Verfügbarkeit: Principles of anatomy and physiology

Principles of anatomy and physiology: 2 Maintenance and continuity of the human body

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Bibliographische Detailangaben
Hauptverfasser:	Tortora, Gerard J. (VerfasserIn), Derrickson, Bryan H. (VerfasserIn)
Format:	Buch
Sprache:	English
Veröffentlicht:	Chichester Wiley 2009
Online-Zugang:	Inhaltsverzeichnis
Beschreibung:	Getr. Zählung Ill., graph. Darst.
ISBN:	9780470392348

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Datensatz im Suchindex

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adam_text	VOLUME 2 CONTENTS Volume ι Chapters 1-18 Volume 2 Chapters 19-29 I9 ІТНЕ CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: THE BLOOD 689 Functions and Properties of Blood 690 Functions of Blood 690 Physical Characteristics of Blood 690 Components of Blood 690 Blood Plasma · Formed Elements Formation of Blood Cells 693 Red Blood Cells 695 RBC Anatomy 696 RBC Physiology 696 RBC Life Cycle Erythropoiesis: Production ofRBCs White Blood Cells 699 Types of WBCs 699 Granular Leukocytes · Agranular Leukocytes Functions of WBCs 700 Platelets 701 Stem Cell Transplants from Bone Marrow and Cord-Blood 703 Hemostasis 703 Vascular Spasm 703 Platelet Plug Formation 703 Blood Clotting 704 Tlie Extrinsic Pathway · The Intrinsic Pathway · The Common Pathway · Clot Retraction Role of Vitamin К in Clotting 706 Hemostatic Control Mechanisms 706 Intravascular Clotting 707 Blood Groups and Blood Types 708 ABO Blood Group 708 Transfusions 708 Rh Blood Group 709 Typing and Cross-Matching Blood for Transfusion 710 • CLINICAI CONNECTION Withdrawing Blood 690 Bone Marrow Examination 694 Medical Uses of Hemopoietic Growth Factors 695 Iron Overload and Tissue Damage 698 Reticulocyle Count 699 Complete Blood Count 702 Anticoagulants 707 Aspirin and Thrombolytic Agents 707 Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn 710 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 711 Medical Terminology 712 Study Outline 713 Self-Quiz Questions 714 Critical Thinking Questions 716 Answers to Figure Questions 716 20! THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: THE HEART 717 Anatomy of the Heart 718 Location of the Heart 718 Pericardium 719 Layers of the Heart Wall 720 Chambers of the Heart 720 ч , Right Atrium · Right Ventricle · Left Atrium · Left Ventricle Myocardial Thickness and Function 724 Fibrous Skeleton of the Heart 725 Heart Valves and Circulation of Blood 725 Operation of the Atrioventricular Valves 725 Operation of the Semilunar Valves 727 Systemic and Pulmonary Circulations 728 Coronary Circulation 728 Coronary Arteries · Coronary Veim Cardiac Muscle Tissue and the Cardiac Conduction System 730 Histology of Cardiac Muscle Tissue 731 Autorhythmic Fibers: The Conduction System 732 Action Potential and Contraction of Contractile Fibers 734 ATP Production in Cardiac Muscle 735 Electrocardiogram 735 Correlation of ECG Waves with Atrial and Ventricular Systole 736 The Cardiac Cycle 738 Pressure and Volume Changes During the Cardiac Cycle 738 Atrial Systole · Ventricular Systole · Relaxation Period Heart Sounds 740 Cardiac Output 741 Regulation of Stroke Volume 741 Preload: Effect of Stretching · Contractility · Afterload Regulation of Heart Rate 742 Autonomie Regulation of Heart Rate · Chemical Regulation of Heart Rate · Other Factors in Heart Rate Regulation Exercise and the Heart 745 Help for Failing Hearts 745 Development of the Heart 748 XV XVI CONTENTS • CLINICAL CONNECTION Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation 719 Pericarditis 720 Myocarditis and Endocarditis 720 Heart Valve Disorders 727 Myocardial Ischemia and Infarction 730 Regeneration of Heart Cells 732 Artificiai Pacemakers 734 Heart Murmurs 740 Congestive Heart Failure 742 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 750 Medical Terminology 755 Study Outline 756 Self-Quiz Questions 757 Crińcal Thinking Questions 759 Answers to Figure Questions 759 21 THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: BLOOD VESSELS AND HEMODYNAMiCS 760 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels 761 Basic Structure of a Blood Vessel 761 Tunica Interna (Intima) · Tunica Media · Tunica Externa Arteries 763 Elastic Arteries · Muscular Arteries Anastomoses 764 Arterioles 764 Capillaries 764 Venules 766 Veins 767 Blood Distribution 769 Capillary Exchange 769 Diffusion 769 Transcytosis 770 Bulk Flow: Filtration and Reabsorption 770 Hemodynamics: Factors Affecting Blood Flow 772 Blood Pressure 772 Vascular Resistance 773 Venous Return 773 Velocity of Blood Flow 774 Control of Blood Pressure and Blood Flow 775 Role of the Cardiovascular Center 776 Neural Regulation of Blood Pressure 777 Bawreceptor Reflexes · Chemoreceptor Reflexen Hormonal Regulation of Blood Pressure 778 Autoregulation of Blood Pressure 779 Checking Circulation 780 Pulse 780 Measuring Blood Pressure 780 Shock and Homeostasis 781 Types of Shock 781 Homeostatic Responses to Shock 782 Signs and Symptoms of Shock 783 Circulatory Routes 783 The Systemic Circulation 783 The Hepatic Portal Circulation 818 The Pulmonary Circulation 819 The Fetal Circulation 819 Development of Blood Vessels and Blood 822 Aging and the Cardiovascular System 823 • CLINICAL CONNECTION Angiogenesis and Disease 761 Varicose Veins 768 Edema 772 Syncope 774 Carotid Sinus Massage and Carotid Sinus Syncope 778 FOCUS ON