Ikonografia monet piastowskich: 1173 - ok. 1280
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| 1. Verfasser: | |
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Polish |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Warszawa [u.a.]
Polskie Towarzystwo Numizmatyczne
2007
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| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Beschreibung: | Zsfassung in engl. Sprache |
| Beschreibung: | 378 s. zahlr. Ill. 31 cm |
| ISBN: | 9788389616166 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Ikonografia monet piastowskich |b 1173 - ok. 1280 |c Witold Garbaczewski |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804137582566572033 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | Spis treści
Wstęp
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................7
Wizerunek władcy
..........................................................................................................................................................................................18
I. Wyobrażenie głowy
-
portret czy topos?
.............................................................................................................21
II.
Władca tronujący
.........................................................................................................................................................................28
III. Władca w typie pieszym (postać i półpostać)
-
insygnia i atrybuty władzy
...................34
1.
Korona
................................................................................................................................................................................................35
2.
Mitra i diadem
...........................................................................................................................................................................41
3.
Berło i różdżka sprawiedliwości
50
4.
Jabłko panowania
.................................................................................................................................................................56
5.
Gałązka palmowa
...................................................................................................................................................................59
6.
Włócznia
.........................................................................................................................................................................................60
7.
Miecz
....................................................................................................................................................................................................70
8.
Tarcza, hełm i zbroja
...........................................................................................................................................................73
IV.
Wizerunki konne
.........................................................................................................................................................................75
V.
Przedstawienia wielopostaciowe
81
Symbolika motywów architektonicznych
..............................................................................................................................97
I.
Sposoby tworzenia architektonicznych ideogramów
99
1.
Tradycja antyczna
..................................................................................................................................................................99
2.
Średniowieczna kontynuacja
...................................................................................................................................104
II.
Motywy architektoniczne na stemplach monet średniowiecznych
.......................................108
1.
Wzory formalno-ideowe (brakteaty niemieckie „pięknego stylu ) i ich symbolika
108
2.
Monety książąt piastowskich
..................................................................................................................................130
III. Miasta idealne
...............................................................................................................................................................................141
1.
Złoty Rzym
................................................................................................................................................................................142
2.
Niebiańska Jerozolima
...................................................................................................................................................144
IV.
Analogie pozamonetarne
..................................................................................................................................................150
Symbolika przedstawień zoomorficznych
I. Zwierzęta fantastyczne
.........................................................................................................................................................161
1.
Centaur
...........................................................................................................................................................................................161
2.
Syrena
..............................................................................................................................................................................................165
3.
Gryf
....................................................................................................................................................................................................171
4.
Smok
.................................................................................................................................................................................................177
II.
Zwierzęta realne
.........................................................................................................................................................................183
1.
Orzeł
................................................................................................................................................................................................183
a. Orły heraldyczne
.........................................................................................................................................................183
b. Ptak na dachu budowli
.........................................................................................................................................190
с
Ptak z odwróconą głową
.....................................................................................................................................195
d. Władca jako ptak
.......................................................................................................................................................197
2.
Sokół
.................................................................................................................................................................................................198
3.
Lew
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................202
4.
Jeleń
...................................................................................................................................................................................................204
5.
Brakteat z tzw. kozłem
...................................................................................................................................................207
III. Sceny walk
........................................................................................................................................................................................208
1.
Książę i bestia
..........................................................................................................................................................................208
a. Walka z lwem
.................................................................................................................................................................208
Schemat „rycerski
-
władca w pełnym rynsztunku
........................................................208
Władca jako Nowy
Samson
..........................................................................................................................213
Władca dominujący
..............................................................................................................................................215
b. Walka ze smokiem
....................................................................................................................................................216
с
Książę i tur
........................................................................................................................................................................220
2.
Ptak drapieżny i jego ofiara
......................................................................................................................................222
a. Orzeł i wąż
........................................................................................................................................................................222
b. Orzeł i smok
....................................................................................................................................................................224
Walka dwóch ptaków
.........................................................................................................................................227
Orzeł i zając
..................................................................................................................................................................229
Motywy o wyraźnej symbolice sakralnej
............................................................................................................................233
I. Monety z nazwami cnót
.....................................................................................................................................................235
1.
Miłość
(Caritas, Milost)................................................................................................................................................
236
2.
Sprawiedliwość (Iustitia)
.............................................................................................................................................239
3.
Wiara
(Fides)
............................................................................................................................................................................241
II.
Wizerunki świętych
...............................................................................................................................................................244
1.
św Wojciech
.............................................................................................................................................................................244
2.
św Stanisław
.............................................................................................................................................................................251
3.
św. Jan Chrzciciel
................................................................................................................................................................260
4.
św Wacław
.................................................................................................................................................................................267
5.
św. Maurycy
..............................................................................................................................................................................269
III. Pozostałe motywy o wyraźnych religijnych konotacjach
................................................................273
1.
Anioł
.................................................................................................................................................................................................273
2.
Baranek Boży
...........................................................................................................................................................................277
3.
Prawica Pańska
(Dextera Domini,
Manus
Dei)
280
4.
Krzyż
................................................................................................................................................................................................282
Przedstawienia i symbole związane z ikonografią judaistyczną
287
I. Władca jako starotestamentowy bohater
.........................................................................................................291
1.
Nowy
Aaron
..............................................................................................................................................................................291
2.
Nowy Dawid
.............................................................................................................................................................................294
II.
Motywy niefiguralne
306
1.
Brakteaty „ptak na czubku drzewa i „kwiat
306
2.
Brakteat „smok i dwa ptaki
312
3.
Brakteat z lwem
....................................................................................................................................................................315
4.
Pozostałe brakteaty z wizerunkami zwierząt
317
III. Brakteaty napisowe oraz z podobizną Żyda
321
1.
Hebrajskie brakteaty napisowe
321
2.
