Verfügbarkeit: Introduction to the principles of materials evaluation

Introduction to the principles of materials evaluation:

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1. Verfasser:	Jiles, David (VerfasserIn)
Format:	Buch
Sprache:	English
Veröffentlicht:	Boca Raton [u.a.] CRC Press 2008
Schlagworte:	Materials > Testing Materials > Evaluation Werkstoffprüfung Lehrbuch
Online-Zugang:	Inhaltsverzeichnis
Beschreibung:	XVI, 280 S. Ill., graph. Darst.
ISBN:	9780849373923

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Datensatz im Suchindex

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adam_text	Table of Contents Preface .................................................................................................................xv Acknowledgments ............................................................................................xvii Chapter 1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................1 1.1 Fundamentals of Materials Evaluation and the Concept of Lifetime of Materials ..............................................................................1 1.1.1 Effects of Different Forms of Energy on Materials .......................1 1.1.2 Factors That Can Cause Failure of a Material ...............................2 1.2 Testing ..........................................................................................................2 1.2.1 Macroexamination ...........................................................................2 1.2.2 Microexamination (Micrographs) ...................................................2 1.2.3 Comparison of Visual Inspection with Other Methods ..................2 1.2.4 Unassisted Visual Inspection ...........................................................2 1.2.5 Assisted Visual Observation ............................................................3 1.3 Various Methods in Materials Evaluation ...................................................6 1.3.1 Concept for Nondestructive Evaluation ..........................................7 1.3.2 Techniques for Nondestructive Assessment ....................................7 1.3.2.1 Major Methods .................................................................7 1.3.2.2 Minor Methods .................................................................7 1.3.3 Remedial Action ..............................................................................8 1.3.4 Terminology .....................................................................................8 Chapter 2 Mechanical Properties of Materials ....................................................................11 2.1 Effects of Stress on a Material ..................................................................11 2.1.1 Mechanical Testing ........................................................................12 2.1.1.1 Destructive vs. Nondestructive Testing .........................12 2.1.2 The Stress-Strain Curve ................................................................12 2.1.3 Elastic Modulus .............................................................................14 2.1.4 Yield Strength ................................................................................14 2.1.5 Plastic Deformation .......................................................................14 2.1.6 Tensile Strength .............................................................................14 2.1.7 Ductility .........................................................................................16 2.1.8 Toughness and Resilience .............................................................16 2.2 Stress-Strain Relationships and Elastic Properties ...................................16 2.2.1 Longitudinal Stress and Strain: Young s Modulus .......................17 2.2.2 Transverse Strain: Poisson s Ratio ................................................18 2.2.3 Shear Stress and Strain: Shear Modulus .......................................19 2.2.4 Volumetrie Strain under Uniaxial Stress .......................................21 2.2.5 Volumetric Strain under Hydrostatic Stress ..................................21 2.2.6 Torsionai Stress and Strain ............................................................22 2.3 Hardness ....................................................................................................23 2.3.1 Brinell Hardness ............................................................................23 2.3.2 Vickers Hardness ...........................................................................25 2.3.3 Rockwell Hardness ........................................................................25 2.3.4 Knoop Microhardness ...................................................................26 2.3.5 Relationship between Hardness and Other Mechanical Properties ...................................................................27 References ...........................................................................................................29 Chapter 3 Sound Waves: Acoustic and Ultrasonic Properties of Materials .......................31 3.1 Vibrations and Waves ................................................................................31 3.1.1 The Wave Equation .......................................................................31 3.1.2 Wavelength and Frequency ...........................................................33 3.2 Relationship between Mechanical Properties and Wave Propagation ................................................................................................33 3.2.1 Transverse Waves ..........................................................................34 3.2.2 Longitudinal Waves .......................................................................35 3.2.3 Changes in Mechanical Properties ................................................37 3.3 Launching