HOMEOSTASIS: THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM 824 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 825 Medical Terminology 826 Study Outline 826 Self-Quiz Questions 828 Critical Tliinking Questions 829 Answers to Figure Questions 830 22 THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY 831 t: Lymphatic System Structure and Function 832 Functions of the Lymphatic System 832 Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Circulation 832 Lymphatic Capillaries · Lymph Trunks and Ducts Formation and Flow of Lymph Lymphatic Organs and Tissues 836 Thymus * Lymph Nodes · Spleen · Lymphatic Nodules Development of Lymphatic Tissues 841 Innate Immunity 842 First Line of Defense: Skin and Mucous Membranes 842 Second Line of Defense: Internal Defenses 843 Antimicrobial Substances · Natural Killer Cells and Phagocytes Inflammation · Fever Adaptive Immunity 846 Maturation of Τ Cells and В Cells 847 Types of Adaptive Immunity 848 Clonal Selection: The Principle 848 Antigens and Antigen Receptors 849 Chemical Nature of Antigens · Diversity of Antigen Receptors · Major Histocompatibility Complex Antigens 850 Pathways of Antigen Processing 850 Processing of Exogenous Antigens · Processing of Endogenous Antigens Cytokines 852 Cell-mediated Immunity 853 Activation of Τ Cells 853 Activation and Clonal Selection of Helper Τ Cells 853 Activation and Clonal Selection of Cytotoxic Τ Cells 854 Elimination of Invaders 854 Immunological Surveillance 856 Antibody-mediated Immunity 856 Activation and Clonal Selection of В Cells 856 Antibodies 857 Antibody Structure · Antibody Actions · Role of the Complement System in Immunity Immunological Memory 861 Self-Recognition and Self-Tolerance 862 Stress and Immunity 864 Aging and the Immune System 864 • CLINICAL CONNECTION Metastasis Through Lymphatic Vessels 840 Ruptured Spleen 841 Microbial Evasion of Phagocytosis 843 Abscesses and Ulcers 846 Cytokine Therapy 852 Graft Rejection and Tissue Typing 856 Monoclonal Antibodies 859 Cancer Immunology 863 FOCUS ON HOMEOSTASIS: THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY 865 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 866 Medical Terminology 868 Study Outline 869 Self-Quiz Questions 871 Critical Thinking Questions 873 Answers to Figure Questions 873 CONTENTS XVII 23 í THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 874 Respiratory System Anatomy 875 Nose 875 Pharynx 878 Larynx 879 ■ # The Structures of Voice Production 881 Trachea 882 Bronchi 883 Lungs 885 Lobes, Fissures, and Lobules · Alveoli · Blood Supply to the Lungs I Pulmonary Ventilation 890 Pressure Changes During Pulmonary Ventilation 890 Inhalation · Exhalation Other Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation 893 Surface Tension of Alveolar Fluid · Compliance of the Lungs · Airway Resistance Breathing Patterns and Modified Respiratory Movements 894 Lung Volumes and Capacities 894 Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide 896 Gas Laws: Dalton s Law and Henry s Law 896 External and Internal Respiration 897 Transport of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide 900 Oxygen Transport 900 The Relationship Between Hemoglobin and Oxygen Partial Pressure · Other Factors Affecting the Affinity of Hemoglobin for Oxygen · Oxygen Affinity of Fetal and Adult Hemoglobin Carhon Dioxide Transport 903 Summary of Gas Exchange and Transport in Lungs and Tissues 905 Control of Respiration 905 Respiratory Center 905 Medullary Rhythmicity Area · Pneumotaxic Area · Apneustic Area · Regulation of the Respiratory Center 906 Cortical Influences on Respiration · Chemoreceptor Regulation of Respiration · Proprioceptor Stimulation of Respiration The. Inflation Reflex · Other Influences on Respiration Exercise and the Respiratory System 910 Development of the Respiratory System 910 Aging and the Respiratory System 911 • CLINICAL CONNECTION Rhinopłasty 875 Tonsiüectomy 879 Laryngitis and Cancer of the Larynx 882 Tracheotomy and Intubation 882 Pneumothorax and Hemothorax 885 Respiratory Distress Syndrome 894 Hyperbaric Oxygénation 897 Carbon Monoxide Poisoning 903 Hypoxia 908 The Effect of Smokingen Respiratory Efficiency 910 FOCUS ON HOMEOSTASIS: THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 912 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 913 Medical Terminology 915 Study Outline 916 Self-Quiz Questions 918 Critical Thinking Questions 920 Answers to Figure Questions 920 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 921 Overview of the Digestive System 922 Layers of the GI Tract 924 Mucosa 924 Submucosa 925 Muscularis 925 Serosa 925 Neural Innervation of the GI Tract 925 Enteric Nervous System 925 Autonomie Nervous System 925 Gastrointestinal Reflex Pathways 926 Peritoneum 927 Mouth 928 Salivary Glands 929 Composition and Functions of Saliva · Salivation Tongue 931 Teeth 931 Mechanical and Chemical Digestion in the Mouth 932 Pharynx 934 Esophagus 934 Histology of the Esophagus 935 Physiology of the Esophagus 935 Deglutition 935 Stomach 937 Anatomy of the Stomach 937 Histology of the Stomach 937 Mechanical and Chemical Digestion in the Stomach 939 Pancreas 942 Anatomy of the Pancreas 942 Histology of the Pancreas 944 Composition and Functions of Pancreatic Juice 944 Liver and Gallbladder 945 Anatomy of the Liver and Gallbladder 945 Histology of the Liver and Gallbladder 945 Blood Supply of the Liver 948 Role and Composition