Brakteaty z przedstawieniem Żyda
324
Uwagi końcowe
...................................................................................... 331
Wykaz skrótów i literatury
339
Indeks Geograficzny
357
Indeks Osobowy
З6О
Tabela konkordancji
367
English summary
372
English
summary
Introduction
The aim of this work is first of all possibly full recognition of symbolics and determination of the genesis of
motives appearing on dies of Piasts coins from the bracteate s period, as well as identifying directions of ideological
influences together with the qualification of factors influencing on selection of individual scenes and symbols. The
attempt of specifying
maťUer
of conscious or mechanical duplication of motives will be undertake here, what will
be related also with an answer to the question, in what degree
-
and whether at all
-
contemporary political events
influenced a monetary iconography. The recognition of the content of images on dies will allow
-
in relation to
scantiness of written sources
-
on the reconstruction, to some extent, of group of the ideas connected with the ruler,
it will show also the role of coins as an important mean of transferring information, making up one of essential
elements of propagandist activity of the ruler.
The research will include coins (bracteates and denarii) struck by the representatives of the Piasts dynasty, as
well as the dukes reigning on Silesia (Lower and Upper), which was the integral component of the Polish state in
interesting us period. However skipped here will be magnate s and church emissions, distinguished mainly on the
ground of surveys of
Stanisław Suchodolski.
The beginning of period comprised by the researches marks
1173,
when the duke of Great Poland Mieszko III
becomes the senior, immediately carrying out radical monetary reform and introducing to the circulation
-
instead
of two-sided denarii
-
bracteates struck by one die, intensifying at the same time, initiated, during the reign of
Władysław
II the Exile, the system of periodic exchange of coin. This activity resulted in consequences for subject
of this work. The necessity of clear differentiation of the dies of following after themselves emissions extorted search
for new
-
often original
-
iconographie
solutions. In the consequence variety of types of dies grew up vehemently.
Use only one surface of coin created the necessity of condensing record. This circumstance also led to developing
specific
iconographie
solutions (e.g. division of space of die on several zones), and also to compress of representation
by addition extra symbols and signs. However such steps were taken not in all cases because often only short record
were put.
Inconvenient for population the monetary politics of Mieszko in the period of his first senior rules was one of
reasons of the Mieszko s removal in
1177
from the Cracovian throne. The years, that follow this event are the least
examined in the Polish medieval numismatics. Despite the possibility of assignment of some emission to individual
rulers (mainly thanks to their names in legend), the attribution of majority of coins is based on more or less accurate
assumptions. The coinage of
Kazimierz
the Just is recognized, at present, only in small measure, and the only
bracteates attributed more certain with the name of this ruler come from unknown hoard. For the period after
1177
periodical activity of the archbishop s mint in
Gniezno
is possible, though this hypothesis does not have a support
in sources. However it is sure, that the new senior decreased considerably his financial liabilities as well as resigned
from some prerogatives belonged only to the superior duke. The result was, that mint activity in their own districts
was launched by the remaining representatives of the dynasty, as Odon Mieszkowic
(1177-1192)
in Great Poland,
Leszek Bolesławowie
(1177-1186,
emissions after
ca. 1182)
inMazovia whether sons of
Władysław
the Exile-
Bolesław
the Tall and Mieszko
Plątonogi,
who their Silesian districts regained already in
1163,
however they began to strike
their own coins most certainly after the expulsion of Mieszko III from Cracow. Intensive mint activity
-
mainly
by the Jewish businessmen s hands
-
conducted also the former senior, which in
1181,
managed to return to the
capital of Great Poland. Also his sons with the Kievan princess Eudoksja
-
Mieszko called the Younger
(1186-1193)
as well as the duke of
Kujawy Bolesław
(1191-1194/95)
undoubtedly struck their own coins, however this possibility
is sometimes questioned.
Equally unclear, how in the last quarter of the 12th c, is currently for us the monetary situation in Poland in the
first half of the next century. Certain amount of coins with the name of
Władysława
can be distributed between the
son of Mieszko the Old
-
Władysław Laskonogi
(1202-1229)
and his opponent
Władysław Odonic
(1207-1217,1223-
1238).
Some emissions can be attributed to the sons of
Władysław
Odonic
-
Bolesław Pobożny
(1241-1279)
as well
as
Przemysł
I
(1247-1257).
Among coins of
Kujawy
and Mazovia we can deal with the emissions of
Konrad
in
Płock
as well as his sons
-
Kazimierz
I (after
1236
in
Inowrocław)
and
Bolesław
I
(1234-1248,
after
1236
in
Płock),
though
all those hypothesis require more investigations. Discovered recently so called Cracovian hoard can provide us, in
turn, with many valuable informations regarding the contemporary coinage of Little Poland. So far on the ground
of analysis of this hoard was undertaken the attempt of identifying the bracteate of the duchess Helena, the widow
after
Kazimierz
the Just (emission in years
1194/95-1198)
as well as the Cracovian duke
Leszek Biały
(1194-1227).
It
is conceivable, that the mint activity conducted here also as the Cracovian duke (in years
1241-1243),
Konrad
the
Mazovian, and some emissions from later period can be attributed with large dose of probability to
Bolesław
the
Bashful
(1243-1279).
372
I IKONOGRAFIA
MONET
PIASTOWSKICH
The case of Silesia looks less complicatedly because the process of coin evolution ran here differently than it took
place in the remaining districts of Poland. The mint activity started here after
1177
Bolesław
the Tall and Mieszko
Plątonogi,
striking two-sided denarii, though Mieszko
-
as it is supposed recently
-
could also strike bracteates in
Wroclaw (in years
1177-1179),
continuing this activity later in
Racibórz. Bolesław
introduced in his district (Lower
Silesia) bracteates most probably in the 1190s. About the year
1200
the bracteates of
Daszów-Kluczbork
appeared,
making up an indirect link between the coins of
Bolesław
the Tall and later, the heavily barbarized bracteates found
in the village
Rataje.
These bracteates, introduced certainly in the first decade of the 13th c, were, as it is accepted
generally, products of mints of two
Henryks:
the Bearded
(1201-1238)
and the Godly
(1238-1241).
Their continuation
were, distinguished recently, the bracteates of post-
Rataje
type (or
Kałowice
type), struck certainly in the 1240s. The
last stage of the bracteates Silesian coinage is the appearance ca.
