2 03
11.2.1 OUTLINE DEFINITION 203
11.2.2 DIRECT INTERFERENCE 204
11.2.3 ENTERING UPON LAND 204
11.2.4 TRESPASS TO THE AIRSPACE 204
11.2.5 TRESPASS TO THE GROUND BENEATH THE SURFACE 205
11.2.6 TRESPASS BY ENTRY ONTO THE LAND ITSELF 205
11.2.7 TRESPASS BY REMAINING ON LAND 206
11.2.8 TRESPASS BY PLACING THINGS ON LAND 207
11.2.9 TRESPASS TO THE HIGHWAY * 207
11.2.10 IN THE POSSESSION OF THE CLAIMANT 207
11.2.11 WITHOUT LAWFUL JUSTIFICATION (DEFENCES) 208
11.2.12 TRESPASS IS ACTIONABLE PER SE 210
11.3 REMEDIES FOR TRESPASS 211
11.3.1 DAMAGES 211
11.3.2 INJUNCTIONS 211
11.3.3 A CLAIM FOR RECOVERY OF THE LAND 211
11.3.4 RE-ENTRY AND DEFENCE OF PROPERTY 211
11.3.5 AN ACTION FOR MESNE PROFITS 212
11.3.6 DISTRESS DAMAGE FEASANT 212
11.4 NUISANCE 213
11.5 STATUTORY NUISANCE 213
11.6 PUBLIC NUISANCE 213
11.6.1 OUTLINE DEFINITION 213
11.6.2 MATERIALITY 214
11.6.3 REASONABLE COMFORT AND CONVENIENCE 214
11.6.4 A CLASS OF HER MAJESTY'S SUBJECTS 215
11.7 HIGHWAY NUISANCE 215
11.7.1 UNREASONABLE USE AND OBSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHWAY 215
11.7.2 THREATS TO THE HIGHWAY FROM ADJOINING PREMISES 216
11.7.3 DEFENCES TO PUBLIC NUISANCE 217
IMAGE 9
CONTENTS XV
11.8 REMEDIES FOR PUBLIC NUISANCE 218
11.8.1 DAMAGES 218
11.8.2 INJUNCTIONS 218
11.9 THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE NUISANCE 219
11.10 PRIVATE NUISANCE 219
11.10.1 OUTLINE DEFINITION 219
11.10.2 CONTINUOUS INTERFERENCE 220
11.10.3 UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE 221
11.10.4 INDIRECT INTERFERENCE 226
11.10.5 INTERFERENCE WITH THE USE OR ENJOYMENT OF LAND
OR SOME RIGHT OVER OR IN CONNECTION WITH IT 226
11.10.6 WHO CAN SUE IN PRIVATE NUISANCE? 229
11.10.7 PROOF OF DAMAGE IS USUALLY NECESSARY 231
11.10.8 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRIVATE NUISANCE AND
NEGLIGENCE 231
11.10.9 WHO CAN BE SUED FOR PRIVATE NUISANCE? 233
11.11 DEFENCES TO PRIVATE NUISANCE 234
11.11.1 PRESCRIPTION 234
11.11.2 STATUTORY AUTHORITY 235
11.12 REMEDIES FOR PRIVATE NUISANCE 235
11.12.1 DAMAGES 235
11.12.2 INJUNCTION 236
11.12.3 ABATEMENT OF THE NUISANCE 236
11.12.4 PARTY WALL, ETC, ACT 1996 AND HIGH HEDGES BILL 2003 237
11.13 THE RULE IN RYLANDS V FLETCHER 237
11.13.1 FACTS OF THE CASE 238
11.13.2 THE RULE 238
11.13.3 THE PERSON WHO BRINGS ONTO HIS LAND 238
11.13.4 FOR HIS OWN PURPOSES 238
11.13.5 NON-NATURAL USER 238
11.13.6 SOMETHING LIKELY TO DO MISCHIEF 239
11.13.7 ESCAPE 239
11.13.8 WHO CAN SUE UNDER RYLANDS V FLETCHER AND FOR WHAT DAMAGE 239
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MODERN TORT LAW
11.13.9 IS PRIMA FACIE ANSWERABLE FOR ALL THE DAMAGE WHICH IS THE
NATURAL CONSEQUENCE OF THE ESCAPE
