Fundamentals of phonetics, phonology and tonology: with specific African sound patterns
Gespeichert in:
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Frankfurt am Main [u.a.]
Lang
2008
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| Schriftenreihe: | Schriften zur Afrikanistik
15 |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | 329 S. graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 9783631577462 |
Internformat
MARC
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| 100 | 1 | |a Anyanwu, Rose-Juliet |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)118107887 |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Fundamentals of phonetics, phonology and tonology |b with specific African sound patterns |c Rose-Juliet Anyanwu |
| 264 | 1 | |a Frankfurt am Main [u.a.] |b Lang |c 2008 | |
| 300 | |a 329 S. |b graph. Darst. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
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| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 490 | 1 | |a Schriften zur Afrikanistik |v 15 | |
| 650 | 4 | |a African languages |x Phonetics | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Phonetics | |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Tonologie |0 (DE-588)4185690-9 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text | Contents
Contents 7
List of figures 15
Listoftables 17
Listofrules 19
List of examples 21
Prefece and acknowledgements 25
How to use this book (for students) 27
Note on abbreviations, Symbols and Conventions 29
1 Overview 33
1.1 About this book 33
1.2 Historical background 34
Part 1-Phonetics 37
2 Essentials ofphonetics 39
2.1 Breathing vs. speaking 39
2.2 The speech Organs 39
2.2.1 The vocal tract and its cavities 41
2.2.1.1 The nasal cavity 42
2.2.1.2 The oral cavity 42
2.2.1.3 The articulators 42
2.2.1.4 The pharyngeal cavity 44
2.2.2 Thelarynx 45
2.3 Segmentation 45
2.4 Larger units: the prosodic hierarchy 45
3 Basic vowels and consonants 47
3.1 Articulatory classifications 48
3.2 Basic acoustic classifications 49
3.3 Basic vowels 50
3.3.1 Frontness 51
3.3.2 Height 51
3.3.3 Roundness 52
3.3.4 Spectral shapes of vowels 52
3.3.5 The vowel space 52
3.3.5.1 Vowel height and frontness 53
3.3.5.2 Roundness 54
3.3.6 The cardinal vowel System 54
3.3.6.1 Modified tongue body position 56
3.3.6.2 Diphthongs 56
3.3.63 Vowel length 57
3.4 Basic consonants 58
3.4.1 Manner of articulation 58
3.4.1.1 Degree of ctosure 58
3.4.1.1.1 Approximants 59
3.4.1.1.2 Fricatives 59
3.4.1.1.3 Stops 60
3.4.1.1.4 Afiricates 60
3.4.1.2 Typeofclosure 61
3.4.1.2.1 Central 61
3.4.122 Lateral 61
3.4.1.2.3 Grooved fricative. 62
3.4.1.2.4 Trill 62
8 Fundamentals o/Phonelics, Phonology and Tonology
3.4.2 Accompaniments 63
3.4.2.1 Voicing (1) 63
3.4.2.2 Nasality 64
3.4.2.3 Summary of manners of articulation and accompaniments 64
3.4.3 Place of articulation 65
3.4.3.1 Bilabial 66
3.4.3.2 Labiodental 67
3.4.3.3 Dental 67
3.4.3.4 Alveolar 67
3.4.3.5 Post-alveolar / Alveo-palatal 67
3.4.3.6 Retroflex 67
3.4.3.7 Palatal 67
3.4.3.8 Velar 68
3.4.3.9 Uvular 68
3.4.3.10 Pharyngeal 68
3.4.3.11 Laryngeal (glottal) 68
3.5 Phonetic Symbols and terminology 68
3.5.1 Füll and abbreviated descriptions 68
3.5.2 The IPA chart - Symbols for consonants 70
4 Airstream mechanisms 73
4.1 The pulmonic airstream 74
4.2 The glottalic airstreams 74
4.2.1 The glottalic egressive airstream 74
4.2.2 The glottalic ingressive airstream 75
4.3 The velaric airstream mechanisms 77
4.3.1 The bilabial click 79
4.3.2 The dental click 79
4.3.3 The alveolar click 79
4.3.4 The palatal click 79
4.3.5 The lateral click 79
4.3.6 The retroflex click 79
5 Laryngeal settings and timing 81
5.1 States of the glottis - Voicing (II) 81
5.1.1 Normal breathing 82
5.1.2 Spontaneous voicing 82
5.1.3 Creaky voice 83
5.1.4 Spread glottis - deliberate devoicing 83
5.1.5 Breathy voice 84
5.1.6 Summary and examplesof statesof the glottis 84
5.2 Voice Onset Time (VOT) 85
6 Vowels and consonants revisited 89
6.1 Vowels 89
6.1.1 Voicelessness 89
6.1.2 Nasal vowels 90
6.1.2.1 Nasalised vowels 90
6.12.2 Context-free nasal vowels 90
6.1.3 Glottal State (creaky and breathy voice) 91
6.1.3.1 Creaky voice 91
6.1.3.2 Breathy voice 91
6.1.4 Retroflexion (rhotacisation) 92
6.1.5 Tongue Root Position 93
Contents 9
6.1.6 Pharyngealisation 93
6.2 Consonants 94
6.2.1 Double articulation 95
6.2.2 Secondary articulation 96
6.2.2.1 Oral cavity: palatalisation and labialisation 96
6.2.2.2 Labial-palatal approximant q 97
6.2.2.3 Labial-velar approximant (alias labialisation ) V 98
6.2.2.4 Pharyngeal cavity: pharyngealisation 98
6.2.2.5 Nasal cavity: pre- and postnasalisation, as well as nasal release 98
6.2.2.6 Summary ofsecondary articulations ofconsonants 99
6.2.3 Release 100
6.2.3.1 Nasal release 100
6.2.3.2 Lateral release 101
6.2.4 Combinations of consonant types 101
6.3 Broad vs. narrow transcription 101
7 Co-articulation 103
8 Prosody and suprasegmental features 105
8.1 Syllables, hiatus, and syllabic consonants 105
8.2 The suprasegmental features 107
8.2.1 Loudness and inherent sonority 107
8.2.2 Pitch 108
8.2.3 Length 108
8.2.3.1 Long vs. longer vowels 109
8.2.3.2 Geminate consonants 112
8.3 Domain size and relativity 112
8.4 Prominence and accent 114
8.4.1 Stress 115
8.4.2 Word stress (accent): primary vs. secondary stress 115
8.4.3 Phrase and sentence stress 116
9 Acoustic phonetics 117
9.1 The Signal 117
9.2 Quality 119
9.2.1 Frequency 119
9.2.2 Sinewaves 121
9.3 Fouriertransformations and spectrograms 121
Part 2 - Phonology 123
10 Essentials of phonology 125
10.1 The history and aims of phonology 125
10.2 Distinctive sounds 125
10.2.1 The invariance problem 126
10.2.2 The alternation problem 126
10.3 The place of phonology within grammar 127
10.3.1 Phonology and morphology 127
10.3.2 The lexicon 129
10.4 The altemation condition and phonological analysis. 131
11 Segmental phonology 135
11.1 Segment inventories 135
11.1.1 Vowel inventories 135
11.1.1.1 Central Systems 135
11-1.1.2 Peripheral Systems 136
11.1.2 Consonant inventories - 138
10 Fundamenlab ofPhonetics, Phonology and Tonology
11.1.2.1 Obstruents 140
11.1.2.2 Sonorants 141
11.2 The distribution of Segments (phonotactics) 141
11.2.1 Phonology / phonetic conspiracy 143
11.2.2 Consequences for foreign language learning 143
11.3 Traditional structuralist phonemics 143
11.3.1 Phonemes and their allophones 143
11.3.2 Complementary distribution vs. free Variation 145
11.3.3 Phonemic anaiysis 145
11.3.3.1 Minimal pairs and minimal sets 145
11.3.3.2 The quality of minimal pairs or sets 148
11.3.3.3 How to identify phonemes - the Substitution test 148
11.3.4 Features 150
11.3.4.1 Articulatory features 151
11.3.4.2 Acoustic features 151
11.3.4.3 Auditory features 152
11.3.4.4 Distinctive features 152
11.3.5 Markedness 153
11.3.5.1 The relevance of distinctive features 153
11.3.5.1.1 Phonetic motivation or naturalness 153
11.3.5.1.2 Apposite expression of phonological rules 154
11.3.6 Trubetzkoy s theory of distinctive oppositions 155
11.3.7 Summary 158
11.3.8 Jakobson s binary features 159
11.4 Generative Phonology: the SPE model of representations 160
11.4.1 The SPE model 160
11.4.2 The SPE and Clements Halle (1983) 160
11.4.3 The major class features 161
11.4.4 Prosodic features 162
11.4.4.1 Long-Short [tlong] 162
11.4.4.2 Stress [tstress] 163
11.4.4.3 Pitch 164
11.4.5 Segment structure redundancy and symmetry 164
11.5 Distributions vs. processes 169
11.5.1 Overlapping distribution (free Variation) 170
11.5.2 Contrastive distribution 170
11.5.3 Complementary distribution 170
11.6 Formulating and stating phonological rules 170
11.7 Rules vs. processes 173
11.7.1 Phonological rules 173
11.7.2 Rule application 173
11.7.3 Rule ordering 174
11.7.4 Bleeding 174
11.8 Natural classes 174
11.9 Processes 175
11.9.1 Assimilation 175
11.9.1.1 Progressive (left-to-right: - ) 176