1250
so called wide bracteates, circulating till the
end of the 13th c, in terms of technique of realization and the iconography very similar to the later bracteates, so
called button, from the remaining districts of Poland.
Button bracteates however will not be taken under attention in this work, about which decided mainly
iconographie
criterion. The characteristic feature of these coins without legends is the considerable limitation of the
scale of passed on contents through the limitation of message to most often one sign, summarizing these information,
which the issuer was anxious to visualize. It caused the resignation from stage images and basing on symbolic
signs, related personally to the duke or district which he represented. The same we can say about the Silesian wide
bracteates, which will not be considered here also. For a moment of introduction of button bracteates on the Polish
grounds conventionally we can accept the year
1280,
remembering however, that on Silesia this processOnitiating the
production of wide bracteates) began about the quarter of age earlier. This is also the upper border date of the period
which is comprised by the researches.
Chapter
1.
The diversity and the frequency of the appearance of ruler s representations on Piasts coins can testify about
this, that his figure on a die had special role. We can assume that every representation expressed its own contents, the
selection of definite image pattern was conditioned, at least in the most of cases, by the transfer of concrete, desirable
by an issuer announcement. The simplest
iconographie
form
-
the head presented straight on or in profile
-
could
also, according to the form of details, contain deeper symbolics. If sometimes the attempts of the individualization of
a ruler s picture were undertaken (most often through the addition of hair) then it never crossed certain established
border. Here however is necessary a distinction between the early-mediaeval representations, and later, from the end
of the 12th
с
and the first half of the
ІЗ 11
с.
These earlier had more in common with the settled already, characteristic
not only for coins convention, calculated most often on the expression of concrete contents, so later
-
it is mainly
about the bearded Piasts bracteates, making up on the background of the bracteates coinage (excluding emissions
of Jaksa from
Miechów
as the duke on Kopanik) true sensation
-
could contain a bit of realism. Maybe we should
notice in such cases the first symptoms of a withdrawal from characteristic mediaeval anonymity, though real
portraits will appear in two centuries.
The majesty of power was fully expressed by the representations, on which the ruler appeared in whole his figure,
or throning, or else riding on horseback or simply
-
as in the majority of discussed cases
-
standing (he could be
shown then also to a belt as well as in a bust). The figure of issuer was the most classic monetary representation,
because
-
regardless of the degree of the schematization of image
-
guaranteed good quality of a coin, and was her
special authentication sign. Depending on how the ruler presented himself on his emission, he could be, to some
degree, perceived so by his subjects because the representation on a coin got not only to magnate s manors, but also
to common population. Therefore so important role fulfilled here
insignias
and attributes, which
-
however certainly
not everybody seem to understand their wide symbolics
-
clearly favored the ruler among other representatives of
the elite in contemporary society. Nobody except the duke could present himself in a majestic frame, nobody else
could hold a sceptre and apple or wear a mitre or crown. The mounted representation
-
also reserved only for the elite
-
was more universal, because in such way the palatine
Piotr Wszeborowic
presented himself on his denarii. Maybe
therefore on the Piasts coins such image were not very popular, however there is no doubt
-
about what testify among
other things German or Bohemian examples
-
that it also carried the symbolics proper to the sovereign ruler and
could sometimes
-
how in the case of the landgraves of
Turyngia
-
dominate monetary dies entirely.
The problem of the reality of introduced situations and views is the separate matter here. Differently speaking
-
it is sometimes unknown whether the Piasts dukes really used a crown or apple of rule, or else they used this type
of representations only on monetary images in arrogative sense. Therefore can we speak here about materialized
on dies the idea of apple of rule, or about the reflection of real custom of using it? Is the model king(with a crown,
apple, sceptre and in overcoat) on a Piasts bracteate only a monarch s idea or the Piasts just look like that in their
festive version? The confrontation of different types of sources can bring us the most complete answer to these
kind of questions, in addition, coins
-
so far rather poorly valued in this way- can aspire here to the rank of excellent
certificates.
English
summary I
373
Especially interesting, in the group discussed above, are multi-figural representations, which probably are
the reflection of real political relationsialliances, arrangements, joint rules) in the Piasts Poland. They should be
counted among group of particularly valuable documents, which correct interpretation can considerably extend our
knowledge about this distant period. Despite legends, which help sometimes in the attempts of the interpretation
of individual compositions, several
-
less or more probable
-
hypotheses exists currently in relation to some coins,
which veracity can be verified, on the present stage of researches, by probably only new, well dated and completely
recognized finds.
The ruler presented on a die of his coin in military version evoked probably feeling of safety among subjects and
looked like an invincible warrior towards his enemies(it is possible to say that he acted as a particular apotropaion ,
scaring off however not supernatural, but terrestrial forces). In the peaceful version(with a palm, cross etc.) he
informed about virtues which possession guarantee him a favor of sacrum, translating in turn on prosperity of
population. The definite presentations called most often representative poses, associating certainly for subjects with
normal situations known to them(a horseback tour of territory, an enforcement of jurisdictional authorizations etc.).
They could also
-
e.g. throning
-
evoke associations with present in contemporary iconosphere images of Christ on
a majesty and call sacred elements of power, and in consequence
-
strengthen an authority of the ruler.
The ruler on coins is a figure somewhat different than e.g. on stamps whether on cards of manuscripts. When
these last are penetrated by individual conventionality, schematism, it is possible to say even: representative
hieratic character , then the images on dies are characterized by a search for new forms as well as an
iconographie
differentiation, enriched sometimes by a dose of true artistic skill. The person on a coin is first of all the ruler on
different occasions , the ruler for general use . His diverse varieties are also single fragments of puzzle making up
promoted in the contemporary ideology the image of ideal monarch.
Chapter
2.
Architecture played on the dies of mediaeval coins extremely significant role. With her help it was tried to
reproduce vital ideas, which presence we perceive also on different products of artistic manufacture:
1.
The idea of integrity
-
represented with help of circle, quadrangle or different polygon of battlemented(entirely
or partly) walls, symbolizing closed space, empty or fulfilled (most often by ruler s figure), with the possible reference
to the idea of holy centre, moreover walls dependent on contents which had to be illustrated, could be provided in
additional architectural elements(towers, gate clearances, arcade s galleries);
2.