Waves in Materials ..................................................................38 3.3.1 Transducers ....................................................................................38 3.3.2 Modes of Inspection: Pulse-Echo and Pitch-Catch ......................38 3.3.3 Time of Flight: Thickness Determination .....................................40 3.3.4 Attenuation ....................................................................................42 3.3.5 Notation for Attenuation and Amplification of Signals .......................................................................................43 3.3.6 Acoustic Emission .........................................................................44 3.3.7 Laser Generation of Ultrasound ....................................................44 References ...........................................................................................................45 Chapter 4 Thermal Properties of Materials .........................................................................47 4.1 Thermal Effects in Materials .....................................................................47 4.1.1 Thermal Capacity and Temperature Change ................................47 4.1.2 Thermal Conduction ......................................................................48 4.1.3 Thermal Expansion ........................................................................50 4.1.4 Stress Due to Thermal Expansion .................................................51 4.2 Temperature Dependence of Materials Properties ....................................51 4.2.1 Ductile-to-Brittle Transition ..........................................................52 4.3 Effects of Heat on Structure of Materials .................................................53 4.3.1 Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth ...........................53 4.3.2 Effects of Annealing on Hardness and Ductility ..........................54 4.3.3 Creep ..............................................................................................56 References ...........................................................................................................57 Chapter 5 Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Materials ................................................59 5.1 Electrical Insulators ...................................................................................59 5.1.1 Polarization ....................................................................................59 5.1.2 Relation between Polarization and Field ......................................59 5.1.3 Surface Charge ..............................................................................60 5.1.4 Values of Dielectric Coefficients ...................................................61 5.2 Electrical Conductors ................................................................................61 5.2.1 Electric Current and Current Density ...........................................62 5.2.2 Relationship between Current Density, Conductivity, and Electric Field ..........................................................................62 5.2.3 Movement of Electrons in Conducting Materials .........................62 5.2.4 Temperature Dependence of Resistivity .......................................64 5.3 Electrical Measurements for Materials Testing ........................................66 5.3.1 Generation of Eddy Currents ........................................................66 5.3.2 Penetration of a Plane Electromagnetic Wave into a Material ...............................................................................67 5.3.3 Skin Depth .....................................................................................68 5.3.4 Electrical Parameters .....................................................................69 5.3.5 Relationship between Voltage and Current under AC Excitation ......................................................................70 5.3.6 Components of Impedance ............................................................71 5.4 Magnetic Fields .........................................................................................71 5.4.1 Magnetic Field H ...........................................................................72 5.4.2 Magnetic Induction В ....................................................................72 5.4.3 Magnetic Fields in Various Configurations ...................................74 5.4.4 Three Simple Cases .......................................................................75 5.4.5 Leakage Flux in the Vicinity of Flaws .........................................76 References ...........................................................................................................77 Chapter 6 Effects of Radiation on Materials .......................................................................79 6.1 Basics of Х -Rays....................................................................................... 79 6.1.1 Generation of Х -Rays................................................................... 79 6.1.2 Typical Х -Ray Spectrum ...............................................................79 6.1.3 Attenuation of Radiation ...............................................................80 6.1.4 Attenuation Coefficients ................................................................81 6.1.5 Mass Attenuation Coefficient ........................................................82 6.1.6 Composite Attenuation Coefficients ..............................................82 6.2 Interaction of Х -Rays with Materials .......................................................84 6.2.1 Principal Interaction Processes .....................................................84 6.2.2 Atomic Attenuation Coefficient ....................................................85 6.2.3 Electronic Attenuation Coefficient ................................................86 6.2.4 Contributions to Attenuation .........................................................86 6.2.5 Energy Dependence of Attenuation Coefficients ..........................86 6.2.6 Surface Analysis Using Radiative Methods ..................................89 6.2.7 Х -Ray Fluorescence (XRF) ...........................................................89 6.2.8 Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) .......................................90 6.2.9 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) ............................................91 6.2.10 Х -Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) ...................................92 6.3 Exposure, Dose, and Dose Rate ................................................................93 6.3.1 Reduction in Intensity of a Divergent Beam of Radiation ...........93 6.3.2 Shielding of a Nondivergent Beam of Radiation .........................93 6.3.3 Reduction in Intensity of a Divergent Beam with Shielding ................................................................................94 6.3.4 Dose ...............................................................................................94 6.3.5 Reduction of Exposure to Radiation and Dose Rate ....................94 6.3.6 Measurement Units: Roentgen, Rad, and Rem ............................95 6.3.7 Recommended Upper Limits for Radiation Dose ........................96 References ...........................................................................................................97 Chapter 7 Mechanical Testing Methods ..............................................................................99 7.1 Tensile Testing ...........................................................................................99 7.1.1 Stress-Strain Curve .......................................................................99 7.1.2 Engineering Stress vs. True Stress ................................................99 7.1.3 Nonlinear Behavior .....................................................................101 7.2 Hardness Tests .........................................................................................102 7.2.1 Comparison of Hardness Tests and Conversion between Hardness Scales ............................................................102 7.2.2 Relationship of Hardness to Other Mechanical Properties .....................................................................................103 7.2.3 Variation of Indentation Area with Load: Reliability of Hardness Tests ........................................................................105 7.3 Cracks and Failure of Materials ..............................................................107 7.3.1 Cracks and Other Defects ...........................................................107 7.3.2 Crack Growth ..............................................................................109 7.3.3 Fatigue .........................................................................................109 7.3.4 Detection of Cracks Using Liquid Pénétrants ............................110 7.3.5 Other Methods for Surface Inspection ........................................114 7.4 Impact and Fracture Tests .......................................................................114 7.4.1 Fracture Toughness ......................................................................115 7.4.2 Relationship between Fracture Toughness and Charpy V Notch Test ............................................................117 7.4.3 Temperature Dependence of Fracture Toughness .......................118 References .........................................................................................................121 Chapter 8 Ultrasonic Testing Methods ..............................................................................123 8.1 Generation of Ultrasound in Materials ...................................................123 8.1.1 Transducers ..................................................................................123 8.1.2 Beam Divergence .........................................................................126 8.1.3 Distance-Amplitude Correction Curve .......................................126 8.1.4 Display and Interpretation of Ultrasonic Data ............................131 8.1.4.1 Interpretation of Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Signals .........133 8.2 Inhomogeneous and Layered Materials ..................................................135 8.2.1 Transmission and Reflection at Interfaces ..................................136 8.2.2 Amplitude of Reflected Wave .....................................................136 8.2.3 Energy Transfer and Conservation ..............................................136 8.2.4 Dependence of Reflected Energy on Impedances ......................138 8.2.5 Amplitude of Transmitted Wave .................................................138 8.3 Angle Beams and Guided Waves ............................................................139 8.3.1 Mode Conversion ........................................................................140 8.3.2 Nonnormal Reflection .................................................................140 8.3.3 Refraction ....................................................................................141 8.3.4 Surface Acoustic Waves ..............................................................141 References .........................................................................................................144 Chapter 9 Electrical Testing Methods ...............................................................................147 9.1 Basics of Eddy Current Testing ..............................................................147 