11.9.1.2 Regressive (right-to-left: •«-) 176
11.9.1.3 Reciprocal assimilation / coalescence 177
11.9.1.4 Complete (total) assimilation 178
11.9.1.5 Partial assimilation 178
Contents 11
11.9.2 Dissimilation 17g
11.9.3 Metathesis 179
11.9.4 Spoonerism 180
11.9.5 Nasalisation 180
11.9.6 Nasal clusters and sequences 180
11.9.6.1 Homorganic nasal 181
11.9.6.2 Prenasalisation 181
11.9.7 Syllabic nasals 182
11.9.8 Heterorganic nasal 184
11.9.9 Postnasalisation 185
11.9.10 Lenition...! 185
11.9.11 Spirantisation 185
11.9.12 Fortition or strengthening 185
11.9.13 Verhärtung 185
11.9.14 Palatalisation 185
11.9.15 Labialisation / labial-velarisation 186
11.9.16 Simplification 187
11.9.17 Deletion 187
11.9.18 Elision 187
11.9.18.1 Aphaeresis 188
11.9.18.2 Syncope 188
11.9.18.3 Apocope 189
11.9.19 Contraction 189
11.9.20 Fusion - Vowel coalescence 190
12 Higher phonological structure: an ontology 191
12.1 Syllables 191
12.1.1 Length 194
12.1.2 The non-existence of length in phonology 194
12.1.3 Contour segments 195
12.1.3.1 Affricates 195
12.1.4 Diphthongs 195
12.2 Feet 196
12.3 Phonological words 196
12.4 Prosodic Systems 196
12.4.1 Stress 197
12.4.1.1 Prominence 197
12.4.12 Word stress (accent) 197
12.4.1.2.1 Lexical vs. predictable stress placement 197
12.4.122 The position of Word stress 198
12.4.1.3 Phrasal stress (phrase and sentence stress) 199
12.4.1.4 Phonological phrasing 199
12.4.2 Pitch 200
12.4.3 Tonal languages 200
12.4.3.1 Tone languages 200
12.4.3.2 Pitch-accent languages 201
12.4.3.3 Japanese piteh-accent 201
12.4.3.4 Accent rutes in Standard Japanese (SJ) 201
12.4.4 Intonation 202
12.4.5 The interaction of prosodic Systems 203
13 Individual phonological theories 205
13.1 Autosegmental Phonology ~ 205
12 Fundamentals ofPhonetics, Phonology and Tonology
13.1.1 Melody and spreading (vs. rules) 205
13.1.2 Representing tone 206
13.1.3 Autosegmental notations used in writing rules 206
13.1.4 Autosegments 207
13.1.5 Tone association 207
13.1.6 Tone-mapping 207
13.1.6.1 One-to-one tone-mapping 207
13.1.6.2 The phonological skeleton 208
13.1.6.3 One-to-many tone-mapping 208
13.1.7 The Function of the Well-formedness Condition (WFC) 210
13.1.8 The Function of the Association Convention 211
13.1.9 The roleof the No Crossing Constraint 213
13.1.10 Stability 214
13.1.11 Floating tones 215
13.1.11.1 Floating grammatical tone 216
13.1.11.2 Floating lexical tone 218
13.1.12 The Obligatory Contour Principle (OCP) 219
13.1.13 The skeleton and phonological processes 220
13.1.14 CV Phonology (Clements Keyser 1983) 220
13.1.15 Descendants of the CV-model 222
13.1.16 Metrical Phonology 222
13.1.16.1 Metrical trees and grids 223
13.1.16.2 Foot 224
13.1.16.2.1 Stress hierarchy 224
13.1.16.2.2 Foot formation 224
13.1.16.2.3 Bounded feet 224
13.1.16.2.4 Unbounded feet 225
13.1.16.3 Extrametricality 227
13.1.16.4 Quantity (or syllable weight) 227
13.1.16.5 Quantity-insensitivity 227
13.1.16.6 A heavy syllable 227
13.1.16.7 Alight syllable 228
13.1.16.8 Quantity-sensitivity 229
13.1.16.9 Stress in English 229
13.1.17 Feature Geometry 230
13.1.18 Government Phonology 230
13.1.18.1 Syllabic constituem 231
13.1.18.2 Strict locality 231
13.1.18.3 Interconstituent govemment 235
13.1.18.4 Interconstituent governing contexts 236
13.2 Optimality Theory (OT) 237
13.2.1 Principles of Optimality Theory 237
13.2.2 ComponentsofUG 237
13.2.3 Properties of Faithfulness 240
13.2.4 Gen (the Generator) and Eval (the Evaluator) 241
Part 3 - Tonology 243
14 Tonology 245
14.1 What are tones? 245
14.1.1 Tone heights and shapes 246
14.1.2 Sample tone pattems - disyllabic words 247
14.1.3 Contour tone System 248
Contents 13
14.1.4 Register tone System 249
14.2 Basic tone heights 249
14.3 Function oftone 251
14.3.1 Lexical function of tone 251
14.3.2 Grammatical function of tone 254
14.3.3 Word-level tone Systems 256
14.3.4 Restricted tone Systems 256
14.4 Pitch-accent (II) 257
14.5 Factors that can affect tones 258
14.5.1 Surrounding consonants 258
14.5.1.1 Theeflectoflaryngeals[?]and[h] 258
14.5.1.2 The influenceofvoicelessobstruents 258
14.5.1.3 The effect of breathy voiced consonants 259
14.5.1.4 The effect of prenasalised stops 259
14.5.2 The effect of vowel quality 259
14.5.3 The effect of stress and other prosodic features 259
14.6 Tone wies, tonal behaviour and changes 260
14.6.1 Natural (phonological) vs. phonetic tone rules 260
14.6.1.1 Anticipatoiy (or regressive) assimilation 260
14.6.1.2 Perseverative (or progressive) assimilation 261
14.6.1.3 Partial tone spreading 261
14.6.1.4 Complete spreading 262
14.6.1.5 Tonal simplification 262
14.6.1.6 Tone absorption 262
14.6.1.7 Contourlevelling 263
14.6.2 Morphotonemic rules 264
14.6.2.1 Tonal dissimilation 264
14.6.2.2 Tonal Polarisation 264
14.6.2.3 Tonecopying 265
14.7 Tone and intonation 266
14.7.1 More on downdrift 266
14.7.2 Oownstep 267
14.7.3 Floating tone 268
14.7.4 Oownstep and downdrift 268
14.7.5 Suspended downdrift 268
14.7.6 Upstep 269
14.7.6.1 Automatic upstep in Engenni 269
14.7.6.2 Non-automatic upstep in Engenni 270
Part 4 - Specific African sound patterns 271
15 The phonological Systems of African languagcs 273
15.1 Languages of Africa: classification 273
15.1.1 Afroasiatic 273
15.1.2 Niger-Congo 275
15.1.3 Nilo-Saharan 275
15.1.4 Khoisan 275
15.2 Problems, difficuhies, and dangers involved in classification 276
15.3 Writing Systems, transliteration, and transcription 276
15.3.1 Transcription Systems of African languages 277
15.3.1.1 Introduction 277
15.3.1.2 The Lepsius-Meinhof System 278
15.3.1.3 The 1PASystem. 278
14 Fundamentals ofPhonetics, Phonology and Tonology
15.3.1.4 The Africa Alphabet 279
15.3.1.5 Mixed Systems 279
15.4 Vowel inventories of African languages 279
15.4.1 Typology of vowel Systems of African languages 279
15.4.2 Nasal vowels 281
15.4.3 Vowel length 282
15.5 Vowel harmony in African languages 283
15.6 Specific African consonant Systems 286
15.6.1 Labial-velars (and velarised bilabials) 286
15.6.2 Implosives 287
15.6.3 Ejectives 287
15.6.4 Retroflex 288
15.6.5 Gutturals (dorsal, pharyngeal, and laryngeal sounds) 288
15.6.6 Clicks 289
15.6.6.1 Representing clicks and their accompaniments 290
15.6.6.2 Clicks and their accompaniments: sequences or clusters? 290
15.6.7 Nasal clusters 291
15.6.8 Symmetry 291
15.6.9 Nilo-Saharan 291
15.6.10 Primary and secondary articulations 292
Conclusion 293
Bibliograph^ 295
Appendix 1 - The speech organs 309
Appendix 2 - The distinctive features of Clements Halle 311
Appendix 3 - Language classification 315
Index of terms and languages 321
List of figures
Figure 1. Speech Organs 40
Figure 2. Schematic representations of the three cavities of the vocal tract 41
Figure 3. The prosodic hierarchy 46
Figure 4. Diagrammatic representation of the overlap of individual phonetic properties 47
Figure 5. Acoustic analysis display of the English phrase What a lot 50
Figure 6. Acoustic analysis display of the vowels [i], [a] and [u] 50
Figure 7. The vowel space and the classification of vowels 52
Figure 8. Spectra of the vowels displayed in Figure 6 53
Figure 9. The primary cardinal vowels 1-8 of Daniel Jones 55
Figure 10. The continuum of voice quality (timbre) 84
Figure 11. The states of the glottis 85
Figure 12. The scale or hierarchy of inherent sonority 108
Figure 13. The English words bead and beat 111
Figure 14. Waveform display of [au] (female Speaker) 118
Figure 15. A sine [sam] wave 120
Figure 16. The T-Model 127
Figure 17. Two allophones of the English phoneme IM 144
Figure 18. A prenasalised consonant 181
Figure 19. Syllabic nasal 182
Figure 20. Heterorganic nasal - varying POAs 184
Figure 21. Traditional view of the syllable 192
Figure 22. The CV-model representation of the syllable _ 192
Figure 23. Schematic representation of an associative constniction 217
Figure 24. The Obligatory Contour Principle (OCP) 219