The idea of defences
-
expressed through all kind of elements of military architecture, often specially highlighted,
increased or reduced to minimum number(e.g. battlements), both assembled in monumental constructions, and also
pushed off somewhere aside, nevertheless however present and important in a program of die;
3.
The idea of representativeness
-
arcade, domed towers (including melon-like ), splendor, extended
symmetrically and most often
triaxial
layouts, forms unprecedented in reality, often about clear ancient connotations
(e.g. twisted towers), sometimes however reduced also to not distinctive in program of die details.
Architecture fulfilled also arranging functions
-
separated the surface of a coin on zones, in which we can
recognize from time to time some semantic fields about the different ranges of
symbolics(both
about wider meaning,
as also concerned directly to coinage master). Meet here the elements existing in reality, smuggled maybe into
the structure of normalized , established roughly pattern, do not authorize to advance the theses about realistic
character of monetary architecture. Similarly as appearing sometimes on coins an eagle s nose, advanced lower jaw,
beard or long hair in a ruler s physiognomy could be his particularly characteristic features, and nevertheless we
can not in no case speak about the mediaeval monetary portrait (in today s meaning of this word), the same about
appearing on dies architectural constructions, nevertheless, that sometimes they can contain allusions to really
appearing originally features, we can not consider as the real images of church and residential buildings, or all the
more whole cities. If the constructions compiled according to arranging principles, chosen regarding contents, were
similar in larger or smaller degree to the real layouts
-
better for them. However that was not about such similarity
first of all here, but about the transfer of intentional contents with help of suitably sorted motives. Even a perspective
had not only to enrich the image artistically or testify about manual abilities of the engravers of dies and play her
specific part as an element helping better to understand transmitted content. A die of coin offered not enough space
to come out beyond accurate intended information
-
every detail made up a part of a puzzle here, however not so
much formal, how much just content
-
the puzzle which could call often several different associations. Currently it is
impossible to unambiguously affirm whether near every similar formal solution, individual elements of composition
were given similar symbolic range. Sometimes similar arrangements could transfer different content.
On the architectural dies there was certain rules, which main, as it seems, was the symmetry relative to vertical
axis. The adaptation of image to the round field of a coin also forced some limitations, however this defect was
often turned in an advantage, creating the compositions superbly fitting in with circular form. Small diameter of a
disc forced the reduction of
iconographie
program. The architectural motives were put together not paying larger
attention on actual condition
-
such shortcuts was not subject to the rights of physics, therefore the massive burg
374
I IKONOGRAFIA
MONET
PIASTOWSKICH
could safely lay on the openwork gallery. The over-material contents mattered here
-
anyway mainly in this epoch
-
to express which architecture was only auxiliary mean.
In many cases on the small dies we can observe certain characteristic tendencies also for the contemporary
monumental realizations. The Romanesque architecture (mainly a church, but not only) was characterized by even
division of larger blocks on smaller, similar to each other parts. That rhythmical articulation of space manifest
among other things through a predilection to columnar arcade, extended cornices as well as architectural elements
such columns, pillars or pilaster-strips. This trend we can observe also on dies of coins, on which architectural
constructions are provided(and often without connection with reality) with this type of additions, buildings are
divided on several stories and the space is separated with help of columns or (often imaginary) bows. It is noticeable,
that German buildings, in contrast with e.g. French, Italian or English, aim chiefly to strong and fantastic effects, and
this statement perfectly illustrates the character of architectural constructions appearing on the 12th
с
bracteates of
our western neighbors. Just this fantasticality, that complex unreality give in result the splendor of monetary palatios
and churches.
Chapter
3.
The appearance of animals on mediaeval coins at all
-
and Piasts particularly
-
has rich ancient tradition. Basing
mainly on the forms and the contents developed by Christian antiquity, the art of Middle Ages assimilated the
images of animals in so high degree that it is unthinkable any branch of artistic production, in which representatives
of the world of fauna would not occupy responsible position. Also in the Piasts coinage of the bracteates period the
zoomorphic motives were used generally, and they are outnumbered probably only by the images of the ruler, which
they often accompanied.
The beastiarium presents on Polish coins
-
though artistic level in the majority of cases is not rather (except for
several glorious exceptions) too high here
-
transferred by coins contents we can compare to the bestiary from cards
of illuminated manuscripts or from portals of Romanesque churches. On the small silver plates appear animals in
whole their spectrum of meaning. They carry the contents connected directly with sacrum (Christologic symbols),
represent the ruler (symbolically replacing him or becoming element of the ancestral emblems), they make up both
the threat for man (in the scenes of fights), and they help him in everyday
life(falconry),
they have to warn, induce to
reflection as well as bring on the road of salvation. There are also here the most popular local species (deer, aurochs,
eagle, hare, snake), and exotic ones(lion), and even fantastic(dragon, griffin, siren), which were believed that really
exist, living at the end of world. The fact, that they appeared on a monetary die induces sometimes to glance on
their symbolics under different angle. Special function of a coin, as well as her huge propaganda strength, permits
sometimes on supposing here the most actual, political contents, expressed with help of animal allegories.
The Piasts monetary bestiary was one of the most interesting in whole contemporary Europe. Animals did not
appear on Polish coins by accident
-
every of them had to fulfill some(most often didactic) part, every animal carried
proper message, which at present
-
at least in some cases
-
not easily to read correctly. Animals were perceived as
special links between transcendent and real world. In the animal customs, whole wisdom of God was contained, and
man could, copying some of them (using additionally Christian writers interpretations), to obey His commandments
and in consequence to reach salvation.
On the bracteates and denarii of the Polish dukes appear both fantastic and real animals. Among these last
dominate the familiar fauna(deer, aurochs, falcon, eagle), and lion is the only representative of exoticism which does
not prevent him however to outnumber the remaining menagerie. The royal predator play on the Piasts coin of the
height of the Middle Ages special part, which is probably connected with his popularity in art of whole contemporary
Europe, but not only, because the numerous references to this animal appear in the manuscripts from the epoch
(Gall,
Kadłubek),
as well as
-
and rather first of all
-
in Bible, which was for artists basic source of inspiration.