9.1.1 Eddy Current Inspection .............................................................148 9.1.2 Impedance Plane Response .........................................................149 9.1.3 Depth Dependence of Intensity of Eddy Currents .....................150 9.1.4 Dependence of Penetration Depth on Materials Properties .....................................................................................152 9.2 Eddy Current Sensors ..............................................................................153 9.2.1 Various Sensor Geometries and Configurations .........................153 9.2.2 Equivalent Circuits ......................................................................155 9.2.3 Impedance Measurement .............................................................155 9.2.4 Impedance Plane Representation ................................................155 9.3 Factors Affecting Eddy Current Response ..............................................157 9.3.1 Materials Properties Affecting Eddy Currents ............................157 9.3.2 Effects of Cracks on Eddy Currents ...........................................158 9.3.3 Geometrical Factors Affecting Eddy Currents ............................158 9.3.4 Mutual Inductance .......................................................................160 References .........................................................................................................161 Chapter 10 Magnetic Testing Methods ................................................................................163 10.1 Magnetization .........................................................................................163 10.1.1 Intrinsic Magnetic Properties ...................................................163 10.1.2 Magnetization Curves and Hysteresis ......................................164 10.1.3 Dynamic Demagnetizing Effects: Reducing the Magnetization to Zero ........................................................164 10.1.4 Static Demagnetizing Effects: The Demagnetizing Factor ........................................................................................165 10.1.5 Equations Governing the Demagnetizing Effects in Inhomogeneous Materials ....................................................167 10.2 Magnetic Methods for Evaluation of Defects .......................................168 10.2.1 Intrinsic Methods ......................................................................168 10.2.2 Extrinsic Methods ....................................................................168 10.2.3 Detection of Flaws and Cracks Using Magnetic Flux Leakage ............................................................................169 10.2.4 Description of Cracks as Magnetic Dipoles ............................170 10.2.5 Equations for Fields around Cracks ........................................170 10.2.6 Examples of Leakage Field Calculations ................................173 10.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection .................................................................174 10.3.1 Various Procedures for Generating the Magnetic Field for MPI ............................................................................174 10.3.2 Practical Considerations for Use in MPI .................................175 10.3.3 Rigid Coils ................................................................................175 10.3.4 Flexible Coils ...........................................................................176 10.3.5 Current Needed to Magnetize Steels .......................................176 10.3.6 Ketos Ring Test ........................................................................176 10.3.7 Pie Gauge Test ..........................................................................177 10.3.8 Special Techniques for MPI .....................................................178 References .........................................................................................................180 Chapter 11 Radiographie Testing Methods .........................................................................183 11.1 Х -Ray Imaging ......................................................................................183 11.1.1 Х -Ray Images ...........................................................................183 11.1.2 Blurring of Images ...................................................................184 11.1.3 Projection Radiography ............................................................184 11.1.4 Geometrical Unsharpness .........................................................184 11.1.5 Magnification ............................................................................186 11.1.6 Other Geometrical Features .....................................................186 11.1.7 Contact Radiography ................................................................186 11.2 Radiographie Film .................................................................................187 11.2.1 Properties of the Х -Ray Film ..................................................187 11.2.2 Film Exposure ..........................................................................187 11.2.3 Photographic Density ...............................................................187 11.2.4 Radiographie Contrast ..............................................................188 11.2.5 Film Density and Gradient .......................................................188 11.2.6 Unsharpness ..............................................................................189 11.3 Radiographs ...........................................................................................190 11.3.1 Beam Divergence .....................................................................190 11.3.2 Examples of How Material Defects Can Appear in a