Figure 25. Simplification of tones 220
Figure 26. Illustrating OCP violation - Etung 220
Figure 27. The CVskeleton 221
Figure 28. Metrical tree 223
Figure 29. Metrical grid 223
Figure 30. Bounded foot: head first 225
Figure 31. Boundedfoot: head second 225
Figure 32. Unbounded tree: head final - four-syllable word 226
Figure 33. Unbounded tree: head final - two-syllable word 226
Figure 34. Heavy syllables 228
Figure 35. Light syllables 228
Figure 36. A Feature tree 231
Figure 37. Strict locality 232
Figure 38. Legible constituent structures and projections 232
Figure 39. Conflguration excluded by the more general locality condition 233
Figure 40. Diphthongs 233
Figure 41. A long vowel structure 235
Figure 42. Government between an onset and a preceding rhymal Position 236
Figure 43. Government between contiguous nuclei 236
Figure 44. Government between a rhyme and an onset 236
Figure 45. Downdrift - progressive overall Iowering of pitch or register 266
Figure 46. Terracing in tone languages 267
Figure 47. Graphic representation of DS 268
Figure 48. Declarative sentence - Hausa 269
Figure 49. Interrogative sentence with suspended dowodrift - Hausa 269
16 Fundamentals ofPhoneücs, Phonology and Tonology
Figure 50. The vocal tract and speech organs 309
Figure 51. The vocal cords in position voiced and voiceless 309
Figure 52. Acoustic analysis display of the vowels [i], [a] and [u] 310
Listoftables
Table I. The articulators in the oral cavity and example consonants 43
Table 2. The articulators in the pharyngeal cavity and example consonants 44
Table 3. The fall cardmal vowel System of Daniel Jones 55
Table 4. Vowel length 57
Table 5./r/variants 63
Table 6. Summary of basic manners of articulation and accompaniments 64
Table 7. Consonantal places of articulation and basic consonants 66
Table 8. Examplesof füll characterisations of Segments 69
Table 9. The pulmonic egressive modal consonants of the IPA chart 71
Table 10. Implosives 76
Table 11. The three principal cases of VOT 86
Table 12. Occurring double articulations 95
Table 13. Secondary articulations of consonants 99
Table 14. Short vs. long vowels and theirtenseness 110
Table 15. Prosodic properties 114
Table 16. How prominence is expressed by the suprasegmental features 114
Table 17. Three minimal sets of English 147
Table 18. Lateral and multilateral oppositions 156
Table 19. Privative oppositions: Features 157
Table 20. Presence or absence of a feature 159
Table 21. The major class features for the major segment classes 161
Table 22. Prenasalised consonants: sample 182
Table 23. Prenasalised consonants in context 182
Table 24. Fixed vs. variable stress placement 199
Table 25. Stress in English 229
Table 26. Charmed and charmless elements 234
Table 27. OT Constraint table: underlying form of hiss */his-z/ 242
Table 28. OT Constraint table 242
Table 29. Complex tone patterns: Yoruba trisyllabic words 248
Table 30. Igbo trisyllabic nouns 248
Table 31. Senufo tone patterns 257
Table 32. Tone copying in the Igbo verb 265
Table 33. African language phyla 273
Table 34. African language phyla and languages 274
Table 35. Systems oftranscription- lateral fricatives 279
Table 36. Labial-velars 286
Table 37. An overview of gutturals in Afroasiatic 288
Table 38. An overview of laryngealised consonants in Hausa 289
Table 39. Clicks 289
Table40. Namaclicks 290
Table 41. An abstract West African consonant System 291
Table 42. Murle consonants 292
Table 43. Language classification 315
List of rules
Rule 1. Voiceless grave (i.e. peripheral: bilabial and velar) plosives /p, k/ 172
Rule 2. Rule 1 re-written in terms of phonetic features 172
Rule 3. lal before [p, k] in Fe fe -Bamileke (phonological rule in terms of segments) 172
Rule 4. lal before [p, k] in Fe fe -Bamileke (rule in terms of phonetic features) 172
Rule 5. Well-formedness Condition (WFC) 210
Rule 6. Simplification 210
Rule 7. Spreading 210
Rule 8. Tone-mapping - /näa däukaa/ (Hausa): Input 211
Rule 9. Delinking - [lubdSlub] (Hausa): Output 211
Rule 10. Tone-mapping - Ini daa su7 (Ngizim): Input 211
Rule 11. Spreading (or assimilation): Output 211
Rule 12. The Association Convention (AC) 212
Rule 13. The Association Convention (revisited) 212
Rule 14. No Crossing Constraint (NCC): Association lines do not cross 214
Rule 15. Right-dominant vs. left-dominant 222
Rule 16. All syllabic constituents are maximally binary 232
Rule 17. Interconstituent government (principles) 235
Rule 18. Anticipatory (or regressive) assimilation 260
Rule 19. Perseverative (or progressive) assimilation 261
Rule 20. Partial tone spreading 261
Rule 21. Complete spreading 262
Rule 22. Tonal simplification I 263
Rule 23. Tonal simplification II 263
Rule 24. Contour levelling 263
Rule 25. Tonal Polarisation 265
List of examples
Example 1. German affticates 61
Example 2. Engiish affricates 61
Example 3. Implosives - Fula of Fuuta Jaioo 76
Example 4. Implosives - Lendu 76
Example 5. Implosives - Igbo 77
Example 6. Creaky vs. modal voice in Lango 91
Example 7. Breathy vs. modal voice in Dinka 92
Example 8. Breathy vs. modal voice in Igbo 92
Example 9. Pharyngealised vs. modal voice in Even 94
Example 10. !X6ö pharyngealised and breathy voices 94
Example 11. Labial-palatal approximant q - French 97
Example 12. Labial-palatal approximant q - Jukun-Wannu (Ajogo dialect) 97
Example 13. Labial-velar approximant w 98
Example 14. Prenasalised (non-phonemic) stops - Engiish 98
Example 15. Prenasalised consonant - Etulo 98
Example 16. Postnasalised consonant - Russian 99
Example 17. Unreleased stops with nasal releases - Yukuben-Lissa 99
Example 18. Syllabic lateral - Engiish 106
Example 19. Syllabic lateral - German 106
Example 20. Syllabic trill - Czech 106
Example 21. Syllabic trill - Serbo-Croatian 106
Example 22. Syllabic trill - Yukuben-Lissa 106
Example 23. The Engiish words lid and lit 110
Example 24. Paraphrase: teacher of American history who is Canadian 116
Example 25. Paraphrase: teacher of Canadian-American history 116
Example 26. Phonological spell-out 130
Example 27. The altemation condition 131
Example 28. The Engiish -s morpheme 132
Example 29. A central 1-vowel inventory 135
Example 30. A central 2-vowel inventory 135
Example3l.A central 3-vowel inventory 136
Example 32. A peripheral 3-vowel inventory 136
Example 33. A peripheral 4-vowel inventory 136
Example 34. A peripheral 5-vowel inventory 136
Example 35. A peripheral 7-vowel inventory 137
Example 36. Vowel Systems with length 137
Example 37. Vowel Systems with nasalisation and length 137
Example 38. Obstruents 140
Example 39. Sonorants 41
Example 40. The vowel schwa as allophone of various phonemes 144
Example 41. Pseudo minimal pair. 148
Example 42. d / V in Eflk 149
Example 43. d vs. r in Efik l49
Example 44. Distinctive features - Igbo 153
Example 45. The nasalisation of vowels I54
Example 46. Accounting for allophones in the Structuralist model 154
Example 47. Allophonic wies I54
Example 48, Privative oppositions: Phonemes 158
Example 49. Privative oppositions: Nasality 158
22 Fundamentals ofPhonelics, Phonology and Tonology
Example 50. Privative oppositions: vowels 158
Example 51. Short vs. long (geminate) consonants in Luganda 162
Example 52. Long vs. short vowels in Luganda 162
Example 53. Käsern 63
Example 54. Lexical orword stress 164
Example 55. 3-vowel system 166
Example 56. 5-vowel system 166
Example 57. 5-vowel system with phonological length distinction 166
Example 58. Igbo vowel system in terms of [ATR] / [EXP] 168
Example 59. Yukuben: Voiceless bilabial and velar plosives in word-final position 171
Example 60. Fe fe -Bamileke: /p, k/occur after [a] 172
Example 61. Underlying /n/ -» [m] 173
Example 62. Assimilation - Igbo 175
Example 63. Progressive assimilation - German 176
Example 64. Regressive assimilation - Igbo 177
Example 65. Regressive assimilation - Hausa 177
Example 66. Reciprocal assimilation - Lamang 177