Amazing variety of types and contents characterized also the monetary eagles
-
they reach to sacrum, they draw from
profanum, they call sacrum
imperium,
or they are the part of magic world. This testifies doubtless about the meaning
attach by men of power to elevated symbolics, which was carried by this royal bird. The predilection for eagle and lion
on the Polish coins should not surprise
-
after all they were the best exponents of the idea of kingship.
Stated already many times the significative ambivalence of zoomorphic pictures in the Middle Ages is visible
also on talked over bracteates. The dragon, for example, appears as a duke s enemy here, a representative of forces of
darkness and a sin, that is in his classic image promoted by Apocalypse, but also
-
supposedly
-
he is the symbol
of a spitting fire ruler, an invincible warrior with dragon s glance. Similarly, the lion
-
as a roaring and dangerous
enemy of mankind (participating both in the ideology of power
oí
sacrum and profanum, though such distinction is
not always possible) attacks with bared claws defending with a sword person, but he also is
-
as the royal animal and
noble
-
the symbolic personifying of the ruler.
On the Piasts coins of the height of the Middle Ages can be notified the intensification of zoomorphic combatant
scenes and also often in very original versions (the fight of two birds). We can suppose, that in the majority of cases
they stick
-
as a kind of
exempla
-
in church symbolics, though it is possible, that
-
being the transfer of the relations
English
summary I
375
existing among men into the animal world
-
they contain also the allusions to current political situation. Often
the ruler himself fights with the representatives of the world of fauna, dealing a death blow to, not only commonly
meet then in Poland (obviously only in iconosphere) lion, but also
-
which is already artist s inventiveness(or else
originator) working for
a Piast
-
to the charging aurochs. Even in so violent battle pieces, where exhibiting secular
advantages definitely advanced on the first plan, it was possible to recognize the sacred elements, as for instance in the
representation of ruler tearing jaws of pinned to the ground beast, referring to Old Testament episode with Samson.
Characteristic for the Middle Ages the miraculousness and belief in the monsters resident borders of then known
world her reflection found also on the dies of Polish bracteates. Except the most popular in the iconosphere of this
epoch dragon, also were introduced several times a griffin as well as a hybrid appeared on coins rather seldom: a
siren (in her fish-tailed version) as well as a centaur (with a spear and hunting-horn). The role of those fabulous
animals in these concrete cases is not easy to determine. We can suppose, that the dragon or griffin
-
and maybe
the centaur
-
existed in the positive regions of the symbolics of power, concerning the person of the coinage master
and showing on proper to him, the features connected with fight. Different however is the case of siren, which on
known from Polish coins the representation does not allow herself to fit in the ideology serving creation of the ideal
ruler s image. Maybe the reason of her appearance on Piasts bracteates we should look for in the sphere of magic,
making up the inseparable component of the contemporary philosophy of life. If the ruler
-
warrior in definite
situations permanently set such monsters to his own protection(engraving on a sword e.g. the image of dragon) then
he similarly could lay them down on a die of coin, giving her secondarily features of repelling an evil apotropaion.
This thesis is difficult to prove at present, however it seems, we should not exclude her completely. The originality of
zoomorphic compositions on the dies of Piasts coins testifies about intellectual level of their creators and about use
by them different sources, the most often reaching apogee of their development bestiaries.
Chapter
4.
The motives about clear sacred symbolics form the comparatively large group among the images present on the
dies of Piasts coins. The fact, that almost all emissions of that type we can attribute with large dose of probability
to the secular issuers, convinces of the huge part of element of sacrum in the contemporary ideology of rules. The
certain intensification of sacred contents on Polish bracteates and denarii is not nothing exceptional
-
many similar
motives and compositions appear in Bohemian, German or Hungarian(where we can notice special liking for cross)
coinage. This certain trend, common for the whole Europe, appeared by the participation of strict secular objects
(coins) in sacred symbolics.
However there is no doubt, that also in the group discussed here, comes to voice the originality of Piasts coins
on the European background. Most clearly it is visible in the case of bracteates with the names(and sometimes also
with images) of virtues (IUSTITI A, FIDES,
CARITAS, MILOST).
Their comparatively large variety (both names and
views) allow to assume certain wider conceived program of ruler s(or rulers ) glorification, however this is not
-
in the
face of lack of exact attributions of this type of coins
-
reliable hypothesis on the present stage of researches. We can
observe that, what was on e.g. cards of manuscripts in complex version(the figures of virtues accompanying throning
ruler), on small silver plates was drastically reduced. This resulted in the specific shaping of images on dies, resulting
among other things in the creation of condensed compositions, which content
-
taking into consideration also
often uniqueness and poor condition of some types
-
is not clear for us at present. The bracteates with name of virtues
reflect the next fragment of the ideology of power
-
special fragment, exposing in original way peaceful overtone
of holding rules, creating the rule-landlord, ruler-protector and ruler-God s confidant, guaranteeing subjects peace
and happiness.
On Piasts coins there is also comparatively large choice of saints with considerable variety of views and are
outnumbered probably only by German coins. Their images are sometimes important sources for the researches over
development of characteristic for given martyr iconography because definite
iconographie
types appear often for
the first time exactly on coins, which on more monumental works popularity will take really later. The mentioned
specific of monetary iconography became the reason of developing views, which were possible to meet only on a die
(e.g. St John shown as Witness of Light) and which appearance was limited to only one concrete case. We can observe
this first of all on bracteates where the deficit of the space became stimulus to develop
iconographie
inventiveness. In
the group of saints we can distinguish first of all the state patrons(Wojciech) as well as
-
at least initially
-
the regional
ones(Stanisław, Jan),
or even as we can suppose, the
local(Wacław).