11.13.10 DEFENCES
11.13.11 WHAT WILL BECOME OF THE RULE IN RYKNDS V FLETCHER!
11.14 LIABILITY FOR FIRE
11.14.1 COMMON LAW
11.14.2 STATUTE
11.15 DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN VARIOUS TORTS TO LAND
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 11
12 LIABILITY FOR ANIMALS
12.1 COMMON LAW RELATING TO ANIMALS
12.1.1 THE COMMON LAW RULES
12.1.2 NUISANCE
12.1.3 TRESPASS
12.1.4 DEFAMATION
12.1.5 STATUTORY NUISANCES
12.2 THE ANIMALS ACT 1971
12.2.1 DANGEROUS SPECIES
12.2.2 NON-DANGEROUS SPECIES
12.2.3 DAMAGE
12.2.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARTICULAR ANIMAL
12.2.5 THE LIKELIHOOD OF THE DAMAGE BEING CAUSED OR OF ITS BEING SEVERE
12.2.6 CHARACTERISTICS KNOWN TO THAT KEEPER, ETC
12.2.7 DEFENCES
12.2.8 DAMAGE BY DOGS TO LIVESTOCK
12.3 LIVESTOCK
12.3.1 TRESPASSING LIVESTOCK
12.3.2 DEFINITION
12.3.3 DEFENCES
12.4 REMOTENESS OF DAMAGE
12.5 DAMAGES
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 12
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245
251
251
251
252
252
252
252
253
253
254
255
255
256
256
256
257
258
258
258
258
260
260
261
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CONTENTS
13 TRESPASS TO THE PERSON
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
13.10
INTRODUCTION
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CIVIL LAW AND CRIMINAL INJURIES COMPENSATION
THE CRIMINAL INJURIES COMPENSATION SCHEME
COMPENSATION ORDERS
13.4.1 AN IMPORTANT DRAWBACK
ACTIONS AGAINST THE POLICE
ASSAULT AND BATTERY
13.6.1 ASSAULT
13.6.2 BATTERY
FALSE IMPRISONMENT
13.7.1 RESTRAINT IS NECESSARY
13.7.2 RESTRAINT MUST BE 'TOTAL'
13.7.3 KNOWLEDGE OF THE RESTRAINT AT THE TIME IS NOT NECESSARY
13.7.4 EXAMPLES
DEFENCES TO ASSAULT, BATTERY AND FALSE IMPRISONMENT
13.8.1 SELF-DEFENCE
13.8.2 CONSENT
13.8.3 SPORTS
13.8.4 BRAWLS
13.8.5 REASONABLE CHASTISEMENT
13.8.6 MEDICAL TREATMENT
13.8.7 CONSENT TO THE TAKING OF BODILY SAMPLES
13.8.8 LAWFUL ARREST, DETENTION AND STOP AND SEARCH
REMEDIES
THE TORT IN WILKINSON V DOWNTON
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 13
14 EMPLOYERS'LIABILITY
14.1
14.2
PRIMARY LIABILITY
14.1.1 INDEPENDENT CONTRACTORS
14.1.2 NON-DELEGABLE DUTIES
COMMON LAW DUTIES OF EMPLOYERS TO EMPLOYEES
14.2.1 DUTY TO EMPLOY COMPETENT STAFF
14.2.2 DUTY TO PROVIDE PROPER PLANT AND EQUIPMENT
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263
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264
264
265
266
266
267
268
268
269
269
270
271
271
271
272
272
272
272
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283
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286
IMAGE 12
MODERN TORT LAW