of Bile 948 Functions of the Liver 949 Small Intestine 949 Anatomy of the Small Intestine 949 Histology of the Small Intestine 949 Role of Intestinal Juice and Brush-Border Enzymes 953 Mechanical Digestion in the Small Intestine 953 Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine 954 Digestion of Carbohydrates · Digestion of Proteins · Digestion ofLipids · Digestion of Nucleic Acids Absorption in the Small Intestine 956 Absorption of Monosaccharides · Absorption of Amino Acids, Dipeptides, and Tripeptides · Absorption ofLipids · Absorption of Electrolytes · Absorption of Vitamins · Absorption of Water- Large Intestine 959 Anatomy of the Large Intestine 959 Histology of the Large Intestine 961 Mechanical Digestion in the Large Intestine 962 Chemical Digestion in the Large Intestine 963 Absorption and Feces Formation in the Large Intestine 963 The Defecation Reflex 963 Phases of Digestion 965 Cephalic Phase 965 Gastric Phase 965 Intestinal Phase 966 Other Hormones of the Digestive System 967 Development of the Digestive System 967 Aging and the Digestive System 967 XVIII CONTENTS CLINICAL CONNECTION Peritonitis 928 Mumps 931 Root Canal Therapy 932 Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease 936 Pylorospasm and Pyloric Stenosis 937 Vomiting 942 Pancreatitis and Pancreatic Cancer 944 jaundice 948 Gallstones 948 Lactose intolerance 954 Absorption of Alcohol 959 Appendicitis 960 Polyps in the Colon 961 Occult Blood 963 Dietary Fiber 964 FOCUS ON HOMEOSTASIS: THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 968 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 969 Medical Terminology 970 Study Outline 971 Self-Quiz Questions 973 Critical Thinking Questions 975 Answers to Figure Questions 976 25 ! METABOLISM AND NUTRITION 977 Metabolic Reactions 978 Coupling of Catabolism and Anabolism by ATP 978 Energy Transfer 979 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 979 Mechanisms of ATP Generation 979 Carbohydrate Metabolism 980 The Fate of Glucose 980 Glucose Movement into Cells 980 Glucose Catabolism 980 Glycolysis · The Fate ofPyruvic Acid · Formation of Acetyl Coenzyme A · The Krebs Cycle · The Electron Transpon Chain · Summary of Cellular Respiration Glucose Anabolism 988 Glucose Storage: Glycogenesis · Glucose Release: Glycogenolysis · Formation of Glucose from Proteins and Fats: Gluconeogenesis Lipid Metabolism 990 Transport of Lipids by Lipoprotéine 990 Sources and Significance of Blood Cholesterol 991 The Fate of Lipids 991 Triglycéride Storage 991 Lipid Catabolism: Lipolysis 992 Lipid Anabolism: Lipogenesis 993 Protein Metabolism 993 The Fate of Proteins 993 Protein Catabolism 993 Protein Anabolism 994 Key Molecules at Metabolic Crossroads 995 The Role of Glucose 6-Phosphate 995 The Role of Pyruvic Acid 995 The Role of Acetyl Coenzyme A 996 Metabolic Adaptations 997 Metabolism During the Absorptive State 997 Absorptive State Reactions · Regulation of Metabolism During the Absorptive State Metabolism During the Postabsorptive State 999 Postabsorptive State Reactions · Regulation of Metabolism During the Postabsorptive State Metabolism During Fasting and Starvation 1001 Heat and Energy Balance 1001 Metabolic Rate 1002 Body Temperature Homeostasis 1002 Heat Production · Mechanisms of Heat Transfer · Hypothalamic Thermostat · Thennoregulatfan Energy Homeostasis and Regulation of Food Intake 1005 Nutrition 1006 Guidelines for Healthy Eating 1006 Minerals 1007 Vitamins 1007 • CLINICAL CONNECTION Carbohydrate Loading 989 Ketosis 993 Phenylketonuria 995 Hypothermia 1004 Emotional Eating 1005 Vitamin and Mineral Supplements 1008 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 1012 Medical Terminology 1012 Study Outline 1013 Self-Quiz Questions 1015 Critical Thinking Questions 1017 Answers to Figure Questions 1017 2б THE URINARY SYSTEM 1018 Overview of Kidney Functions 1020 Anatomy and Histology of the Kidneys 1020 External Anatomy of the Kidneys 1020 Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys 1022 Blood and Nerve Supply of the Kidneys 1022 TheNephron 1024 Parts of a Nephron · Histology of the Nephron and Collecting Duct Overview of Renal Physiology 1029 Glomerular Filtration 1030 The Filtration Membrane 1030 Net Filtration Pressure 1030 Glomerular Filtration Rate 1032 і Renal Autoregulation of GFR · Neural Regulation of GFR · Hormonal Regulation of GFR Tubular Reabsorption and Tubular Secretion 1034 Principles of Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion 1034 Reabsorption Routes · Transport Mechanisms Reabsorption and Secretion in the Proximal Convoluted Tubule 1036 ι Reabsorption in the Loop of Henle 1038 Reabsorption in the Early Distal Convoluted Tubule 1039 s ; Reabsorption and Secretion in the Late Distal Convoluted Tubule and Collecting Duct 1039 Hormonal Regulation of Tubular Reabsorption and Tubular Secretion 1040 Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System · Antidiuretic Hormone * Atrial Natriuretic Peptide · Parathyroid Hormone. Production of Dilute and Concentrated Urine 1042 Formation of Dilute Urine 1042 Formation of Concentrated Urine 1043 Countercurrent Multiplication · Countercurrent Exchange Evaluation of Kidney Function 1047 Urinalysis 1047 Blood Tests 1047 Renal Plasma Clearance 1047 Urine Transportation, Storage, and Elimination 1049 Ureters 1049 Urinary Bladder 1050 Anatomy and Histology of the Urinary Bladder · The Micturition Reflex Urethra 