Separate category are the representations of St
Maurycy,
which does not appear on the dies concerning religious cult, but
-
we can suppose
-
his person connects
directly with the idea of crusades(alive in Poland particularly in the
1.
half of the
ІЗ 1
с),
through the symbolic
identification with the ruler-issuer making of him example of God s knight. Numerically St
Wojciech
leads among
monetary martyrs (initially as the patron of whole country, and then just only
Gniezno
and Great Poland) as well
as the protector of the diocese of Wroclaw St Jan the Baptist, which
-
particularly on the bracteates from
Rataje
hoard
-
appears even more often than the ruler himself(sometimes it is difficult to distinguish apart, in the face
of the schematization of image, both these persons). It wonders however the certain absence on coins St
Stanisław,
3761
IKONOGRAFIA MONET PIASTOWSKICH
however it should be probably explained by comparatively the late
-
taking into consideration the period included in
researches
-
date of his canonization as well as the circumstance, that initially this cults served more the Cracovian
clergy than the ruler, clear union accents gaining really later. We can not properly identify many representations
of saints on Polish mute coins at the present stage of researches, however also these coins consist on this original
monetary Golden Legend
,
which with the passage of time
-
how it is pointed out by the hoard from Cracow
-
will
be certainly systematically enriched.
The remaining motives about clear sacred symbolics present on Piasts coins (crosses, the Lamb of God,
Dextera Dei etc.) occur also commonly on the emissions of neighbouring countries, becoming the part of tendency
characteristic for the whole monetary iconosphere of the time. They should not be connected only
-
what should
be underlined once again
-
with the products of church mints, because, similarly as names and images of virtues,
they could transfer symbolics desirable for the secular ruler. The motive of angel, the Lamb of God, cross, or even
-
how on Bohemian denarii
-
Christ himself granted the rules of coin master clear sacred sanction, located him on a
plane carrying out over the terrestrial mediocrity and was one of elements establishing his dominant position. The
expression of such contents was indispensable in the creation of the ideal ruler s image, therefore the presence of all
those representations on a die of most bearing then medium becomes entirely comprehensible.
Chapter
5.
Separate group of Piasts coins from described period are the coins with Hebrew inscriptions. Their analysis
leads to the conclusion, that the creators of very original representations on dies were Jews leasing the duke s mints.
On the bracteates with Hebrew inscriptions of Mieszko the Old, struck probably shortly after
1181,
we can
recognize the intention of the identification of the duke with heroes of Old Testament
-
the high-priest Aaron and
the king David
-
not without connection with political situation in partite on districts Poland. In such cases the
composition of adequate attributes (a blooming Aaron s rod, lion, palm and crowned head) was created, or the
biblical episodes were used in aim to indicate on the present political situation (the high-priest Achimelek passing on
bread and the Goliath sword in sanctuary in Nob,
1
Sm
21, 2-Ю).
In this case Mieszko is New David and New Aaron
-
chosen person, marked by the power
oí
sacrum, predestinate to final victory.
Unusually original are in turn the bracteates, which appeared, so far, only in the hoard from Moskorzyn. The
motives appearing on them we can connect most probably with the influence of Judaic iconography. The element
defined most often as flower is very similar to e.g. appearing in Jewish ancient art (on sarcophagus or lintels of
synagogues) motives, which was possible to interpret as the representation of menorah showed under the figure of
Tree of Life and Light. The similar contents we can connect with the image of bird on schematically showed tree,
which accompanies the ring, pointing maybe on the solar symbolics of this representation. The Jewish origin can also
have, numerous on bracteates of Mieszko or his sons, the images of animals (characteristically presented dragons,
two antithetically showed eagles).
On Hebrew bracteates the most numerous group of inscriptions are wishes of blessing and happiness, directed
certainly to the duke. The names of Jews appear here also often
-
Jacob, Joseph, Abraham, Menachem
-
holders, and
simultaneously certainly administrators of mints. The bracteates with four-rowed legend in Hebrew are the most
interesting phenomena in the history of the money of mediaeval Europeiincluding the holder s name with the mark of
his priestly descent as well as his father s name), which fills whole field of die. We can not exclude here the influence of
ancient coinage(Jewish coins struck in
Judea
since 2nd c. B.C.), at the same time it is possible to notice, that Jews, living
in
Kalisz
certainly since the end of the 12th c, used the denarii of
Bolesław Kędzierzawy,
struck most probably after
1157,
on which on the obverse appear exactly the same composition(along with lines dividing rows of letters), with
the name of the duke (BOLESLAVS), or the saint patron of the country (ADALBERTVS). Therefore maybe here we
should look for a direct pattern. There is no doubt, that the Hebrew bracteates with legends were clearly ostentatious
emission of the large load of representativeness. To realize that, it is enough to look on the similar examples of coins
from neighboring countries (Bohemia, Hungary, Denmark), on which the rows-legend scheme (occuring only on
denarii and rather in very rare cases) brought the name of the ruler or saint, enjoying special authority in state.
The next peculiarity of Piasts coinage are the bracteates with representation (most often head) of Jew, from
which the most interesting is specimen found in the Cracovian hoard, with bearded half figure in pointed hat,
making by right hand difficult to interpretation gesture. On the present stage of researches on meaning of gesture on
this bracteates, we have only the group of more or less equivalent, in relation to probability, interpretations. Maybe
it is about the expression of superior authority over mint(therefore on a die would appear a superior of mint), or
maybe it is just the representation of rabbi with merits for mint or some biblical hero(Moses? Aaron?), patterned
after appearing on different dies Christian saints, or maybe it is symbol, which
-
similarly as later the star of David
-
would point on the fact, that this bracteate was struck by Hebrews. However it is the fact, that this is the only known
in mediaeval Europe coin at the present, on which as an independent motive of die appears Jew, which make gesture,
testifying about the will of delivery of definite information.
English
summary I
377
Final remarks
Several causes influenced on the wealth of monetary images, which the most important was the intensification
of renovatio system. The aim to differentiation of dies of following emissions resulted in introducing the motives on
coins, which earlier did not appear on them, it was also stimulus to developing such solutions, which in shortened
-
and therefore original
-
form expressed desirable for the issuer contents. For that reason in many cases there is
no formal analogs for discussed compositions among the products of different kinds of artistic production. The
regional fragmentation also contributed to iconography differentiation, which
-
particularly after coming to the
power of
Kazimierz
the Just
-
entered its prosperity period. Practically independent apart the dukes for the point of
honor considered
-
who only had suitable conditions for it
-
the emission of own money, and not only in economic
purpose, but also
-
and maybe first of all
-
representative. The change of technique of striking coins also influenced on
composition of the image. Use of only one die forced to use shortcuts, ideograms and capacious of content symbols,
unconventional and original solutions and caused the division of the surface of a die on separate zones
-
diverse
semantic fields
-
which contained rich in contents, often multidimensional source.