14.2.3 DUTY TO PROVIDE A SAFE WORKPLACE 286
14.2.4 DUTY TO PROVIDE SAFE WORK SYSTEMS 287
14.2.5 DUTY TO ENSURE HEALTH AND SAFETY 290
14.3 BREACH OF STATUTORY DUTY 293
14.4 NEW STATUTORY DUTIES 294
14.5 AN OVERVIEW 294
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 14 297
15 PRODUCT LIABILITY 299
15.1 THE POSITION IN CONTRACT 299
15.1.1 DISADVANTAGES OF CONTRACT 299
15.2 CREDIT USERS 299
15.3 THE POSITION IN TORT 300
15.3.1 DISADVANTAGES OF TORT 300
15.3.2 CONTINUED RELEVANCE OF NEGLIGENCE 302
15.4 CONSUMER PROTECTION ACT 1987 302
15.4.1 WHO IS LIABLE? 302
15.4.2 JOINT AND SEVERAL LIABILITY 303
15.4.3 DEFINITION OF A PRODUCT 303
15.4.4 DEFINITION OF A DEFECT 304
15.4.5 WARNINGS, LABELLING AND GET-UP 305
15.4.6 TIMING 305
15.4.7 THE TYPE OF DAMAGE TO WHICH STRICT LIABILITY APPLIES 306
15.4.8 LIMITATIONS 307
15.4.9 DEFENCES UNDER THE CONSUMER PROTECTION ACT 1987 (S 4) 307
15.5 WHAT DIFFERENCE DOES THE CONSUMER PROTECTION ACT 1987 REALLY MAKE?
309
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 15 312
16 VICARIOUS LIABILITY 315
16.1 VICARIOUS LIABILITY 315
16.2 EMPLOYEES OR INDEPENDENT CONTRACTORS? 316
16.3 THE NATURE OF THE EMPLOYMENT TEST 316
16.4 THE CONTROL TEST 317
16.4.1 PROFESSIONAL PEOPLE'S PERCEPTIONS AND THE CONTROL TEST 317
16.4.2 SKILLED WORKERS' PERCEPTIONS AND THE CONTROL TEST 318
IMAGE 13
CONTENTS XIX
16.5 THE 'INTEGRAL PART OF THE BUSINESS' TEST 319
16.5.1 WHO OWNS THE TOOLS? 320
16.5.2 IS THE WORKER PAID A WAGE OR A LUMP SUM FOR THE JOB? 320
16.5.3 WAS THE WORKER IN BUSINESS ON HIS OWN ACCOUNT? 320
16.5.4 WHO HAD THE POWER TO HIRE AND FIRE THE EMPLOYEE? 320
16.6 SOME MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS 320
16.6.1 EMPLOYEES ON LOAN 320
16.6.2 CARS ON LOAN 321
16.7 THE COURSE OF EMPLOYMENT 322
16.7.1 AUTHORISED AND UNAUTHORISED ACTS 322
16.7.2 WRONGFUL MODES OF DOING AUTHORISED ACTS 322
16.8 THE LISTER V ROMFORD ICE PRINCIPLE 324
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 16 325
17 TRESPASS TO GOODS 327
17.1 THE COMMON LAW 327
17.1.1 TRESPASS TO GOODS 327
17.1.2 CONVERSION 327
17.1.3 ACTION FOR DAMAGE TO REVERSIONARY INTERESTS IN GOODS 329
17.1.4 TORTS (INTERFERENCE WITH GOODS) ACT 1977 329
17.1.5 REMEDIES FOR CONVERSION 330
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 17 331
18 DEFAMATION AND OTHER TORTS AFFECTING THE REPUTATION 333
18.1 FREEDOM OF SPEECH, THE MEDIA AND THE LAW 333
18.2 LIBEL AND SLANDER 335
18.2.1 DISTINCTION 336
18.3 WHO CAN SUE FOR DEFAMATION? 337
18.4 A WORKING DEFINITION OF DEFAMATION 337
18.4.1 PUBLICATION 338
18.4.2 EXAMPLES OF PUBLICATION 338
18.4.3 STATEMENTS WHICH WERE NOT 'PUBLISHED' 339
18.4.4 A DEFAMATORY STATEMENT 339