1050 CONTENTS XIX Waste Management in Other Body Systems 1052 Development of the Urinary System 1053 Aging and the Urinary System 1053 • CLINICAL CONNECTION Nephroptosis (Floating Kidney) 1022 Kidney Transplant 1024 Glucosuria 1036 Loss of Plasma Proteins in Urine Causes Edema 1032 Diuretics 1045 Dialysis 1048 Cystoscopy 1050 Urinary Incontinence 1052 FOCUS ON HOMEOSTASIS: THE URINARY SYSTEM 1055 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 1056 Medical Terminology 1057 Study Outline 1057 Self-Quiz Questions 1059 Crítica!, Thinking Questions 1061 Answers to Figure Questions 1061 27 ! FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID-BASE HOMEOSTASIS 1062 Fluid Compartments and Fluid Balance 1063 Sources of Body Water Gain and Loss 1064 Regulation of Body Water Gain 1064 Regulation of Water and Solute Loss 1065 Movement of Water Between Body Fluid Compartments 1067 Electrolytes in Body Fluids 1067 Concentrations of Electrolytes in Body Fluids 1068 Sodium 1068 Chloride 1069 Potassium 1069 Bicarbonate 1069 Calcium 1069 Phosphate 1070 Magnesium 1070 Acid-Base Balance 1070 The Actions of Buffer Systems 1072 Protein Buffer System · Carbonic Acid-Bicarbonate Buffer System · Phosphate Buffer System Exhalation of Carbon Dioxide 1073 Kidney Excretion of H+ 1074 Acid-Base Imbalances 1075 Respiratory Acidosis · Respiratory Alkalosis · Metabolic Acidosis · Metabolic Alkalosis Aging and Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance 1077 • CLINICAL CONNECTION Enemas and Fluid Balance 1067 Indicators of Na+ Imbalance 1069 Diagnosis of Acid-Base Imbalances 1076 Study Outline 1077 Self-Quiz Questions 1079 Critical Tliinking Questions 1080 Answers to Figure Questions 1080 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS 1081 Male Reproductive System 1082 Scrotum 1082 Testes 1083 Spermatogenesis · Sperm · Hormonal Control of the Testes Reproductive System Ducts in Males 1090 Ducts of the Testis · Epididymis · Ductus Deferens · Spermatic Cord · Ejaculatory Ducts · Urethra Accessory Sex Glands 1093 Seminal Vesicles · Prostate · Bulbourethral Glands Semen 1093 Penis 1093 Female Reproductive System 1095 Ovaries 1097 Histology of the Ovary · Oogénesis and Follicular Development Uterine Tubes 1102 Uterus 1104 Anatomy of the Uterus · Histology of the Uterus · Cervical Mucus Vagina 1107 Vulva 1107 Perineum 1110 Mammary Glands 1110 The Female Reproductive Cycle 1112 Hormonal Regulation of the Female Reproductive Cycle 1112 Phases of the Female Reproductive Cycle 1112 Menstrual Phase · Preoviúatory Phase · Ovulation · Postovulatory Phase Birth Control Methods and Abortion 1117 Surgical Sterilization 1117 Hormonal Methods 1118 Intrauterine Devices · Spermicides · Barrier Methods · Periodic Abstinence Abortion 1119 Development of the Reproductive Systems 1119 Aging and the Reproductive Systems 1122 • CLINICAL CONNECTION Cryptorchidism 1087 Vasectomy 1091 Circumcision 1095 Premature Ejaculation 1095 Ovarian Cysts 1101 Uterine Prolapse 1105 Hysterectomy 1107 Episiotomy 1110 Breast Augmentation and Reduction 1111 Fibrocystic Disease of the Breasts ніг Female Athlete Triad: Disordered Eating, Amenorrhea, and Premature Osteoporosis IU17 FOCUS ON HOMEOSTASIS: THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS 1123 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 1124 Medical Terminology 1126 Study Outline 1127 Self-Quiz Questions 1129 Critical Thinking Questions 1131 Answers to Figure Questions 1132 29 DEVELOPMENT AND INHERITANCE 1133 Embryonic Period 1134 First Week of Development 1134 Fertilization · Cleavage oftlie Zygote · Blastocyst Formation · Implantation Second Week of Development 1138 Development of the Trophoblast · Development of the Bilaminar Embryonic Disc ■ Development oftheAmnion · XX CONTENTS Development of the Yolk Sac · Development of Sinusoids · Development of the Extraembryonic Coelom · Development of the Chorion Third Week of Development 1140 Gastrulation · Neundation · Development of Somites · Development of the Intraembryonic Coelom · Development of the Cardiovascular System · Development of the Chorionic Villi and Placenta Fourth Week of Development 1 147 Fifth Through Eighth Weeks of Development 1149 Fetal Period 1150 Teratogens 1153 Chemicals and Drags 1153 Cigarette Smoking 1153 Irradiation 1153 Prenatal Diagnostic Tests 1153 Fetal Ultrasonography 1153 Amniocentesis 1153 Chorionic Villi Sampling 1154 Noninvasive Prenatal Tests 1154 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy 1155 Hormones of Pregnancy 1155 Changes During Pregnancy 1157 Exercise and Pregnancy 1158 Labor 1158 Adjustments of the Infant at Birth 1160 Respiratory Adjustments 1160 Cardiovascular Adjustments 1160 The Physiology of Lactation 1161 Inheritance 1163 Genotype and Phenotype 1163 Variations on Dominant-Recessive Inheritance 1164 Incomplete Dominance · Multiple-Allele Inheritance · Complex Inheritance Autosomes. Sex Chromosomes, and Sex Determination 1166 Sex-Linked Inheritance 1167 Red-Green Color Blindness · X-Chromosome Inactivation • CLIJHCAL CONNECTION Stem Cell Research and Therapeutic Cloning 1136 Ectopie Pregnancy 1138 Anencephaly 1144 Placenta Previa 1147 Early Pregnancy Tests 1155 Pregnancy-Induced Hypertension 1158 Dystocia and Cesarean Section 1160 Premature Infants 1161 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 1168 Medical Terminology 1169 Study Outline 1170 Self-Quiz Questions 1171 Critical Thinking Questions 1174 Answers to Figure Questions 1174 APPENDIX A: MEASUREMENTS A-l APPENDIX B: PERIODIC TABLE B-3 APPENDIX C: NORMAL VALUES FOR SELECTED BLOOD TESTS C-4 APPENDIX D: NORMAL VALUES FOR SELECTED URINE TESTS D-6 APPENDIX E: ANSWERS E-8 GLOSSARY G-i CREDITS C-i INDEX i-i