It is difficult to give a clear answer to the question, was the iconography of Piasts coins subject, in the century
comprised by the researches, to some perceptible evolution, first of all because of the lack of exact attributions. This
circumstance causes, that often it is not known, whether the coin comes from the 12th or 13th
с
Therefore it is possible
to draw conclusions only of general nature with restriction, that in the future, in the face of new sources, they can be
far modified.
The conducted researches indicates that the century of flat bracteates characterize
-
in pictorial sphere
-
not
static, but rather dynamics not oriented . The character of image changes, but no over-regional rules direct this
process. In the particular districts vector of these changes can point on different directions. The Silesian coins
-
initially comparatively
iconographie
rich and made by able craftsmen (if not artists), some time later change in
the bracteates of
Rataje
type, and yet later
-
Kałowice
type. However the degeneration of form is not accompanied
by
iconographie
poverty
-
on the contrary. The inventiveness of the originators of a dies
-
particularly in the case of
portraying the figure of saint John the Baptist
-
reach its apogee then.
Opposite process we can observe in Little Poland. Here however we have, particularly for the 12th c, very random
information because the production of the Cracovian mint in this period is practically not recognized. Several
bracteates with the name of
Kazimierz
coming from unknown hoard are practically all concrete starting points. We
can suppose with large dose of probability, that Mieszko the Old as a senior struck bracteates in Cracow, however
what types that was
-
we do not know this. The Cracovian emissions occur undoubtedly in so called Cracovian
hoard. The coins from this find, majority of them most probably contemporary to bracteates of type
Rataje,
present
very high artistic level and amaze by the richness of their iconography. The accumulation of original (even on
European background), not occurred in the coinage nor earlier, nor later types. So
-
differently than on Silesia
-
artistic development went here together with the increase of inventiveness of designers of dies. The care about
external form did not impoverish the content of representations and, on the contrary, she became stimulus to search
for new solutions.
In Great Poland, where also
-
in the face of several more certain attributions
-
we can attempt to make certain
general conclusions, the development went by different road, than in the previously discussed districts. In the result
of triple in year exchange of coins, Mieszko the Old as a senior made big
iconographie
revolution , continuing his
mint activity after the return from the banishment. The unusual originality of Great Poland s coins in the last twenty
years of the 12th
с
we owe however to Jewish holders, which
-
as it is possible to allege
-
got permission from the duke
on creation of dies, introducing on bracteates compositions and motives, which is hard to find on European coins
except for the Piasts domain. Seems, that later
(1.
half of the
ІЗ*
с.)
the variety of dies began to disappear and also
here it was stopped on characteristic division on two parts, first with the representation of the ruler and second with
saint patron, though the originality of views was not already
-
it is possible to affirm according to known types
-
so
large, as on Silesia.
It is hard however on the present stage of researches to characterize transformations in the iconography of coins
of
Kujawy
and Mazovia. Among these last were recognized only the individual cases, it is not known exactly also,
which specimens we can attribute to the rulers of Kujawy(though doubtlessly they occur in the finds from Anusin,
Głębokie
or
Wieniec).
Very compact in style are e.g. the denarii and bracteates from
Ujma Duża,
representing as a
whole unusually interesting
iconographie
group, worthy of separate, wider conceived researches. Can we tell here
about specific school of
Kujawy ,
it is difficult to decide at present.
It is not easy to answer also on question if we can distinguish some regional features in the iconography of Piasts
coins. Main differentiating are obviously the representations of saints, attributed to the definite regions or cities. We
can suppose (though there are no rules for that), that on coins of Great Poland will appear in enlarged intensity saint
Wojciech,
on Silesian coins saint Jan the Baptist, in Little Poland however or saint
Wacław,
or
-
however rather from
the half of the 13th
с
-
saint
Stanisław
(maybe also saint
Florian).
The matter of Silesia looks comparatively clearly,
especially after the introduction of the bracteates of type
Rataje,
which sloppy production caused specific
iconographie
insularity and division of monetary iconosphere on two mainstreams
-
saint and ruler s . The remaining motives
378 1
IKONOGRAFIA MONET PIASTOWSKICH
do not seem however already to belong to some definite district. The multi-figural representations, scenes of fights
(including animal), images of virtues, representatives of world of fauna (real and fantastic) appear on the terrain of
whole Poland, and uncertain attributions do not allow to draw further conclusions here.
The adaptation of ready patterns from the monetary circle of Germany or Bohemia testifies about inseparable
contact of Poland with the culture of Western Europe. Several directions of influences in the iconosphere of
Piasts coins of the height of the Middle Ages can be distingushed. In the group of adaptation of German patterns
comparatively easy to identify is current of Magdeburg , in several cases were used patterns from the bracteates of
county Arnstein, from
Miśnia,
Saxony, Brandenburg, south Germany or even Wetterau. Sometimes representations
were clearly patterned after
-
similarly to earlier epoch, but with smaller intensity
-
Bohemian coinage. Sometimes
unexpectedly Adriatic, Southern Italy
-
or hypothetically
-
Spanish inspirations appear on Polish coins. The foreign
solutions were willingly accepted if only expressed well intended by the issuer contents. This does not mean however
that the iconosphere of Piasts coins based mainly on derivative solutions. On the contrary
-
we can assume, that
-
despite using the forms of neighboring countries
-
originality of Polish coins clearly appears on the European
background.