Example 67. Partial (regressive) assimilation: Fula (Adamawa dialect, Nigeria) 178
Example 68. Dissimilation - Zulu 178
Example 69. Dissimilation - Berber-Tashlhiyt 179
Example 70. Dissimilation check in Berber-Tashlhiyt 179
Example 71. Metathesis - Buduma (Chadic) 179
Example 72. Spoonerism 180
Example 73. Nasalisation in Jukun-Wukari 180
Example 74. Nasalisation in English 180
Example 75. Homorganic syllabic nasals in Igbo 183
Example 76. Syllabic nasals in Jukun-Diyi 183
Example 77. Prenasalised consonants in Swahili 184
Example 79. Syllabic nasals in Swahili 184
Example 81. Palatalisation - Etulo 186
Example 82. Palatalisation - Yukuben-Lissa 186
Example 83. Labialisation / labial-velarisation - Jukun-Wannu 186
Example 84. Labialisation / labial-velarisation - Jukun-Wapä 187
Example 85. Labialisation / labial-velarisation - Etulo 187
Example 86. Simplified nasal stop in Etulo 187
Example 85. Aphaeresis in Yukuben-Lissa 188
Example 86. Aphaeresis in Igbo 188
Example 87. Syncope in Yukuben-Lissa 188
Example 88. Apocope in Etulo 189
Example 89. Elision in Urhobo 189
Example 90. Elision in German ] 89
Example 91. Contraction in Lelemi 190
Example 92. Contraction in Igbo 190
Example 93. Fusion in Swahili possessive pronoun paradigms 190
Example 94. Mono-, di-, and trisyllabic morphemes / words in Igbo 193
Example 95. Wolof vowels 194
Example 96. Short and long vowels and their measurements in Pular 195
Example 97. German affricates 195
Example 98. English affricates 195
Example 99. Swahili words (with fixed penultimate accent) 198
Example 100. Hungarian words (with fixed initial accent) 198
List ofexampks 23
Example 101. Phonological phrasing I •
Example 102. Phonological phrasing II 200
Example 103. Pitch-accent assignment and distribution in SJ 202
Example 104. Chichewa distant past verb form 203
Example 105. Nkhotakota Chichewa phrase-final tonal retraction 203
Example 106. Xhosa L-toned verbs in the present 204
Example 107. One-to-one tone-mapping - Igbo 207
Example 108. One-to-one tone-mapping - Chumburung 207
Example 109. One-to-many tone-mapping - Chumburung 208
Example 110. Tone mapping involving three tones and two TBUs - Mende 209
Example 111. Tone mapping involving two tones and three TBUs - Kukuya (or Teke) 209
Example 112. Hausa 2 J
Example 113. Ngizim 21!
Example 114. The application of the Association Convention -Tharaka 212
Example 115. The application of the Association Convention - Kikuyu 213
Example 116. Association lines do not cross -Chumburung 214
Example 117. Vowel deletion - Margi 2 4
Example 118. Stability - Margi 2 5
Example 119. Floating tones in Ekpheli 21°
Example 120. The associative construction in Etsako 216
Example 121. Floating lexical tone in Mbam-Nkam 2 •
Example 122. Construction with bä genitive marker plus L. 2 s
Example 123. Construction with W genitive marker minus I, 219
Example 124. Representing vowel length in the CV-model 222
Example 125. English phrases with similar stress patterns as lexical words 230
Example 126. Yukuben-Lissa structures resulting probably from 234
Example 127. Prenasalised homorganic stops in Etulo 234
Example 128. Postnasalised stops: Yukuben-Lissa ¦P5
Example 129. Prince Smolensky - P S (1993) 2™
Example 130. McCarthy and Prince-M P( 1995) f»U
Example Bl.Contiguity _
Example 132. Disyllabic tone patterns: Yoruba. f*
Example 133. Yoruba questionable tone pattem j*
Example 134. Disyllabic tone patterns: Hausa -*
Example 135. Hausa (contd.) ,*
Example 136. (Central) Igbo disyllabic basic tone patterns **
Example 137. Contour tone pattern in Standard Chinese-Peking «•
Example 138. Tone mapping in Mende
Example 139. Lexical function of tone in Igbo ~2
Example 140. Lexical function of tone in Igala
Example 141. Lexical function oftone in Etulo
Example 142. Lexical function oftone in Hausa
Example 143. Lexical function oftone in Buduma
Example 144. Lexical function oftone in Kanuri
Example 145. Lexical function oftone in Kunama-Marda f*
Example 146. Lexical function oftone in Efik
Example 147. Khoekhoe: summary of notational Systems ^
Example 148. Khoekhoe tone patterns 254
Example 149. !Xoö tone patterns 254
Example 150. Grammatical function oftone in Etulo
Example 151. Grammatical function oftone in Akan
24 Fundamentals ofPhonelics, Phonology and Tonology
Example 152. Grammatical function of tone in Fante 254
Example 153. Grammatical function of tone in Degema 254
Example 154. Grammatical function of tone in Igbo 255
Example 155. Grammatical function oftone in Igbo (contd.) 255
Example 156. Grammatical function oftone in Kanuri 255
Example 157. Grammatical function oftone in Central Jukun 255
Example 15g. Grammatical function oftone in Efik 256
Example 159. Anticipatory (regressive) assirnilation - Mbui 260
Example 160. High pitch-lowering - Gwari 261
Example 161. Partial tone spreading in Nupe 261
Example 162. Complete spreading in Ngizim 262
Example 163.Tonal simplification in Mende 1 263
Example 164. Tonal simplification in Mende II 263
Example 165. Contour levelling in Hausa 263
Example 166. Contour levelling in Kikuyu 264
Example 167. Tonal dissimilation 264
Example 168. Tonal Polarisation in Hausa 265
Example 169. Tonal Polarisation in the Igbo verb 265
Example 170. Tone copying in Mende 266
Example 17I.Non-automatic DS inTwi 267
Example 172. H-tone upstepped before a L-tone 269
Example 175. H tone upstepped before the L-tone of an eüded TBU 270
Example 174. Non-automatic upstep in the assoziative construction 270
Example 175. Non-automatic upstep in a serial verb construction 270
Example 176. Non-automatic upstep in the subjunctive affirmative 270
Example 177. The commonest African vowel System types 280
Example 178. Reconstructed Proto-Bantu seven-vowel System 280
Example 179. A symmetrical ten-vowel System of Dan-Gio 280
Example 180. Three-vowel System of Classical Arabic and Semitic 281
Example 181. Four-vowel System of Berber and African Arabic 281
Example 182. Two-vowel System of Mandara 281
Example 183. Igbo VH-vowel sets 283
Example 184. Harmony between a nominal root and a prefix - Igbo 283
Example 185. Harmony between subject pronoun (SP) and verb root vowel - Igbo 284
Example 186. Harmony between SPand vowel 284
Example 187. Vowel distribution in Akan-Fante VH 284
Example 188. Vowel harmony in Akan-Fante 284
Example 189. Southern Luo (Kenya) 285
Example 190. The Fante VH and the vowel /a/ 285
Example 191. Vowel harmony in Southern Luo 285
Example 192. Tangale VH 1 285
Example 193. Tangale VH II 286
Example 194. Some consonant types common in Africa 286
Example 195. The nasal labial-velar rjrn- Etulo 287
Example 1%. The nasal labial-velar qrä - Oroko 287
Example 197. Retroflex consonants - Ewe 288
Example 198. Retroflex consonants - Herero 288
Example 199. Retroflex consonants -Kreish 288
|
| adam_txt |
Contents
Contents 7
List of figures 15
Listoftables 17
Listofrules 19
List of examples 21
Prefece and acknowledgements 25
How to use this book (for students) 27
Note on abbreviations, Symbols and Conventions 29
1 Overview 33
1.1 About this book 33
1.2 Historical background 34
Part 1-Phonetics 37
2 Essentials ofphonetics 39
2.1 Breathing vs. speaking 39
2.2 The speech Organs 39
2.2.1 The vocal tract and its cavities 41
2.2.1.1 The nasal cavity 42
2.2.1.2 The oral cavity 42
2.2.1.3 The articulators 42
2.2.1.4 The pharyngeal cavity 44
2.2.2 Thelarynx 45
2.3 Segmentation 45
2.4 Larger units: the prosodic hierarchy 45
3 Basic vowels and consonants 47
3.1 Articulatory classifications 48
3.2 Basic acoustic classifications 49
3.3 Basic vowels 50
3.3.1 Frontness 51
3.3.2 Height 51
3.3.3 Roundness 52
3.3.4 Spectral shapes of vowels 52
3.3.5 The vowel space 52
3.3.5.1 Vowel height and frontness 53
3.3.5.2 Roundness 54
3.3.6 The cardinal vowel System 54
3.3.6.1 Modified tongue body position 56
3.3.6.2 Diphthongs 56
3.3.63 Vowel length 57