Radiograph ........................................................................191 11.3.3 Optimum Exposure of Radiographs ........................................193 11.3.3.1 Variation of Radiographie Density with Exposure ..........................................................193 11.3.3.2 Effects of Spatial Variation in Mass Attenuation Coefficients ..........................................195 11.3.3.3 Determination of Optimum Exposure Time for a Radiograph ......................................................195 11.3.3.4 Photon Energy .........................................................195 11.3.3.5 Absorption or Attenuation Coefficient ....................196 11.3.3.6 Х -Ray Intensity .......................................................196 11.3.3.7 Radiographie Contrast .............................................196 11.3.3.8 Film Unsharpness ....................................................196 11.3.3.9 Equivalent Thickness of Steel .................................196 11.3.3.10 Correction for Film Density ....................................197 11.3.3.11 Normalization for Source-to-Film Distance ...........197 References .........................................................................................................198 Chapter 12 Thermal Testing Methods .................................................................................201 12.1 Heat Transfer ..........................................................................................201 12. 12. 12. 12. 12. .1 Thermal Conduction .................................................................201 .2 Thermal Radiation ....................................................................202 .3 Temperature Transients ............................................................202 .4 Heat How .................................................................................203 .5 Thermal Waves .........................................................................203 12.2 Thermal Inspection Procedures .............................................................204 12.2.1 Contact Detection Methods ......................................................204 12.2.2 Noncontact Detection Methods ................................................205 12.2.3 Thermometry ............................................................................205 12.2.3.1 Contact Thermometry ..............................................205 12.2.3.2 Noncontact Thermometry ........................................205 12.2.4 Thermography ..........................................................................205 12.2.5 Contact Thermography .............................................................207 12.2.5.1 Liquid Crystals ........................................................207 12.2.5.2 Phosphors .................................................................207 12.2.5.3 Heat Sensitive Paints ...............................................208 12.2.5.4 Heat Sensitive Papers ..............................................208 12.2.6 Noncontact Thermography .......................................................208 12.2.7 Applications of Thermography ................................................209 12.2.8 Sonic Infrared Inspection .........................................................209 References .........................................................................................................209 Chapter 13 Destructive vs. Nondestructive Testing ............................................................211 13.1 Testing Options ......................................................................................211 13.1.1 Testing vs. No Testing ..............................................................211 13.1.2 Factors to Consider in Selecting Tests .....................................212 13.1.3 Destructive Testing vs. Nondestructive Testing .......................212 13.1.4 Economics of Testing ...............................................................213 13.1.4.1 Added Value vs. Cost of Nondestructive Testing ......................................................................214 13.1.4.2 Added Value vs. Cost of Destructive Testing .........214 13.1.4.3 Profit vs. Cost of Failure .........................................214 13.1.4.4 In-Service Testing ....................................................214 13.1.4.5 Added Value vs. Costs of Nondestructive Testing and Failure ..................................................215 13.1.4.6 Destructive Tests with Cost of Failure ....................215 13.1.5 Economic Considerations in Destructive vs. Nondestructive Testing ........................................................216 13.2 Materials Characterization .....................................................................217 13.2.1 Materials Characterization vs. Nondestructive Evaluation .................................................................................217 13.2.2 Intrinsic Properties vs. Performance ........................................217 13.2.3 Examples of Characterization Methods ...................................218 13.2.4 Remaining Lifetime and Failure of Materials .........................219 References .........................................................................................................219 Chapter 14 Defect Detection ...............................................................................................221 14.1 Terminology for Nondestructive Evaluation .........................................221 14.1.1 Discontinuity, Imperfection, Flaw, and Defect ........................221 14.1.2 Noncritical Flaw .......................................................................221 14.1.3 Critical Flaw .............................................................................221 14.1.4 Indication ..................................................................................221 14.1.5 False Indication ........................................................................222 14.1.6 Nonrelevant Indication .............................................................222 14.1.7 Relevant Indication ...................................................................222 14.1.8 Interpretation and Evaluation...................................................222 14.2 Probability of Detection .........................................................................222 14.2.1 Dependence of Signal Amplitude on Flaw Size ......................223 14.2.2 Threshold Signal Level ............................................................223 14.2.3 Probability of Detection: Ideal Conditions ..............................225 14.2.4 Probability of Detection: Real Conditions ..............................226 14.3 Statistical Variation of Signal Levels ....................................................228 14.3.1 Mathematical Formalism Using a Normal Distribution ..........228 14.3.2 Other Statistical Distributions ..................................................232 References .........................................................................................................232 Chapter 15 Reliability and Lifetime Extension ...................................................................235 15.1 Reliability and Criteria for Decisions ...................................................235 15.1.1 Accept/Reject Criteria ..............................................................235 15.1.2 Threshold Signal Level ............................................................236 15.1.3 Decision Matrix ........................................................................237 15.1.4 False Accepts and False Rejects ..............................................238 15.1.5 Dependence of Probability of False Accepts on Threshold Signal Level .......................................................239 15.1.6 Dependence of Probability of False Rejects on Threshold Signal Level .......................................................241 15.1.7 Relative Operating Characteristics: The ROC Curve ..............241 15.2 Lifetime Extension .................................................................................242 15.2.1 Economic Considerations .........................................................243 15.2.2 Retirement for Cause ...............................................................244 References .........................................................................................................244 Appendix: Solutions to Exercises ..................................................................245 Index .................................................................................................................265
adam_txt	Table of Contents Preface .xv Acknowledgments .xvii Chapter 1 Introduction .1 1.1 Fundamentals of Materials Evaluation and the Concept of Lifetime of Materials .1 1.1.1 Effects of Different Forms of Energy on Materials .1 1.1.2 Factors That Can Cause Failure of a Material .2 1.2 Testing .2 1.2.1 Macroexamination .2 1.2.2 Microexamination (Micrographs) .2 1.2.3 Comparison of Visual Inspection with Other Methods .2 1.2.4 Unassisted Visual Inspection .2 1.2.5 Assisted Visual Observation .3 1.3 Various Methods in Materials Evaluation .6 1.3.1 Concept for Nondestructive Evaluation .7 1.3.2 Techniques for Nondestructive Assessment .7 1.3.2.1 Major Methods .7 1.3.2.2 Minor Methods .7 1.3.3 Remedial Action .8 1.3.4 Terminology .8 Chapter 2 Mechanical Properties of Materials .11 2.1 Effects of Stress on a Material .11 2.1.1 Mechanical Testing .12 2.1.1.1 Destructive vs. Nondestructive Testing .12 2.1.2 The Stress-Strain Curve .12 2.1.3 Elastic Modulus .14 2.1.4 Yield Strength .14 2.1.5 Plastic Deformation .14 2.1.6 Tensile Strength .14 2.1.7 Ductility .16 2.1.8 Toughness and Resilience .16 2.2 Stress-Strain Relationships and Elastic Properties .16 2.2.1 Longitudinal Stress and Strain: Young's Modulus .17 2.2.2 Transverse Strain: Poisson's Ratio .18 2.2.3 Shear Stress and Strain: Shear Modulus .19 2.2.4 Volumetrie Strain under Uniaxial Stress .21 2.2.5 Volumetric Strain under Hydrostatic Stress .21 2.2.6 Torsionai Stress and Strain .22 2.3 Hardness .23 2.3.1 Brinell Hardness .23 2.3.2 Vickers Hardness .25 2.3.3 Rockwell Hardness .25 2.3.4 Knoop Microhardness .26 2.3.5 Relationship between Hardness and Other Mechanical Properties .27 References .29 Chapter 3 Sound Waves: Acoustic and Ultrasonic Properties of Materials .31 3.1 Vibrations and Waves .31 3.1.1 The Wave Equation .31 3.1.2 Wavelength and Frequency .33 3.2 Relationship between Mechanical Properties and Wave Propagation .33 3.2.1 Transverse Waves .34 3.2.2 Longitudinal Waves .35 3.2.3 Changes in Mechanical Properties .37 3.3 Launching Waves in Materials .38 3.3.1 Transducers .38 3.3.2 Modes of Inspection: Pulse-Echo and Pitch-Catch .38 3.3.3 Time of Flight: Thickness Determination .40 3.3.4 Attenuation .42 3.3.5 Notation for Attenuation and Amplification of Signals .43 3.3.6 Acoustic Emission .44 3.3.7 Laser Generation of Ultrasound .44 References .45 Chapter 4 Thermal Properties of Materials .47 4.1 Thermal Effects in Materials .47 4.1.1 Thermal Capacity and Temperature Change .47 4.1.2 Thermal Conduction .48 4.1.3 Thermal Expansion .50 4.1.4 Stress Due to Thermal Expansion .51 4.2 Temperature Dependence of Materials Properties .51 4.2.1 Ductile-to-Brittle Transition .52 4.3 Effects of Heat on Structure of Materials .53 4.3.1 Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth .53 4.3.2 Effects of Annealing on Hardness and Ductility .54 4.3.3 Creep .56 References .57 Chapter 5 Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Materials .59 5.1 Electrical Insulators .59 5.1.1 Polarization .59 5.1.2 Relation