adam_txt	VOLUME 2 CONTENTS Volume ι Chapters 1-18 Volume 2 Chapters 19-29 I9 ІТНЕ CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: THE BLOOD 689 Functions and Properties of Blood 690 Functions of Blood 690 Physical Characteristics of Blood 690 Components of Blood 690 Blood Plasma · Formed Elements Formation of Blood Cells 693 Red Blood Cells 695 RBC Anatomy 696 RBC Physiology 696 RBC Life Cycle Erythropoiesis: Production ofRBCs White Blood Cells 699 Types of WBCs 699 Granular Leukocytes · Agranular Leukocytes Functions of WBCs 700 Platelets 701 Stem Cell Transplants from Bone Marrow and Cord-Blood 703 Hemostasis 703 Vascular Spasm 703 Platelet Plug Formation 703 Blood Clotting 704 Tlie Extrinsic Pathway · The Intrinsic Pathway · The Common Pathway · Clot Retraction Role of Vitamin К in Clotting 706 Hemostatic Control Mechanisms 706 Intravascular Clotting 707 Blood Groups and Blood Types 708 ABO Blood Group 708 Transfusions 708 Rh Blood Group 709 Typing and Cross-Matching Blood for Transfusion 710 • CLINICAI CONNECTION Withdrawing Blood 690 Bone Marrow Examination 694 Medical Uses of Hemopoietic Growth Factors 695 Iron Overload and Tissue Damage 698 Reticulocyle Count 699 Complete Blood Count 702 Anticoagulants 707 Aspirin and Thrombolytic Agents 707 Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn 710 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 711 Medical Terminology 712 Study Outline 713 Self-Quiz Questions 714 Critical Thinking Questions 716 Answers to Figure Questions 716 20! THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: THE HEART 717 Anatomy of the Heart 718 Location of the Heart 718 Pericardium 719 Layers of the Heart Wall 720 Chambers of the Heart 720 ч , Right Atrium · Right Ventricle · Left Atrium · Left Ventricle Myocardial Thickness and Function 724 Fibrous Skeleton of the Heart 725 Heart Valves and Circulation of Blood 725 Operation of the Atrioventricular Valves 725 Operation of the Semilunar Valves 727 Systemic and Pulmonary Circulations 728 Coronary Circulation 728 Coronary Arteries · Coronary Veim Cardiac Muscle Tissue and the Cardiac Conduction System 730 Histology of Cardiac Muscle Tissue 731 Autorhythmic Fibers: The Conduction System 732 Action Potential and Contraction of Contractile Fibers 734 ATP Production in Cardiac Muscle 735 Electrocardiogram 735 Correlation of ECG Waves with Atrial and Ventricular Systole 736 The Cardiac Cycle 738 Pressure and Volume Changes During the Cardiac Cycle 738 Atrial Systole · Ventricular Systole · Relaxation Period Heart Sounds 740 Cardiac Output 741 Regulation of Stroke Volume 741 Preload: Effect of Stretching · Contractility · Afterload Regulation of Heart Rate 742 Autonomie Regulation of Heart Rate · Chemical Regulation of Heart Rate · Other Factors in Heart Rate Regulation Exercise and the Heart 745 Help for Failing Hearts 745 Development of the Heart 748 XV XVI CONTENTS • CLINICAL CONNECTION Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation 719 Pericarditis 720 Myocarditis and Endocarditis 720 Heart Valve Disorders 727 Myocardial Ischemia and Infarction 730 Regeneration of Heart Cells 732 Artificiai Pacemakers 734 Heart Murmurs 740 Congestive Heart Failure 742 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 750 Medical Terminology 755 Study Outline 756 Self-Quiz Questions 757 Crińcal Thinking Questions 759 Answers to Figure Questions 759 21 THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: BLOOD VESSELS AND HEMODYNAMiCS 760 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels 761 Basic Structure of a Blood Vessel 761 Tunica Interna (Intima) · Tunica Media · Tunica Externa Arteries 763 Elastic Arteries · Muscular Arteries Anastomoses 764 Arterioles 764 Capillaries 764 Venules 766 Veins 767 Blood Distribution 769 Capillary Exchange 769 Diffusion 769 Transcytosis 770 Bulk Flow: Filtration and Reabsorption 770 Hemodynamics: Factors Affecting Blood Flow 772 Blood Pressure 772 Vascular Resistance 773 Venous Return 773 Velocity of Blood Flow 774 Control of Blood Pressure and Blood Flow 775 Role of the Cardiovascular Center 776 Neural Regulation of Blood Pressure 777 Bawreceptor Reflexes · Chemoreceptor Reflexen Hormonal Regulation of Blood Pressure 778 Autoregulation of Blood Pressure 779 Checking Circulation 780 Pulse 780 Measuring Blood Pressure 780 Shock and Homeostasis 781 Types of Shock 781 Homeostatic Responses to Shock 782 Signs and Symptoms of Shock 783 Circulatory Routes 783 The Systemic Circulation 783 The Hepatic Portal Circulation 818 The Pulmonary Circulation 819 The Fetal Circulation 819 Development of Blood Vessels and Blood 822 Aging and the Cardiovascular System 823 • CLINICAL CONNECTION Angiogenesis and Disease 761 Varicose Veins 768 Edema 772 Syncope 774 Carotid Sinus Massage and Carotid Sinus Syncope 778 FOCUS ON HOMEOSTASIS: THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM 824 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 825 Medical Terminology 826 Study Outline 826 Self-Quiz Questions 828 Critical Tliinking Questions 829 Answers to Figure Questions 830 22 THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY 831 t: Lymphatic