3.4 Basic consonants 58
3.4.1 Manner of articulation 58
3.4.1.1 Degree of ctosure 58
3.4.1.1.1 Approximants 59
3.4.1.1.2 Fricatives 59
3.4.1.1.3 Stops 60
3.4.1.1.4 Afiricates 60
3.4.1.2 Typeofclosure 61
3.4.1.2.1 Central 61
3.4.122 Lateral 61
3.4.1.2.3 Grooved fricative. 62
3.4.1.2.4 Trill 62
8 Fundamentals o/Phonelics, Phonology and Tonology
3.4.2 Accompaniments 63
3.4.2.1 Voicing (1) 63
3.4.2.2 Nasality 64
3.4.2.3 Summary of manners of articulation and accompaniments 64
3.4.3 Place of articulation 65
3.4.3.1 Bilabial 66
3.4.3.2 Labiodental 67
3.4.3.3 Dental 67
3.4.3.4 Alveolar 67
3.4.3.5 Post-alveolar / Alveo-palatal 67
3.4.3.6 Retroflex 67
3.4.3.7 Palatal 67
3.4.3.8 Velar 68
3.4.3.9 Uvular 68
3.4.3.10 Pharyngeal 68
3.4.3.11 Laryngeal (glottal) 68
3.5 Phonetic Symbols and terminology 68
3.5.1 Füll and abbreviated descriptions 68
3.5.2 The IPA chart - Symbols for consonants 70
4 Airstream mechanisms 73
4.1 The pulmonic airstream 74
4.2 The glottalic airstreams 74
4.2.1 The glottalic egressive airstream 74
4.2.2 The glottalic ingressive airstream 75
4.3 The velaric airstream mechanisms 77
4.3.1 The bilabial click 79
4.3.2 The dental click 79
4.3.3 The alveolar click 79
4.3.4 The palatal click 79
4.3.5 The lateral click 79
4.3.6 The retroflex click 79
5 Laryngeal settings and timing 81
5.1 States of the glottis - Voicing (II) 81
5.1.1 Normal breathing 82
5.1.2 Spontaneous voicing 82
5.1.3 Creaky voice 83
5.1.4 Spread glottis - deliberate devoicing 83
5.1.5 Breathy voice 84
5.1.6 Summary and examplesof statesof the glottis 84
5.2 Voice Onset Time (VOT) 85
6 Vowels and consonants revisited 89
6.1 Vowels 89
6.1.1 Voicelessness 89
6.1.2 Nasal vowels 90
6.1.2.1 Nasalised vowels 90
6.12.2 Context-free nasal vowels 90
6.1.3 Glottal State (creaky and breathy voice) 91
6.1.3.1 Creaky voice 91
6.1.3.2 Breathy voice 91
6.1.4 Retroflexion (rhotacisation) 92
6.1.5 Tongue Root Position 93
Contents 9
6.1.6 Pharyngealisation 93
6.2 Consonants 94
6.2.1 Double articulation 95
6.2.2 Secondary articulation 96
6.2.2.1 Oral cavity: palatalisation and labialisation 96
6.2.2.2 Labial-palatal approximant "q" 97
6.2.2.3 Labial-velar approximant (alias "labialisation") V 98
6.2.2.4 Pharyngeal cavity: pharyngealisation 98
6.2.2.5 Nasal cavity: pre- and postnasalisation, as well as nasal release 98
6.2.2.6 Summary ofsecondary articulations ofconsonants 99
6.2.3 Release 100
6.2.3.1 Nasal release 100
6.2.3.2 Lateral release 101
6.2.4 Combinations of consonant types 101
6.3 Broad vs. narrow transcription 101
7 Co-articulation 103
8 Prosody and suprasegmental features 105
8.1 Syllables, hiatus, and syllabic consonants 105
8.2 The suprasegmental features 107
8.2.1 Loudness and inherent sonority 107
8.2.2 Pitch 108
8.2.3 Length 108
8.2.3.1 Long vs. longer vowels 109
8.2.3.2 Geminate consonants 112
8.3 Domain size and relativity 112
8.4 Prominence and accent 114
8.4.1 Stress 115
8.4.2 Word stress (accent): primary vs. secondary stress 115
8.4.3 Phrase and sentence stress 116
9 Acoustic phonetics 117
9.1 The Signal 117
9.2 "Quality" 119
9.2.1 Frequency 119
9.2.2 Sinewaves 121
9.3 Fouriertransformations and spectrograms 121
Part 2 - Phonology 123
10 Essentials of phonology 125
10.1 The history and aims of phonology 125
10.2 Distinctive sounds 125
10.2.1 The invariance problem 126
10.2.2 The alternation problem 126
10.3 The place of phonology within grammar 127
10.3.1 Phonology and morphology 127
10.3.2 The lexicon 129
10.4 The altemation condition and phonological analysis. 131
11 Segmental phonology 135
11.1 Segment inventories 135
11.1.1 Vowel inventories 135
11.1.1.1 Central Systems 135
11-1.1.2 Peripheral Systems 136
11.1.2 Consonant inventories - 138
10 Fundamenlab ofPhonetics, Phonology and Tonology
11.1.2.1 Obstruents 140
11.1.2.2 Sonorants 141
11.2 The distribution of Segments (phonotactics) 141
11.2.1 Phonology / phonetic conspiracy 143
11.2.2 Consequences for foreign language learning 143
11.3 Traditional structuralist phonemics 143
11.3.1 Phonemes and their allophones 143
11.3.2 Complementary distribution vs. free Variation 145
11.3.3 Phonemic anaiysis 145
11.3.3.1 Minimal pairs and minimal sets 145
11.3.3.2 The quality of minimal pairs or sets 148
11.3.3.3 How to identify phonemes - the Substitution test 148
11.3.4 Features 150
11.3.4.1 Articulatory features 151
11.3.4.2 Acoustic features 151
11.3.4.3 Auditory features 152
11.3.4.4 Distinctive features 152
11.3.5 Markedness 153
11.3.5.1 The relevance of distinctive features 153
11.3.5.1.1 Phonetic motivation or "naturalness" 153
11.3.5.1.2 Apposite expression of phonological rules 154
11.3.6 Trubetzkoy's theory of distinctive oppositions 155
11.3.7 Summary 158
11.3.8 Jakobson's binary features 159
11.4 Generative Phonology: the SPE model of representations 160
11.4.1 The SPE model 160
11.4.2 The SPE and Clements Halle (1983) 160
11.4.3 The major class features 161
11.4.4 Prosodic features 162
11.4.4.1 Long-Short [tlong] 162
11.4.4.2 Stress [tstress] 163
11.4.4.3 Pitch 164
11.4.5 Segment structure redundancy and symmetry 164
11.5 Distributions vs. processes 169
11.5.1 Overlapping distribution (free Variation) 170
11.5.2 Contrastive distribution 170
11.5.3 Complementary distribution 170
11.6 Formulating and stating phonological rules 170
11.7 Rules vs. processes 173
11.7.1 Phonological rules 173
11.7.2 Rule application 173
11.7.3 Rule ordering 174
11.7.4 Bleeding 174
11.8 Natural classes 174
11.9 Processes 175
11.9.1 Assimilation 175
11.9.1.1 Progressive (left-to-right: - ) 176
11.9.1.2 Regressive (right-to-left: •«-) 176
11.9.1.3 Reciprocal assimilation / coalescence 177
11.9.1.4 Complete (total) assimilation 178
11.9.1.5 Partial assimilation 178
Contents 11
11.9.2 Dissimilation 17g
11.9.3 Metathesis 179
11.9.4 Spoonerism 180
11.9.5 Nasalisation 180
11.9.6 Nasal clusters and sequences 180
11.9.6.1 Homorganic nasal 181
11.9.6.2 Prenasalisation 181
11.9.7 Syllabic nasals 182
11.9.8 Heterorganic nasal 184
11.9.9 Postnasalisation 185
11.9.10 Lenition.! 185
11.9.11 Spirantisation 185
11.9.12 Fortition or strengthening 185
11.9.13 "Verhärtung" 185
11.9.14 Palatalisation 185
11.9.15 Labialisation / labial-velarisation 186
11.9.16 Simplification 187
11.9.17 Deletion 187
11.9.18 Elision 187
11.9.18.1 Aphaeresis 188
11.9.18.2 Syncope 188
11.9.18.3 Apocope 189
11.9.19 Contraction 189
11.9.20 Fusion - Vowel coalescence 190
12 Higher phonological structure: an ontology 191
12.1 Syllables 191
12.1.1 Length 194
12.1.2 The non-existence of length in phonology 194
12.1.3 Contour segments 195
12.1.3.1 Affricates 195
12.1.4 Diphthongs 195
12.2 Feet 196
12.3 Phonological words 196
12.4 Prosodic Systems 196
12.4.1 Stress 197
12.4.1.1 Prominence 197
12.4.12 Word stress (accent) 197
12.4.1.2.1 Lexical vs. predictable stress placement 197
12.4.122 The position of Word stress 198
12.4.1.3 Phrasal stress (phrase and sentence stress) 199
12.4.1.4 Phonological phrasing 199
12.4.2 Pitch 200
12.4.3 Tonal languages 200
12.4.3.1 Tone languages 200
12.4.3.2 Pitch-accent languages 201
12.4.3.3 Japanese piteh-accent 201
12.4.3.4 Accent rutes in Standard Japanese (SJ) 201
12.4.4 Intonation 202
12.4.5 The interaction of prosodic Systems 203
13 Individual phonological theories 205
13.1 Autosegmental Phonology ~ 205
12 Fundamentals ofPhonetics, Phonology and Tonology
13.1.1 Melody and spreading (vs. rules) 205
13.1.2 Representing tone 206
13.1.3 Autosegmental notations used in writing rules 206
13.1.4 Autosegments 207
13.1.5 Tone association 207
13.1.6 Tone-mapping 207
13.1.6.1 One-to-one tone-mapping 207
13.1.6.2 The phonological skeleton 208
13.1.6.3 One-to-many tone-mapping 208
13.1.7 The Function of the Well-formedness Condition (WFC) 210
13.1.8 The Function of the Association Convention 211
13.1.9 The roleof the No Crossing Constraint 213
13.1.10 Stability 214
13.1.11 Floating tones 215
13.1.11.1 Floating grammatical tone 216