18.4.5 WHO DECIDES? 341
18.4.6 INNUENDO 341
IMAGE 14
MODERN TORT LAW
18.4.7 REFERRING TO THE CLAIMANT 342
18.4.8 MALICE 3 43
18.5 WITHOUT LAWFUL JUSTIFICATION' - DEFENCES 343
18.5.1 INNOCENT DISSEMINATION 343
18.5.2 VOLENTI (CONSENT) 344
18.5.3 ACCORD AND SATISFACTION 345
18.5.4 APOLOGY AND PAYMENT INTO COURT 345
18.5.5 APOLOGY AND MITIGATION 345
18.5.6 OFFER OF AMENDS PROCEDURE UNDER S 3 OF THE DEFAMATION ACT 1996,
EMBODIED IN CPR PT 53 345
18.5.7 UNQUALIFIED OFFER OF AMENDS UNDER S 2 OF THE DEFAMATION ACT 1996
346
18.5.8 JUSTIFICATION OR TRUTH 346
18.5.9 UNINTENTIONAL DEFAMATION 348
18.5.10 ABSOLUTE PRIVILEGE 349
18.5.11 QUALIFIED PRIVILEGE 351
18.5.12 FAIR COMMENT ON A MATTER OF PUBLIC INTEREST 355
18.5.13 LIMITATION PERIOD 356
18.6 REMEDIES FOR DEFAMATION 357
18.6.1 INJUNCTIONS 357
18.6.2 DAMAGES 357
18.7 A NEW APPROACH RELYING ON ART 10 OF THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON
HUMAN RIGHTS 359
18.8 PROPOSALS TO REFORM THE LAW OF DEFAMATION 361
18.8.1 THE FAULKS COMMITTEE'S PROPOSALS 361
18.8.2 THE LORD CHANCELLOR'S PROPOSALS 362
18.8.3 DEFAMATION ACT 1996 362
18.9 MALICIOUS FALSEHOOD 363
18.10 MALICIOUS PROSECUTION 364
18.10.1 A PROSECUTION 364
18.10.2 WITHOUT REASONABLE AND PROBABLE CAUSE 365
18.10.3 INITIATED BY MALICE 365
18.10.4 THE CASE MUST BE RESOLVED IN THE CLAIMANT'S FAVOUR 366
18.10.5 DAMAGE 366
18.11 MALICIOUS ABUSE OF PROCESS 366
18.12 A WIDER PROTECTION FOR PRIVACY? 366
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 18 368
IMAGE 15
CONTENTS XXI
19 REMEDIES IN TORT 371
19.1 DAMAGES 371
19.1.1 HOW ACCURATE IS TORT COMPENSATION? 371
19.1.2 HOW FAIR IS TORT COMPENSATION? 372
19.1.3 HOW EFFICIENT IS TORT COMPENSATION? 373
19.2 TYPES OF DAMAGES 375
19.2.1 NOMINAL DAMAGES 375
19.2.2 COMPENSATORY DAMAGES 375
19.2.3 CONTEMPTUOUS DAMAGES 375
19.2.4 AGGRAVATED DAMAGES 375
19.2.5 PUNITIVE OR EXEMPLARY DAMAGES 376
19.3 CALCULATION OF SPECIAL DAMAGES 377
19.3.1 REASONABLE EXPENSES TO THE DATE OF THE TRIAL 378
19.3.2 EXPENSES TO COVER SPECIAL FACILITIES 380
19.4 CALCULATION OF GENERAL DAMAGES 380
19.5 PECUNIARY LOSSES 380
19.5.1 LOSS OF FUTURE EARNINGS AND INITIAL CARE 380
19.5.2 INCOME TAX 383
19.5.3 THE LOST YEARS 384
19.5.4 LOSS OF FUTURE EARNINGS AND VERY YOUNG CLAIMANTS 384
19.5.5 DEDUCTIONS 385
19.5.6 DEDUCTIONS FROM THE MULTIPLIER 387
19.5.7 OTHER FUTURE LOSSES 387
19.6 NON-PECUNIARY LOSSES 393
19.6.1 PAIN AND SUFFERING 393
19.6.2 LOSS OF AMENITY 394
19.6.3 LEVELS OF GENERAL DAMAGES 394
19.6.4 DAMAGES FOR THE INJURY ITSELF 395
19.6.5 DAMAGES FOR BEREAVEMENT 396
19.6.6 INTERFERENCE WITH CONSORTIUM 396
19.7 DAMAGES PAYABLE ON DEATH 397
19.7.1 SURVIVAL OF EXISTING CAUSES OF ACTION 397