System Structure and Function 832 Functions of the Lymphatic System 832 Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Circulation 832 Lymphatic Capillaries · Lymph Trunks and Ducts ' Formation and Flow of Lymph Lymphatic Organs and Tissues 836 Thymus * Lymph Nodes · Spleen · Lymphatic Nodules Development of Lymphatic Tissues 841 Innate Immunity 842 First Line of Defense: Skin and Mucous Membranes 842 Second Line of Defense: Internal Defenses 843 Antimicrobial Substances · Natural Killer Cells and Phagocytes Inflammation · Fever Adaptive Immunity 846 Maturation of Τ Cells and В Cells 847 Types of Adaptive Immunity 848 Clonal Selection: The Principle 848 Antigens and Antigen Receptors 849 Chemical Nature of Antigens · Diversity of Antigen Receptors · Major Histocompatibility Complex Antigens 850 Pathways of Antigen Processing 850 Processing of Exogenous Antigens · Processing of Endogenous Antigens Cytokines 852 Cell-mediated Immunity 853 Activation of Τ Cells 853 Activation and Clonal Selection of Helper Τ Cells 853 Activation and Clonal Selection of Cytotoxic Τ Cells 854 Elimination of Invaders 854 Immunological Surveillance 856 Antibody-mediated Immunity 856 Activation and Clonal Selection of В Cells 856 Antibodies 857 Antibody Structure · Antibody Actions · Role of the Complement System in Immunity Immunological Memory 861 Self-Recognition and Self-Tolerance 862 Stress and Immunity 864 Aging and the Immune System 864 • CLINICAL CONNECTION Metastasis Through Lymphatic Vessels 840 Ruptured Spleen 841 Microbial Evasion of Phagocytosis 843 Abscesses and Ulcers 846 Cytokine Therapy 852 Graft Rejection and Tissue Typing 856 Monoclonal Antibodies 859 Cancer Immunology 863 FOCUS ON HOMEOSTASIS: THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY 865 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 866 Medical Terminology 868 Study Outline 869 Self-Quiz Questions 871 Critical Thinking Questions 873 Answers to Figure Questions 873 CONTENTS XVII 23 í THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 874 Respiratory System Anatomy 875 Nose 875 Pharynx 878 Larynx 879 ■ # The Structures of Voice Production 881 Trachea 882 Bronchi 883 Lungs 885 Lobes, Fissures, and Lobules · Alveoli · Blood Supply to the Lungs I Pulmonary Ventilation 890 Pressure Changes During Pulmonary Ventilation 890 Inhalation · Exhalation Other Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation 893 Surface Tension of Alveolar Fluid · Compliance of the Lungs · Airway Resistance Breathing Patterns and Modified Respiratory Movements 894 Lung Volumes and Capacities 894 Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide 896 Gas Laws: Dalton's Law and Henry's Law 896 External and Internal Respiration 897 Transport of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide 900 Oxygen Transport 900 The Relationship Between Hemoglobin and Oxygen Partial Pressure · Other Factors Affecting the Affinity of Hemoglobin for Oxygen · Oxygen Affinity of Fetal and Adult Hemoglobin Carhon Dioxide Transport 903 Summary of Gas Exchange and Transport in Lungs and Tissues 905 Control of Respiration 905 Respiratory Center 905 Medullary Rhythmicity Area · Pneumotaxic Area · Apneustic Area · Regulation of the Respiratory Center 906 Cortical Influences on Respiration · Chemoreceptor Regulation of Respiration · Proprioceptor Stimulation of Respiration The. Inflation Reflex · Other Influences on Respiration Exercise and the Respiratory System 910 Development of the Respiratory System 910 Aging and the Respiratory System 911 • CLINICAL CONNECTION Rhinopłasty 875 Tonsiüectomy 879 Laryngitis and Cancer of the Larynx 882 Tracheotomy and Intubation 882 Pneumothorax and Hemothorax 885 Respiratory Distress Syndrome 894 Hyperbaric Oxygénation 897 Carbon Monoxide Poisoning 903 Hypoxia 908 The Effect of Smokingen Respiratory Efficiency 910 FOCUS ON HOMEOSTASIS: THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 912 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 913 Medical Terminology 915 Study Outline 916 Self-Quiz Questions 918 Critical Thinking Questions 920 Answers to Figure Questions 920 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 921 Overview of the Digestive System 922 Layers of the GI Tract 924 Mucosa 924 Submucosa 925 Muscularis 925 Serosa 925 Neural Innervation of the GI Tract 925 Enteric Nervous System 925 Autonomie Nervous System 925 Gastrointestinal Reflex Pathways 926 Peritoneum 927 Mouth 928 Salivary Glands 929 Composition and Functions of Saliva · Salivation Tongue 931 Teeth 931 Mechanical and Chemical Digestion in the Mouth 932 Pharynx 934 Esophagus 934 Histology of the Esophagus 935 Physiology of the Esophagus 935 Deglutition 935 Stomach 937 Anatomy of the Stomach 937 Histology of the Stomach 937 Mechanical and Chemical Digestion in the Stomach 939 Pancreas 942 Anatomy of the Pancreas 942 Histology of the Pancreas 944 Composition and Functions of Pancreatic Juice 944 Liver and Gallbladder 945 Anatomy of the Liver and Gallbladder 945 Histology of the Liver and Gallbladder 945 Blood Supply of the Liver 948 Role and Composition of Bile 948 Functions of the Liver 949 Small Intestine 949 Anatomy of the Small Intestine 949 Histology of the Small Intestine 949 Role of Intestinal Juice and Brush-Border Enzymes 953 Mechanical Digestion in the Small Intestine 953 Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine 954 Digestion of Carbohydrates · Digestion