13.1.11.2 Floating lexical tone 218
13.1.12 The Obligatory Contour Principle (OCP) 219
13.1.13 The skeleton and phonological processes 220
13.1.14 CV Phonology (Clements Keyser 1983) 220
13.1.15 Descendants of the CV-model 222
13.1.16 Metrical Phonology 222
13.1.16.1 Metrical trees and grids 223
13.1.16.2 Foot 224
13.1.16.2.1 Stress hierarchy 224
13.1.16.2.2 Foot formation 224
13.1.16.2.3 Bounded feet 224
13.1.16.2.4 Unbounded feet 225
13.1.16.3 Extrametricality 227
13.1.16.4 Quantity (or syllable weight) 227
13.1.16.5 Quantity-insensitivity 227
13.1.16.6 A heavy syllable 227
13.1.16.7 Alight syllable 228
13.1.16.8 Quantity-sensitivity 229
13.1.16.9 Stress in English 229
13.1.17 Feature Geometry 230
13.1.18 Government Phonology 230
13.1.18.1 Syllabic constituem 231
13.1.18.2 Strict locality 231
13.1.18.3 Interconstituent govemment 235
13.1.18.4 Interconstituent governing contexts 236
13.2 Optimality Theory (OT) 237
13.2.1 Principles of Optimality Theory 237
13.2.2 ComponentsofUG 237
13.2.3 Properties of Faithfulness 240
13.2.4 Gen (the Generator) and Eval (the Evaluator) 241
Part 3 - Tonology 243
14 Tonology 245
14.1 What are tones? 245
14.1.1 Tone heights and shapes 246
14.1.2 Sample tone pattems - disyllabic words 247
14.1.3 Contour tone System 248
Contents 13
14.1.4 Register tone System 249
14.2 Basic tone heights 249
14.3 Function oftone 251
14.3.1 Lexical function of tone 251
14.3.2 Grammatical function of tone 254
14.3.3 Word-level tone Systems 256
14.3.4 Restricted tone Systems 256
14.4 Pitch-accent (II) 257
14.5 Factors that can affect tones 258
14.5.1 Surrounding consonants 258
14.5.1.1 Theeflectoflaryngeals[?]and[h] 258
14.5.1.2 The influenceofvoicelessobstruents 258
14.5.1.3 The effect of breathy voiced consonants 259
14.5.1.4 The effect of prenasalised stops 259
14.5.2 The effect of vowel quality 259
14.5.3 The effect of stress and other prosodic features 259
14.6 Tone wies, tonal behaviour and changes 260
14.6.1 "Natural" (phonological) vs. phonetic tone rules 260
14.6.1.1 Anticipatoiy (or regressive) assimilation 260
14.6.1.2 Perseverative (or progressive) assimilation 261
14.6.1.3 Partial tone spreading 261
14.6.1.4 Complete spreading 262
14.6.1.5 Tonal simplification 262
14.6.1.6 Tone absorption 262
14.6.1.7 Contourlevelling 263
14.6.2 Morphotonemic rules 264
14.6.2.1 Tonal dissimilation 264
14.6.2.2 Tonal Polarisation 264
14.6.2.3 Tonecopying 265
14.7 Tone and intonation 266
14.7.1 More on downdrift 266
14.7.2 Oownstep 267
14.7.3 Floating tone 268
14.7.4 Oownstep and downdrift 268
14.7.5 Suspended downdrift 268
14.7.6 Upstep 269
14.7.6.1 Automatic upstep in Engenni 269
14.7.6.2 Non-automatic upstep in Engenni 270
Part 4 - Specific African sound patterns 271
15 The phonological Systems of African languagcs 273
15.1 Languages of Africa: classification 273
15.1.1 Afroasiatic 273
15.1.2 Niger-Congo 275
15.1.3 Nilo-Saharan 275
15.1.4 Khoisan 275
15.2 Problems, difficuhies, and dangers involved in classification 276
15.3 Writing Systems, transliteration, and transcription 276
15.3.1 Transcription Systems of African languages 277
15.3.1.1 Introduction 277
15.3.1.2 The Lepsius-Meinhof System 278
15.3.1.3 The 1PASystem. 278
14 Fundamentals ofPhonetics, Phonology and Tonology
15.3.1.4 The Africa Alphabet 279
15.3.1.5 Mixed Systems 279
15.4 Vowel inventories of African languages 279
15.4.1 Typology of vowel Systems of African languages 279
15.4.2 Nasal vowels 281
15.4.3 Vowel length 282
15.5 Vowel harmony in African languages 283
15.6 Specific African consonant Systems 286
15.6.1 Labial-velars (and velarised bilabials) 286
15.6.2 Implosives 287
15.6.3 Ejectives 287
15.6.4 Retroflex 288
15.6.5 Gutturals (dorsal, pharyngeal, and laryngeal sounds) 288
15.6.6 Clicks 289
15.6.6.1 Representing clicks and their accompaniments 290
15.6.6.2 Clicks and their accompaniments: sequences or clusters? 290
15.6.7 Nasal clusters 291
15.6.8 Symmetry 291
15.6.9 Nilo-Saharan 291
15.6.10 Primary and secondary articulations 292
Conclusion 293
Bibliograph^ 295
Appendix 1 - The speech organs 309
Appendix 2 - The distinctive features of Clements Halle 311
Appendix 3 - Language classification 315
Index of terms and languages 321
List of figures
Figure 1. Speech Organs 40
Figure 2. Schematic representations of the three cavities of the vocal tract 41
Figure 3. The prosodic hierarchy 46
Figure 4. Diagrammatic representation of the overlap of individual phonetic properties 47
Figure 5. Acoustic analysis display of the English phrase "What a lot" 50
Figure 6. Acoustic analysis display of the vowels [i], [a] and [u] 50
Figure 7. The vowel space and the classification of vowels 52
Figure 8. Spectra of the vowels displayed in Figure 6 53
Figure 9. The primary cardinal vowels 1-8 of Daniel Jones 55
Figure 10. The continuum of voice quality (timbre) 84
Figure 11. The states of the glottis 85
Figure 12. The scale or hierarchy of inherent sonority 108
Figure 13. The English words "bead" and "beat" 111
Figure 14. Waveform display of [au] (female Speaker) 118
Figure 15. A sine [sam] wave 120
Figure 16. The "T-Model" 127
Figure 17. Two allophones of the English phoneme IM 144
Figure 18. A prenasalised consonant 181
Figure 19. Syllabic nasal 182
Figure 20. Heterorganic nasal - varying POAs 184
Figure 21. Traditional view of the syllable 192
Figure 22. The CV-model representation of the syllable _ 192
Figure 23. Schematic representation of an associative constniction 217
Figure 24. The Obligatory Contour Principle (OCP) 219
Figure 25. Simplification of tones 220
Figure 26. Illustrating OCP violation - Etung 220
Figure 27. The CVskeleton 221
Figure 28. Metrical tree 223
Figure 29. Metrical grid 223
Figure 30. Bounded foot: head first 225
Figure 31. Boundedfoot: head second 225
Figure 32. Unbounded tree: head final - four-syllable word 226
Figure 33. Unbounded tree: head final - two-syllable word 226
Figure 34. Heavy syllables 228
Figure 35. Light syllables 228
Figure 36. A Feature tree 231
Figure 37. Strict locality 232
Figure 38. Legible constituent structures and projections 232
Figure 39. Conflguration excluded by the more general locality condition 233
Figure 40. Diphthongs 233
Figure 41. A long vowel structure 235
Figure 42. Government between an onset and a preceding rhymal Position 236
Figure 43. Government between contiguous nuclei 236
Figure 44. Government between a rhyme and an onset 236
Figure 45. Downdrift - progressive overall Iowering of pitch or register 266
Figure 46. Terracing in tone languages 267
Figure 47. Graphic representation of DS 268
Figure 48. Declarative sentence - Hausa 269
Figure 49. Interrogative sentence with suspended dowodrift - Hausa 269
16 Fundamentals ofPhoneücs, Phonology and Tonology
Figure 50. The vocal tract and speech organs 309
Figure 51. The vocal cords in position "voiced" and "voiceless" 309
Figure 52. Acoustic analysis display of'the vowels [i], [a] and [u] 310
Listoftables
Table I. The articulators in the oral cavity and example consonants 43
Table 2. The articulators in the pharyngeal cavity and example consonants 44
Table 3. The fall cardmal vowel System of Daniel Jones 55
Table 4. Vowel length 57
Table 5./r/variants 63
Table 6. Summary of basic manners of articulation and accompaniments 64
Table 7. Consonantal places of articulation and basic consonants 66
Table 8. Examplesof füll characterisations of Segments 69
Table 9. The pulmonic egressive modal consonants of the IPA chart 71
Table 10. Implosives 76
Table 11. The three principal cases of VOT 86
Table 12. Occurring double articulations 95
Table 13. Secondary articulations of consonants 99
Table 14. Short vs. long vowels and theirtenseness 110
Table 15. Prosodic properties 114
Table 16. How prominence is expressed by the suprasegmental features 114
Table 17. Three minimal sets of English 147
Table 18. Lateral and multilateral oppositions 156