19.7.2 DEATH AS A CAUSE OF ACTION: LOSS OF DEPENDENCY 398
19.7.3 WHO ARE THE DEPENDANTS? 399
19.7.4 ADJUSTING THE MULTIPLIER 400
IMAGE 16
MODERN TORT LAW
19.7.5 FINANCIAL DEPENDENCY 400
19.7.6 NON-FINANCIAL DEPENDENCY 401
19.7.7 THE LAW COMMISSION REPORTS 402
19.8 INTEREST ON DAMAGES 402
19.9 NEW METHODS OF PAYING DAMAGES IN PERSONAL INJURY CASES 403
19.9.1 SPLIT TRIALS AND INTERIM DAMAGES 404
19.9.2 PROVISIONAL DAMAGES 404
19.9.3 STRUCTURED SETTLEMENTS 405
19.10 PROPERTY DAMAGE 406
19.11 ECONOMIC LOSS 406
19.12 INJUNCTIONS 407
19.13 OTHER REMEDIES IN TORT 408
19.14 JOINT AND SEVERAL TORTFEASORS 408
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 19 409
20 DEFENCES 413
20.1 CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE 413
20.1.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAW 413
20.1.2 THE LAST OPPORTUNITY RULE 413
20.1.3 LAW REFORM (CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE) ACT 1945 414
20.1.4 THE STANDARD OF CARE IN CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE 414
20.1.5 CAUSATION IN CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE 415
20.1.6 DRUNK DRIVERS 416
20.1.7 WHO BENEFITS FROM THE RULE? 417
20.2 VOLENTI NON FIT INJURIA (CONSENT) 418
20.2.1 DANGEROUS JOBS 419
20.2.2 DANGEROUS SPORTS 420
20.2.3 DRUNK DRIVERS 420
20.2.4 RESCUERS 420
20.3 CONSENT IN THE MEDICAL CONTEXT 421
20.3.1 TRESPASS TO THE PERSON 421
20.3.2 NEGLIGENCE 424
20.3.3 INFORMED CONSENT 424
20.4 EXCLUSION CLAUSES AND CONSENT 424
20.5 EX TURPI CAUSA NON ORITUR ACTIO (ILLEGALITY) 425
IMAGE 17
CONTENTS
20.6 INEVITABLE ACCIDENT
20.7 MISTAKE
20.8 NECESSITY
20.9 SELF-DEFENCE AND DEFENCE OF PROPERTY
20.10 LIMITATION OF ACTIONS
20.10.1 LIMITATION PERIOD IN TORT
20.10.2 LIMITATION PERIOD IN DEFAMATION
20.10.3 LIMITATION PERIOD IN PERSONAL INJURIES CASES
20.10.4 LATENT DAMAGE
20.10.5 CONSUMER PROTECTION ACT 1987
20.10.6 PERSONS UNDER A DISABILITY
20.11 ACCRUAL OF THE CAUSE OF ACTION
20.11.1 CLAIMS OUTSIDE THE LIMITATION PERIOD
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 20
21 CRITICISMS OF TORT - REFORMS
21.1 SOME CRITICISMS OF THE RULES OF TORT
21.1.1 FAULT
21.1.2 UNCERTAINTY
21.1.3 FAILURE TO MEET ITS OBJECTIVES
21.1.4 INEFFICIENCY
21.2 CRITICISMS OF THE LEGAL SYSTEM
21.3 REFORM OF TORT
21.3.1 CIVIL PROCEDURE RULES 1998
21.3.2 FUNDING OF CLAIMS
21.3.3 REFORM OF TORT LAW THROUGH THE HUMAN RIGHTS ACT 1998
21.4 THE VALUE OF TORT
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 21
FURTHER READING
INDEX
427
428
428
428
429
429
429
429
430
430
430
431
432
434
439
439
439
439
440
440
440
441
441
443
444
444
445
447
453 |
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