between Polarization and Field .59 5.1.3 Surface Charge .60 5.1.4 Values of Dielectric Coefficients .61 5.2 Electrical Conductors .61 5.2.1 Electric Current and Current Density .62 5.2.2 Relationship between Current Density, Conductivity, and Electric Field .62 5.2.3 Movement of Electrons in Conducting Materials .62 5.2.4 Temperature Dependence of Resistivity .64 5.3 Electrical Measurements for Materials Testing .66 5.3.1 Generation of Eddy Currents .66 5.3.2 Penetration of a Plane Electromagnetic Wave into a Material .67 5.3.3 Skin Depth .68 5.3.4 Electrical Parameters .69 5.3.5 Relationship between Voltage and Current under AC Excitation .70 5.3.6 Components of Impedance .71 5.4 Magnetic Fields .71 5.4.1 Magnetic Field H .72 5.4.2 Magnetic Induction В .72 5.4.3 Magnetic Fields in Various Configurations .74 5.4.4 Three Simple Cases .75 5.4.5 Leakage Flux in the Vicinity of Flaws .76 References .77 Chapter 6 Effects of Radiation on Materials .79 6.1 Basics of Х -Rays. 79 6.1.1 Generation of Х -Rays. 79 6.1.2 Typical Х -Ray Spectrum .79 6.1.3 Attenuation of Radiation .80 6.1.4 Attenuation Coefficients .81 6.1.5 Mass Attenuation Coefficient .82 6.1.6 Composite Attenuation Coefficients .82 6.2 Interaction of Х -Rays with Materials .84 6.2.1 Principal Interaction Processes .84 6.2.2 Atomic Attenuation Coefficient .85 6.2.3 Electronic Attenuation Coefficient .86 6.2.4 Contributions to Attenuation .86 6.2.5 Energy Dependence of Attenuation Coefficients .86 6.2.6 Surface Analysis Using Radiative Methods .89 6.2.7 Х -Ray Fluorescence (XRF) .89 6.2.8 Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) .90 6.2.9 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) .91 6.2.10 Х -Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) .92 6.3 Exposure, Dose, and Dose Rate .93 6.3.1 Reduction in Intensity of a Divergent Beam of Radiation .93 6.3.2 Shielding of a Nondivergent Beam of Radiation .93 6.3.3 Reduction in Intensity of a Divergent Beam with Shielding .94 6.3.4 Dose .94 6.3.5 Reduction of Exposure to Radiation and Dose Rate .94 6.3.6 Measurement Units: Roentgen, Rad, and Rem .95 6.3.7 Recommended Upper Limits for Radiation Dose .96 References .97 Chapter 7 Mechanical Testing Methods .99 7.1 Tensile Testing .99 7.1.1 Stress-Strain Curve .99 7.1.2 Engineering Stress vs. True Stress .99 7.1.3 Nonlinear Behavior .101 7.2 Hardness Tests .102 7.2.1 Comparison of Hardness Tests and Conversion between Hardness Scales .102 7.2.2 Relationship of Hardness to Other Mechanical Properties .103 7.2.3 Variation of Indentation Area with Load: Reliability of Hardness Tests .105 7.3 Cracks and Failure of Materials .107 7.3.1 Cracks and Other Defects .107 7.3.2 Crack Growth .109 7.3.3 Fatigue .109 7.3.4 Detection of Cracks Using Liquid Pénétrants .110 7.3.5 Other Methods for Surface Inspection .114 7.4 Impact and Fracture Tests .114 7.4.1 Fracture Toughness .115 7.4.2 Relationship between Fracture Toughness and Charpy V Notch Test .117 7.4.3 Temperature Dependence of Fracture Toughness .118 References .121 Chapter 8 Ultrasonic Testing Methods .123 8.1 Generation of Ultrasound in Materials .123 8.1.1 Transducers .123 8.1.2 Beam Divergence .126 8.1.3 Distance-Amplitude Correction Curve .126 8.1.4 Display and Interpretation of Ultrasonic Data .131 8.1.4.1 Interpretation of Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Signals .133 8.2 Inhomogeneous and Layered Materials .135 8.2.1 Transmission and Reflection at Interfaces .136 8.2.2 Amplitude of Reflected Wave .136 8.2.3 Energy Transfer and Conservation .136 8.2.4 Dependence of Reflected Energy on Impedances .138 8.2.5 Amplitude of Transmitted Wave .138 8.3 Angle Beams and Guided Waves .139 8.3.1 Mode Conversion .140 8.3.2 Nonnormal Reflection .140 8.3.3 Refraction .141 8.3.4 Surface Acoustic Waves .141 References .144 Chapter 9 Electrical Testing Methods .147 9.1 Basics of Eddy Current Testing .147 9.1.1 Eddy Current Inspection .148 9.1.2 Impedance Plane Response .149 9.1.3 Depth Dependence of Intensity of Eddy Currents .150 9.1.4 Dependence of Penetration Depth on Materials Properties .152 9.2 Eddy Current Sensors .153 9.2.1 Various Sensor Geometries and Configurations .153 9.2.2 Equivalent Circuits .155 9.2.3 Impedance Measurement .155 9.2.4 Impedance Plane Representation .155 9.3 Factors Affecting Eddy Current Response .157 9.3.1 Materials Properties Affecting Eddy Currents .157 9.3.2 Effects of Cracks on Eddy Currents .158 9.3.3 Geometrical Factors Affecting Eddy Currents .158 9.3.4 Mutual Inductance .160 References .161 Chapter 10 Magnetic Testing Methods .163 10.1 Magnetization .163 10.1.1 Intrinsic Magnetic Properties .163 10.1.2 Magnetization Curves and Hysteresis .164 10.1.3 Dynamic Demagnetizing Effects: Reducing the Magnetization to Zero .164 10.1.4 Static Demagnetizing Effects: The Demagnetizing Factor .165 10.1.5 Equations Governing the Demagnetizing Effects in Inhomogeneous Materials .167 10.2 Magnetic Methods for Evaluation of Defects .168 10.2.1 Intrinsic Methods .168 10.2.2 Extrinsic Methods .168 10.2.3 Detection of Flaws and Cracks Using Magnetic Flux Leakage .169 10.2.4 Description of Cracks as Magnetic Dipoles .170 10.2.5 Equations for Fields around Cracks .170 10.2.6 Examples of Leakage Field Calculations .173 10.