Table 19. Privative oppositions: Features 157
Table 20. Presence or absence of a feature 159
Table 21. The major class features for the major segment classes 161
Table 22. Prenasalised consonants: sample 182
Table 23. Prenasalised consonants in context 182
Table 24. Fixed vs. variable stress placement 199
Table 25. Stress in English 229
Table 26. Charmed and charmless elements 234
Table 27. OT Constraint table: underlying form of hiss */his-z/ 242
Table 28. OT Constraint table 242
Table 29. Complex tone patterns: Yoruba trisyllabic words 248
Table 30. Igbo trisyllabic nouns 248
Table 31. Senufo tone patterns 257
Table 32. Tone copying in the Igbo verb 265
Table 33. African language phyla 273
Table 34. African language phyla and languages 274
Table 35. Systems oftranscription- lateral fricatives 279
Table 36. Labial-velars 286
Table 37. An overview of gutturals in Afroasiatic 288
Table 38. An overview of laryngealised consonants in Hausa 289
Table 39. Clicks 289
Table40. Namaclicks 290
Table 41. An abstract West African consonant System 291
Table 42. Murle consonants 292
Table 43. Language classification 315
List of rules
Rule 1. Voiceless grave (i.e. peripheral: bilabial and velar) plosives /p, k/ 172
Rule 2. Rule 1 re-written in terms of phonetic features 172
Rule 3. lal before [p, k] in Fe'fe'-Bamileke (phonological rule in terms of segments) 172
Rule 4. lal before [p, k] in Fe'fe'-Bamileke (rule in terms of phonetic features) 172
Rule 5. Well-formedness Condition (WFC) 210
Rule 6. Simplification 210
Rule 7. Spreading 210
Rule 8. Tone-mapping - /näa däukaa/ (Hausa): Input 211
Rule 9. Delinking - [lubdSlub] (Hausa): Output 211
Rule 10. Tone-mapping - Ini daa su7 (Ngizim): Input 211
Rule 11. Spreading (or assimilation): Output 211
Rule 12. The Association Convention (AC) 212
Rule 13. The Association Convention (revisited) 212
Rule 14. No Crossing Constraint (NCC): Association lines do not cross 214
Rule 15. Right-dominant vs. left-dominant 222
Rule 16. All syllabic constituents are maximally binary 232
Rule 17. Interconstituent government (principles) 235
Rule 18. Anticipatory (or regressive) assimilation 260
Rule 19. Perseverative (or progressive) assimilation 261
Rule 20. Partial tone spreading 261
Rule 21. Complete spreading 262
Rule 22. Tonal simplification I 263
Rule 23. Tonal simplification II 263
Rule 24. Contour levelling 263
Rule 25. Tonal Polarisation 265
List of examples
Example 1. German affticates 61
Example 2. Engiish affricates 61
Example 3. Implosives - Fula of Fuuta Jaioo 76
Example 4. Implosives - Lendu 76
Example 5. Implosives - Igbo 77
Example 6. Creaky vs. modal voice in Lango 91
Example 7. Breathy vs. modal voice in Dinka 92
Example 8. Breathy vs. modal voice in Igbo 92
Example 9. Pharyngealised vs. modal voice in Even 94
Example 10. !X6ö pharyngealised and breathy voices 94
Example 11. Labial-palatal approximant q - French 97
Example 12. Labial-palatal approximant q - Jukun-Wannu (Ajogo dialect) 97
Example 13. Labial-velar approximant w 98
Example 14. Prenasalised (non-phonemic) stops - Engiish 98
Example 15. Prenasalised consonant - Etulo 98
Example 16. Postnasalised consonant - Russian 99
Example 17. Unreleased stops with nasal releases - Yukuben-Lissa 99
Example 18. Syllabic lateral - Engiish 106
Example 19. Syllabic lateral - German 106
Example 20. Syllabic trill - Czech 106
Example 21. Syllabic trill - Serbo-Croatian 106
Example 22. Syllabic trill - Yukuben-Lissa 106
Example 23. The Engiish words "lid" and "lit" 110
Example 24. Paraphrase: teacher of American history who is Canadian 116
Example 25. Paraphrase: teacher of Canadian-American history 116
Example 26. Phonological spell-out 130
Example 27. The altemation condition 131
Example 28. The Engiish -s morpheme 132
Example 29. A central 1-vowel inventory 135
Example 30. A central 2-vowel inventory 135
Example3l.A central 3-vowel inventory 136
Example 32. A peripheral 3-vowel inventory 136
Example 33. A peripheral 4-vowel inventory 136
Example 34. A peripheral 5-vowel inventory 136
Example 35. A peripheral 7-vowel inventory 137
Example 36. Vowel Systems with length 137
Example 37. Vowel Systems with nasalisation and length 137
Example 38. Obstruents 140
Example 39. Sonorants '41
Example 40. The vowel schwa as allophone of various phonemes 144
Example 41. Pseudo minimal pair. 148
Example 42. 'd' / V in Eflk 149
Example 43. 'd' vs. 'r' in Efik l49
Example 44. Distinctive features - Igbo 153
Example 45. The nasalisation of vowels I54
Example 46. Accounting for allophones in the Structuralist model 154
Example 47. Allophonic wies I54
Example 48, Privative oppositions: Phonemes 158
Example 49. Privative oppositions: Nasality 158
22 Fundamentals ofPhonelics, Phonology and Tonology
Example 50. Privative oppositions: vowels 158
Example 51. Short vs. long (geminate) consonants in Luganda 162
Example 52. Long vs. short vowels in Luganda 162
Example 53. Käsern '63
Example 54. Lexical orword stress 164
Example 55. 3-vowel system 166
Example 56. 5-vowel system 166
Example 57. 5-vowel system with phonological length distinction 166
Example 58. Igbo vowel system in terms of [ATR] / [EXP] 168
Example 59. Yukuben: Voiceless bilabial and velar plosives in word-final position 171
Example 60. Fe'fe'-Bamileke: /p, k/occur after [a] 172
Example 61. Underlying /n/ -» [m] 173
Example 62. Assimilation - Igbo 175
Example 63. Progressive assimilation - German 176
Example 64. Regressive assimilation - Igbo 177
Example 65. Regressive assimilation - Hausa 177
Example 66. Reciprocal assimilation - Lamang 177
Example 67. Partial (regressive) assimilation: Fula (Adamawa dialect, Nigeria) 178
Example 68. Dissimilation - Zulu 178
Example 69. Dissimilation - Berber-Tashlhiyt 179
Example 70. Dissimilation check in Berber-Tashlhiyt 179
Example 71. Metathesis - Buduma (Chadic) 179
Example 72. Spoonerism 180
Example 73. Nasalisation in Jukun-Wukari 180
Example 74. Nasalisation in English 180
Example 75. Homorganic syllabic nasals in Igbo 183
Example 76. Syllabic nasals in Jukun-Diyi 183
Example 77. Prenasalised consonants in Swahili 184
Example 79. Syllabic nasals in Swahili 184
Example 81. Palatalisation - Etulo 186
Example 82. Palatalisation - Yukuben-Lissa 186
Example 83. Labialisation / labial-velarisation - Jukun-Wannu 186
Example 84. Labialisation / labial-velarisation - Jukun-Wapä 187
Example 85. Labialisation / labial-velarisation - Etulo 187
Example 86. Simplified nasal stop in Etulo 187
Example 85. Aphaeresis in Yukuben-Lissa 188
Example 86. Aphaeresis in Igbo 188
Example 87. Syncope in Yukuben-Lissa 188
Example 88. Apocope in Etulo 189
Example 89. Elision in Urhobo 189
Example 90. Elision in German ] 89
Example 91. Contraction in Lelemi 190
Example 92. Contraction in Igbo 190
Example 93. Fusion in Swahili possessive pronoun paradigms 190
Example 94. Mono-, di-, and trisyllabic morphemes / words in Igbo 193
Example 95. Wolof vowels 194
Example 96. Short and "long" vowels and their measurements in Pular 195
Example 97. German affricates 195
Example 98. English affricates 195
Example 99. Swahili words (with fixed penultimate accent) 198
Example 100. Hungarian words (with fixed initial accent) 198
List ofexampks 23
Example 101. Phonological phrasing I •"
Example 102. Phonological phrasing II 200
Example 103. Pitch-accent assignment and distribution in SJ 202
Example 104. Chichewa distant past verb form 203
Example 105. Nkhotakota Chichewa phrase-final tonal retraction 203
Example 106. Xhosa L-toned verbs in the present 204
Example 107. One-to-one tone-mapping - Igbo 207
Example 108. One-to-one tone-mapping - Chumburung 207
Example 109. One-to-many tone-mapping - Chumburung 208
Example 110. Tone mapping involving three tones and two TBUs - Mende 209
Example 111. Tone mapping involving two tones and three TBUs - Kukuya (or Teke) 209
Example 112. Hausa 2' J
Example 113. Ngizim 21!