of Proteins · Digestion ofLipids · Digestion of Nucleic Acids Absorption in the Small Intestine 956 Absorption of Monosaccharides · Absorption of Amino Acids, Dipeptides, and Tripeptides · Absorption ofLipids · Absorption of Electrolytes · Absorption of Vitamins · Absorption of Water- Large Intestine 959 Anatomy of the Large Intestine 959 Histology of the Large Intestine 961 Mechanical Digestion in the Large Intestine 962 Chemical Digestion in the Large Intestine 963 Absorption and Feces Formation in the Large Intestine 963 The Defecation Reflex 963 Phases of Digestion 965 Cephalic Phase 965 Gastric Phase 965 Intestinal Phase 966 Other Hormones of the Digestive System 967 Development of the Digestive System 967 Aging and the Digestive System 967 XVIII CONTENTS CLINICAL CONNECTION Peritonitis 928 Mumps 931 Root Canal Therapy 932 Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease 936 Pylorospasm and Pyloric Stenosis 937 Vomiting 942 Pancreatitis and Pancreatic Cancer 944 jaundice 948 Gallstones 948 Lactose intolerance 954 Absorption of Alcohol 959 Appendicitis 960 Polyps in the Colon 961 Occult Blood 963 Dietary Fiber 964 FOCUS ON HOMEOSTASIS: THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 968 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 969 Medical Terminology 970 Study Outline 971 Self-Quiz Questions 973 Critical Thinking Questions 975 Answers to Figure Questions 976 25 ! METABOLISM AND NUTRITION 977 Metabolic Reactions 978 Coupling of Catabolism and Anabolism by ATP 978 Energy Transfer 979 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 979 Mechanisms of ATP Generation 979 Carbohydrate Metabolism 980 The Fate of Glucose 980 Glucose Movement into Cells 980 Glucose Catabolism 980 Glycolysis · The Fate ofPyruvic Acid · Formation of Acetyl Coenzyme A · The Krebs Cycle · The Electron Transpon Chain · Summary of Cellular Respiration Glucose Anabolism 988 Glucose Storage: Glycogenesis · Glucose Release: Glycogenolysis · Formation of Glucose from Proteins and Fats: Gluconeogenesis Lipid Metabolism 990 Transport of Lipids by Lipoprotéine 990 Sources and Significance of Blood Cholesterol 991 The Fate of Lipids 991 Triglycéride Storage 991 Lipid Catabolism: Lipolysis 992 Lipid Anabolism: Lipogenesis 993 Protein Metabolism 993 The Fate of Proteins 993 Protein Catabolism 993 Protein Anabolism 994 Key Molecules at Metabolic Crossroads 995 The Role of Glucose 6-Phosphate 995 The Role of Pyruvic Acid 995 The Role of Acetyl Coenzyme A 996 Metabolic Adaptations 997 Metabolism During the Absorptive State 997 Absorptive State Reactions · Regulation of Metabolism During the Absorptive State Metabolism During the Postabsorptive State 999 Postabsorptive State Reactions · Regulation of Metabolism During the Postabsorptive State Metabolism During Fasting and Starvation 1001 Heat and Energy Balance 1001 Metabolic Rate 1002 Body Temperature Homeostasis 1002 Heat Production · Mechanisms of Heat Transfer · Hypothalamic Thermostat · Thennoregulatfan Energy Homeostasis and Regulation of Food Intake 1005 Nutrition 1006 Guidelines for Healthy Eating 1006 Minerals 1007 Vitamins 1007 • CLINICAL CONNECTION Carbohydrate Loading 989 Ketosis 993 Phenylketonuria 995 Hypothermia 1004 Emotional Eating 1005 Vitamin and Mineral Supplements 1008 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 1012 Medical Terminology 1012 Study Outline 1013 Self-Quiz Questions 1015 Critical Thinking Questions 1017 Answers to Figure Questions 1017 2б THE URINARY SYSTEM 1018 Overview of Kidney Functions 1020 Anatomy and Histology of the Kidneys 1020 External Anatomy of the Kidneys 1020 Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys 1022 Blood and Nerve Supply of the Kidneys 1022 TheNephron 1024 Parts of a Nephron · Histology of the Nephron and Collecting Duct Overview of Renal Physiology 1029 Glomerular Filtration 1030 The Filtration Membrane 1030 Net Filtration Pressure 1030 Glomerular Filtration Rate 1032 і Renal Autoregulation of GFR · Neural Regulation of GFR · Hormonal Regulation of GFR Tubular Reabsorption and Tubular Secretion 1034 Principles of Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion 1034 Reabsorption Routes · Transport Mechanisms Reabsorption and Secretion in the Proximal Convoluted Tubule 1036 ι Reabsorption in the Loop of Henle 1038 \ Reabsorption in the Early Distal Convoluted Tubule 1039 s ; Reabsorption and Secretion in the Late Distal Convoluted Tubule and Collecting Duct 1039 Hormonal Regulation of Tubular Reabsorption and Tubular Secretion 1040 Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System · Antidiuretic Hormone * Atrial Natriuretic Peptide · Parathyroid Hormone. Production of Dilute and Concentrated Urine 1042 Formation of Dilute Urine 1042 Formation of Concentrated Urine 1043 Countercurrent Multiplication · Countercurrent Exchange Evaluation of Kidney Function 1047 Urinalysis 1047 Blood Tests 1047 Renal Plasma Clearance 1047 Urine Transportation, Storage, and Elimination 1049 Ureters 1049 Urinary Bladder 1050 Anatomy and Histology of the Urinary Bladder · The Micturition Reflex Urethra 1050 CONTENTS XIX Waste Management in Other Body Systems 1052 Development of the Urinary System 1053 Aging and the Urinary System 1053 • CLINICAL CONNECTION Nephroptosis (Floating Kidney) 1022 Kidney Transplant 1024 Glucosuria 1036 Loss of Plasma Proteins in Urine Causes Edema 1032 Diuretics 1045 Dialysis 1048 Cystoscopy 1050 