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection .174 10.3.1 Various Procedures for Generating the Magnetic Field for MPI .174 10.3.2 Practical Considerations for Use in MPI .175 10.3.3 Rigid Coils .175 10.3.4 Flexible Coils .176 10.3.5 Current Needed to Magnetize Steels .176 10.3.6 Ketos Ring Test .176 10.3.7 Pie Gauge Test .177 10.3.8 Special Techniques for MPI .178 References .180 Chapter 11 Radiographie Testing Methods .183 11.1 Х -Ray Imaging .183 11.1.1 Х -Ray Images .183 11.1.2 Blurring of Images .184 11.1.3 Projection Radiography .184 11.1.4 Geometrical Unsharpness .184 11.1.5 Magnification .186 11.1.6 Other Geometrical Features .186 11.1.7 Contact Radiography .186 11.2 Radiographie Film .187 11.2.1 Properties of the Х -Ray Film .187 11.2.2 Film Exposure .187 11.2.3 Photographic Density .187 11.2.4 Radiographie Contrast .188 11.2.5 Film Density and Gradient .188 11.2.6 Unsharpness .189 11.3 Radiographs .190 11.3.1 Beam Divergence .190 11.3.2 Examples of How Material Defects Can Appear in a Radiograph .191 11.3.3 Optimum Exposure of Radiographs .193 11.3.3.1 Variation of Radiographie Density with Exposure .193 11.3.3.2 Effects of Spatial Variation in Mass Attenuation Coefficients .195 11.3.3.3 Determination of Optimum Exposure Time for a Radiograph .195 11.3.3.4 Photon Energy .195 11.3.3.5 Absorption or Attenuation Coefficient .196 11.3.3.6 Х -Ray Intensity .196 11.3.3.7 Radiographie Contrast .196 11.3.3.8 Film Unsharpness .196 11.3.3.9 Equivalent Thickness of Steel .196 11.3.3.10 Correction for Film Density .197 11.3.3.11 Normalization for Source-to-Film Distance .197 References .198 Chapter 12 Thermal Testing Methods .201 12.1 Heat Transfer .201 12. 12. 12. 12. 12. .1 Thermal Conduction .201 .2 Thermal Radiation .202 .3 Temperature Transients .202 .4 Heat How .203 .5 Thermal Waves .203 12.2 Thermal Inspection Procedures .204 12.2.1 Contact Detection Methods .204 12.2.2 Noncontact Detection Methods .205 12.2.3 Thermometry .205 12.2.3.1 Contact Thermometry .205 12.2.3.2 Noncontact Thermometry .205 12.2.4 Thermography .205 12.2.5 Contact Thermography .207 12.2.5.1 Liquid Crystals .207 12.2.5.2 Phosphors .207 12.2.5.3 Heat Sensitive Paints .208 12.2.5.4 Heat Sensitive Papers .208 12.2.6 Noncontact Thermography .208 12.2.7 Applications of Thermography .209 12.2.8 Sonic Infrared Inspection .209 References .209 Chapter 13 Destructive vs. Nondestructive Testing .211 13.1 Testing Options .211 13.1.1 Testing vs. No Testing .211 13.1.2 Factors to Consider in Selecting Tests .212 13.1.3 Destructive Testing vs. Nondestructive Testing .212 13.1.4 Economics of Testing .213 13.1.4.1 Added Value vs. Cost of Nondestructive Testing .214 13.1.4.2 Added Value vs. Cost of Destructive Testing .214 13.1.4.3 Profit vs. Cost of Failure .214 13.1.4.4 In-Service Testing .214 13.1.4.5 Added Value vs. Costs of Nondestructive Testing and Failure .215 13.1.4.6 Destructive Tests with Cost of Failure .215 13.1.5 Economic Considerations in Destructive vs. Nondestructive Testing .216 13.2 Materials Characterization .217 13.2.1 Materials Characterization vs. Nondestructive Evaluation .217 13.2.2 Intrinsic Properties vs. Performance .217 13.2.3 Examples of Characterization Methods .218 13.2.4 Remaining Lifetime and Failure of Materials .219 References .219 Chapter 14 Defect Detection .221 14.1 Terminology for Nondestructive Evaluation .221 14.1.1 Discontinuity, Imperfection, Flaw, and Defect .221 14.1.2 Noncritical Flaw .221 14.1.3 Critical Flaw .221 14.1.4 Indication .221 14.1.5 False Indication .222 14.1.6 Nonrelevant Indication .222 14.1.7 Relevant Indication .222 14.1.8 Interpretation and Evaluation.222 14.2 Probability of Detection .222 14.2.1 Dependence of Signal Amplitude on Flaw Size .223 14.2.2 Threshold Signal Level .223 14.2.3 Probability of Detection: Ideal Conditions .225 14.2.4 Probability of Detection: Real Conditions .226 14.3 Statistical Variation of Signal Levels .228 14.3.1 Mathematical Formalism Using a Normal Distribution .228 14.3.2 Other Statistical Distributions .232 References .232 Chapter 15 Reliability and Lifetime Extension .235 15.1 Reliability and Criteria for Decisions .235 15.1.1 Accept/Reject Criteria .235 15.1.2 Threshold Signal Level .236 15.1.3 Decision Matrix .237 15.1.4 False Accepts and False Rejects .238 15.1.5 Dependence of Probability of False Accepts on Threshold Signal Level .239 15.1.6 Dependence of Probability of False Rejects on Threshold Signal Level .241 15.1.7 Relative Operating Characteristics: The ROC Curve .241 15.2 Lifetime Extension .242 15.2.1 Economic Considerations .243 15.2.2 Retirement for Cause .244 References .244 Appendix: Solutions to Exercises .245 Index .265
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spelling	Jiles, David Verfasser aut Introduction to the principles of materials evaluation David C. Jiles Boca Raton [u.a.] CRC Press 2008 XVI, 280 S. Ill., graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Materials Testing Materials Evaluation Werkstoffprüfung (DE-588)4037934-6 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4123623-3 Lehrbuch gnd-content Werkstoffprüfung (DE-588)4037934-6 s DE-604 Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016564095&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis
spellingShingle	Jiles, David Introduction to the principles of materials evaluation Materials Testing Materials Evaluation Werkstoffprüfung (DE-588)4037934-6 gnd
subject_GND	(DE-588)4037934-6 (DE-588)4123623-3
title	Introduction to the principles of materials evaluation
title_auth	Introduction to the principles of materials evaluation
title_exact_search	Introduction to the principles of materials evaluation
title_exact_search_txtP	Introduction to the principles of materials evaluation
title_full	Introduction to the principles of materials evaluation David C. Jiles
title_fullStr	Introduction to the principles of materials evaluation David C. Jiles
title_full_unstemmed	Introduction to the principles of materials evaluation David C. Jiles
title_short	Introduction to the principles of materials evaluation
title_sort	introduction to the principles of materials evaluation
topic	Materials Testing Materials Evaluation Werkstoffprüfung (DE-588)4037934-6 gnd
topic_facet	Materials Testing Materials Evaluation Werkstoffprüfung Lehrbuch
url	http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016564095&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
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