Example 114. The application of the Association Convention -Tharaka 212
Example 115. The application of the Association Convention - Kikuyu 213
Example 116. Association lines do not cross -Chumburung 214
Example 117. Vowel deletion - Margi 2'4
Example 118. Stability - Margi 2'5
Example 119. Floating tones in Ekpheli 21°
Example 120. The associative construction in Etsako 216
Example 121. Floating lexical tone in Mbam-Nkam 2 •
Example 122. Construction with bä genitive marker plus L. 2's
Example 123. Construction with W genitive marker minus I, 219
Example 124. Representing vowel length in the CV-model 222
Example 125. English phrases with similar stress patterns as lexical words 230
Example 126. Yukuben-Lissa structures resulting probably from 234
Example 127. Prenasalised homorganic stops in Etulo 234
Example 128. Postnasalised stops: Yukuben-Lissa ¦P5
Example 129. Prince Smolensky - P S (1993) 2™
Example 130. McCarthy and Prince-M P( 1995) f»U
Example Bl.Contiguity _
Example 132. Disyllabic tone patterns: Yoruba. f*'
Example 133. Yoruba questionable tone pattem j*'
Example 134. Disyllabic tone patterns: Hausa -*'
Example 135. Hausa (contd.) ,*'
Example 136. (Central) Igbo disyllabic basic tone patterns **'
Example 137. Contour tone pattern in Standard Chinese-Peking «•
Example 138. Tone mapping in Mende
Example 139. Lexical function of tone in Igbo ~2
Example 140. Lexical function of tone in Igala
Example 141. Lexical function oftone in Etulo
Example 142. Lexical function oftone in Hausa
Example 143. Lexical function oftone in Buduma
Example 144. Lexical function oftone in Kanuri
Example 145. Lexical function oftone in Kunama-Marda f*
Example 146. Lexical function oftone in Efik
Example 147. Khoekhoe: summary of notational Systems ^
Example 148. Khoekhoe tone patterns 254
Example 149. !Xoö tone patterns 254
Example 150. Grammatical function oftone in Etulo
Example 151. Grammatical function oftone in Akan
24 Fundamentals ofPhonelics, Phonology and Tonology
Example 152. Grammatical function of tone in Fante 254
Example 153. Grammatical function of tone in Degema 254
Example 154. Grammatical function of tone in Igbo 255
Example 155. Grammatical function oftone in Igbo (contd.) 255
Example 156. Grammatical function oftone in Kanuri 255
Example 157. Grammatical function oftone in Central Jukun 255
Example 15g. Grammatical function oftone in Efik 256
Example 159. Anticipatory (regressive) assirnilation - Mbui 260
Example 160. High pitch-lowering - Gwari 261
Example 161. Partial tone spreading in Nupe 261
Example 162. Complete spreading in Ngizim 262
Example 163.Tonal simplification in Mende 1 263
Example 164. Tonal simplification in Mende II 263
Example 165. Contour levelling in Hausa 263
Example 166. Contour levelling in Kikuyu 264
Example 167. Tonal dissimilation 264
Example 168. Tonal Polarisation in Hausa 265
Example 169. Tonal Polarisation in the Igbo verb 265
Example 170. Tone copying in Mende 266
Example 17I.Non-automatic DS inTwi 267
Example 172. H-tone upstepped before a L-tone 269
Example 175. H tone upstepped before the L-tone of an eüded TBU 270
Example 174. Non-automatic upstep in the assoziative construction 270
Example 175. Non-automatic upstep in a serial verb construction 270
Example 176. Non-automatic upstep in the subjunctive affirmative 270
Example 177. The commonest African vowel System types 280
Example 178. Reconstructed Proto-Bantu seven-vowel System 280
Example 179. A symmetrical ten-vowel System of Dan-Gio 280
Example 180. Three-vowel System of Classical Arabic and Semitic 281
Example 181. Four-vowel System of Berber and African Arabic 281
Example 182. Two-vowel System of Mandara 281
Example 183. Igbo VH-vowel sets 283
Example 184. Harmony between a nominal root and a 'prefix' - Igbo 283
Example 185. Harmony between subject pronoun (SP) and verb root vowel - Igbo 284
Example 186. Harmony between SPand vowel 284
Example 187. Vowel distribution in Akan-Fante VH 284
Example 188. Vowel harmony in Akan-Fante 284
Example 189. Southern Luo (Kenya) 285
Example 190. The Fante VH and the vowel /a/ 285
Example 191. Vowel harmony in Southern Luo 285
Example 192. Tangale VH 1 285
Example 193. Tangale VH II 286
Example 194. Some consonant types common in Africa 286
Example 195. The nasal labial-velar rjrn- Etulo 287
Example 1%. The nasal labial-velar qrä - Oroko 287
Example 197. Retroflex consonants - Ewe 288
Example 198. Retroflex consonants - Herero 288
Example 199. Retroflex consonants -Kreish 288 |
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| oclc_num | 225872581 |
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| owner | DE-703 DE-12 DE-11 |
| owner_facet | DE-703 DE-12 DE-11 |
| physical | 329 S. graph. Darst. |
| publishDate | 2008 |
| publishDateSearch | 2008 |
| publishDateSort | 2008 |
| publisher | Lang |
| record_format | marc |
| series | Schriften zur Afrikanistik |
| series2 | Schriften zur Afrikanistik |
| spelling | Anyanwu, Rose-Juliet Verfasser (DE-588)118107887 aut Fundamentals of phonetics, phonology and tonology with specific African sound patterns Rose-Juliet Anyanwu Frankfurt am Main [u.a.] Lang 2008 329 S. graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Schriften zur Afrikanistik 15 African languages Phonetics Phonetics Tonologie (DE-588)4185690-9 gnd rswk-swf Phonetik (DE-588)4045830-1 gnd rswk-swf Phonologie (DE-588)4045836-2 gnd rswk-swf Afrikanische Sprachen (DE-588)4120108-5 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4151278-9 Einführung gnd-content Afrikanische Sprachen (DE-588)4120108-5 s Phonetik (DE-588)4045830-1 s DE-604 Phonologie (DE-588)4045836-2 s Tonologie (DE-588)4185690-9 s Schriften zur Afrikanistik 15 (DE-604)BV012556463 15 HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016596274&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Anyanwu, Rose-Juliet Fundamentals of phonetics, phonology and tonology with specific African sound patterns Schriften zur Afrikanistik African languages Phonetics Phonetics Tonologie (DE-588)4185690-9 gnd Phonetik (DE-588)4045830-1 gnd Phonologie (DE-588)4045836-2 gnd Afrikanische Sprachen (DE-588)4120108-5 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4185690-9 (DE-588)4045830-1 (DE-588)4045836-2 (DE-588)4120108-5 (DE-588)4151278-9 |
| title | Fundamentals of phonetics, phonology and tonology with specific African sound patterns |
| title_auth | Fundamentals of phonetics, phonology and tonology with specific African sound patterns |
| title_exact_search | Fundamentals of phonetics, phonology and tonology with specific African sound patterns |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Fundamentals of phonetics, phonology and tonology with specific African sound patterns |
| title_full | Fundamentals of phonetics, phonology and tonology with specific African sound patterns Rose-Juliet Anyanwu |
| title_fullStr | Fundamentals of phonetics, phonology and tonology with specific African sound patterns Rose-Juliet Anyanwu |
| title_full_unstemmed | Fundamentals of phonetics, phonology and tonology with specific African sound patterns Rose-Juliet Anyanwu |
| title_short | Fundamentals of phonetics, phonology and tonology |
| title_sort | fundamentals of phonetics phonology and tonology with specific african sound patterns |
| title_sub | with specific African sound patterns |
| topic | African languages Phonetics Phonetics Tonologie (DE-588)4185690-9 gnd Phonetik (DE-588)4045830-1 gnd Phonologie (DE-588)4045836-2 gnd Afrikanische Sprachen (DE-588)4120108-5 gnd |
| topic_facet | African languages Phonetics Phonetics Tonologie Phonetik Phonologie Afrikanische Sprachen Einführung |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016596274&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| volume_link | (DE-604)BV012556463 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT anyanwurosejuliet fundamentalsofphoneticsphonologyandtonologywithspecificafricansoundpatterns |