Urinary Incontinence 1052 FOCUS ON HOMEOSTASIS: THE URINARY SYSTEM 1055 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 1056 Medical Terminology 1057 Study Outline 1057 Self-Quiz Questions 1059 Crítica!, Thinking Questions 1061 Answers to Figure Questions 1061 27 ! FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID-BASE HOMEOSTASIS 1062 Fluid Compartments and Fluid Balance 1063 Sources of Body Water Gain and Loss 1064 Regulation of Body Water Gain 1064 Regulation of Water and Solute Loss 1065 Movement of Water Between Body Fluid Compartments 1067 Electrolytes in Body Fluids 1067 Concentrations of Electrolytes in Body Fluids 1068 Sodium 1068 Chloride 1069 Potassium 1069 Bicarbonate 1069 Calcium 1069 Phosphate 1070 Magnesium 1070 Acid-Base Balance 1070 The Actions of Buffer Systems 1072 Protein Buffer System · Carbonic Acid-Bicarbonate Buffer System · Phosphate Buffer System Exhalation of Carbon Dioxide 1073 Kidney Excretion of H+ 1074 Acid-Base Imbalances 1075 Respiratory Acidosis · Respiratory Alkalosis · Metabolic Acidosis · Metabolic Alkalosis Aging and Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance 1077 • CLINICAL CONNECTION Enemas and Fluid Balance 1067 Indicators of Na+ Imbalance 1069 Diagnosis of Acid-Base Imbalances 1076 Study Outline 1077 Self-Quiz Questions 1079 Critical Tliinking Questions 1080 Answers to Figure Questions 1080 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS 1081 Male Reproductive System 1082 Scrotum 1082 Testes 1083 Spermatogenesis · Sperm · Hormonal Control of the Testes Reproductive System Ducts in Males 1090 Ducts of the Testis · Epididymis · Ductus Deferens · Spermatic Cord · Ejaculatory Ducts · Urethra Accessory Sex Glands 1093 Seminal Vesicles · Prostate · Bulbourethral Glands Semen 1093 Penis 1093 Female Reproductive System 1095 Ovaries 1097 Histology of the Ovary · Oogénesis and Follicular Development Uterine Tubes 1102 Uterus 1104 Anatomy of the Uterus · Histology of the Uterus · Cervical Mucus Vagina 1107 Vulva 1107 Perineum 1110 Mammary Glands 1110 The Female Reproductive Cycle 1112 Hormonal Regulation of the Female Reproductive Cycle 1112 Phases of the Female Reproductive Cycle 1112 Menstrual Phase · Preoviúatory Phase · Ovulation · Postovulatory Phase Birth Control Methods and Abortion 1117 Surgical Sterilization 1117 Hormonal Methods 1118 Intrauterine Devices · Spermicides · Barrier Methods · Periodic Abstinence Abortion 1119 Development of the Reproductive Systems 1119 Aging and the Reproductive Systems 1122 • CLINICAL CONNECTION Cryptorchidism 1087 Vasectomy 1091 Circumcision 1095 Premature Ejaculation 1095 Ovarian Cysts 1101 Uterine Prolapse 1105 Hysterectomy 1107 Episiotomy 1110 Breast Augmentation and Reduction 1111 Fibrocystic Disease of the Breasts ніг Female Athlete Triad: Disordered Eating, Amenorrhea, and Premature Osteoporosis IU17 FOCUS ON HOMEOSTASIS: THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS 1123 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 1124 Medical Terminology 1126 Study Outline 1127 Self-Quiz Questions 1129 Critical Thinking Questions 1131 Answers to Figure Questions 1132 29 DEVELOPMENT AND INHERITANCE 1133 Embryonic Period 1134 First Week of Development 1134 Fertilization · Cleavage oftlie Zygote · Blastocyst Formation · Implantation Second Week of Development 1138 Development of the Trophoblast · Development of the Bilaminar Embryonic Disc ■ Development oftheAmnion · XX CONTENTS Development of the Yolk Sac · Development of Sinusoids · Development of the Extraembryonic Coelom · Development of the Chorion Third Week of Development 1140 Gastrulation · Neundation · Development of Somites · Development of the Intraembryonic Coelom · Development of the Cardiovascular System · Development of the Chorionic Villi and Placenta Fourth Week of Development 1 147 Fifth Through Eighth Weeks of Development 1149 Fetal Period 1150 Teratogens 1153 Chemicals and Drags 1153 Cigarette Smoking 1153 Irradiation 1153 Prenatal Diagnostic Tests 1153 Fetal Ultrasonography 1153 Amniocentesis 1153 Chorionic Villi Sampling 1154 Noninvasive Prenatal Tests 1154 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy 1155 Hormones of Pregnancy 1155 Changes During Pregnancy 1157 Exercise and Pregnancy 1158 Labor 1158 Adjustments of the Infant at Birth 1160 Respiratory Adjustments 1160 Cardiovascular Adjustments 1160 The Physiology of Lactation 1161 Inheritance 1163 Genotype and Phenotype 1163 Variations on Dominant-Recessive Inheritance 1164 Incomplete Dominance · Multiple-Allele Inheritance · Complex Inheritance Autosomes. Sex Chromosomes, and Sex Determination 1166 Sex-Linked Inheritance 1167 Red-Green Color Blindness · X-Chromosome Inactivation • CLIJHCAL CONNECTION Stem Cell Research and Therapeutic Cloning 1136 Ectopie Pregnancy 1138 Anencephaly 1144 Placenta Previa 1147 Early Pregnancy Tests 1155 Pregnancy-Induced Hypertension 1158 Dystocia and Cesarean Section 1160 Premature Infants 1161 Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances 1168 Medical Terminology 1169 Study Outline 1170 Self-Quiz Questions 1171 Critical Thinking Questions 1174 Answers to Figure Questions 1174 APPENDIX A: MEASUREMENTS A-l APPENDIX B: PERIODIC TABLE B-3 APPENDIX C: NORMAL VALUES FOR SELECTED BLOOD TESTS C-4 APPENDIX D: NORMAL VALUES FOR SELECTED URINE TESTS D-6 APPENDIX E: ANSWERS E-8 GLOSSARY G-i CREDITS C-i INDEX i-i
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