Among mentioned earlier peculiarities of the Piasts numismatics we can count first of all bracteates with the
Hebrew legends with the representations inspired by Jewish iconography. This is not however only
differente, specifica
because we should mention also: the intensification of scenes of animal fights, among which appear original (fight of
two birds, fight of eagle with dragon) or compositions rare occurred on coins (eagle attacking hare); the intensification
of emissions with the names and images of virtues, or some presentations of combatant scenes (fight of duke with
aurochs). Some representations of ruler are also characterized by originality (or rulers, e.g. two half-figures with
apples of rule turned apart), which testifies about abandoning by designers strongly exploited solutions (though
obviously they were not given up entirely) and about will of special experimentation with small field of coin. The
result was, among other things, that the monetary iconography in many cases differs from this more monumental
(illuminations, masonry, goldsmithery), on which influenced first of all technical conditions determining form
of transmission. Therefore Piasts coins in many cases are the products of native culture, independent of foreign
patterns, invoking to existing in Poland relations, ideas circulating around Piasts courts and reflecting intellectual
level of contemporary elites. Their part in solving of many unclear problems relating to the history and culture of
our country can not be overestimated at the present, in order to mention here only matter of using by Piasts an
apple of rule, spear of saint
Maurycy
and ceremonial headgear, or even the decisive part of numismatical sources in
determining origin of Eagle as the emblem of the Polish Kingdom.
The images on dies of coins were doubtlessly the instrument of the propaganda of authorities, of which strength
some rulers (e.g. Mieszko the Old) were perfectly aware. They propagated both in the country and
-
in limited range
-
beyond his borders, such representation of the ruler, which currently suited him, or should be promoted at the
moment. Therefore we encounter on dies the ruler
-
donor of peace, ruler
-
warrior (defender of subjects) or ruler
-
God s knight whose representation could be inspired by the ideology of crusades. The monetary compositions were
indented as
exempla,
expressing symbolics, which filled whole contemporary culture. The animal scenes, so often
met in the different kinds of arts, also on coins transferred first of all didactic contents, though it is possible, that they
contained the allusions to current political events. It should be mentioned here also about the magic function of coin
(or rather image on her) in the Middle Ages
-
function recognized also in Piats Poland.
|
| adam_txt |
Spis treści
Wstęp
.7
Wizerunek władcy
.18
I. Wyobrażenie głowy
-
portret czy topos?
.21
II.
Władca tronujący
.28
III. Władca w typie pieszym (postać i półpostać)
-
insygnia i atrybuty władzy
.34
1.
Korona
.35
2.
Mitra i diadem
.41
3.
Berło i różdżka sprawiedliwości
50
4.
Jabłko panowania
.56
5.
Gałązka palmowa
.59
6.
Włócznia
.60
7.
Miecz
.70
8.
Tarcza, hełm i zbroja
.73
IV.
Wizerunki konne
.75
V.
Przedstawienia wielopostaciowe
81
Symbolika motywów architektonicznych
.97
I.
Sposoby tworzenia architektonicznych ideogramów
99
1.
Tradycja antyczna
.99
2.
Średniowieczna kontynuacja
.104
II.
Motywy architektoniczne na stemplach monet średniowiecznych
.108
1.
Wzory formalno-ideowe (brakteaty niemieckie „pięknego stylu") i ich symbolika
108
2.
Monety książąt piastowskich
.130
III. Miasta idealne
.141
1.
Złoty Rzym
.142
2.
Niebiańska Jerozolima
.144
IV.
Analogie pozamonetarne
.150
Symbolika przedstawień zoomorficznych
I. Zwierzęta fantastyczne
.161
1.
Centaur
.161
2.
Syrena
.165
3.
Gryf
.171
4.
Smok
.177
II.
Zwierzęta realne
.183
1.
Orzeł
.183
a. Orły heraldyczne
.183
b. Ptak na dachu budowli
.190
с
Ptak z odwróconą głową
.195
d. Władca jako ptak
.197
2.
Sokół
.198
3.
Lew
.202
4.
Jeleń
.204
5.
Brakteat z tzw. kozłem
.207
III. Sceny walk
.208
1.
Książę i bestia
.208
a. Walka z lwem
.208
Schemat „rycerski"
-
władca w pełnym rynsztunku
.208
Władca jako Nowy
Samson
.213
Władca dominujący
.215
b. Walka ze smokiem
.216
с
Książę i tur
.220
2.
Ptak drapieżny i jego ofiara
.222
a. Orzeł i wąż
.222
b. Orzeł i smok
.224
Walka dwóch ptaków
.227
Orzeł i zając
.229
Motywy o wyraźnej symbolice sakralnej
.233
I. Monety z nazwami cnót
.235
1.
Miłość
(Caritas, Milost).
236
2.
Sprawiedliwość (Iustitia)
.239
3.
Wiara
(Fides)
.241
II.
Wizerunki świętych
.244
1.
św Wojciech
.244
2.
św Stanisław
.251
3.
św. Jan Chrzciciel
.260
4.
św Wacław
.267
5.
św. Maurycy
.269
III. Pozostałe motywy o wyraźnych religijnych konotacjach
.273
1.
Anioł
.273
2.
Baranek Boży
.277
3.
Prawica Pańska
(Dextera Domini,
Manus
Dei)
280
4.
Krzyż
.282
Przedstawienia i symbole związane z ikonografią judaistyczną
287
I. Władca jako starotestamentowy bohater
.291
1.
Nowy
Aaron
.291
2.
Nowy Dawid
.294
II.
Motywy niefiguralne
306
1.
Brakteaty „ptak na czubku drzewa" i „kwiat"
306
2.
Brakteat „smok i dwa ptaki"
312
3.
Brakteat z lwem
.315
4.
Pozostałe brakteaty z wizerunkami zwierząt
317
III. Brakteaty napisowe oraz z podobizną Żyda
321
1.
Hebrajskie brakteaty napisowe
321
2.
Brakteaty z przedstawieniem Żyda
324
Uwagi końcowe
. 331
Wykaz skrótów i literatury
339
Indeks Geograficzny
357
Indeks Osobowy
З6О
Tabela konkordancji
367
English summary
372
English
summary
Introduction
The aim of this work is first of all possibly full recognition of symbolics and determination of the genesis of
motives appearing on dies of Piasts' coins from the bracteate's period, as well as identifying directions of ideological
influences together with the qualification of factors influencing on selection of individual scenes and symbols. The
attempt of specifying
maťUer
of conscious or mechanical duplication of motives will be undertake here, what will
be related also with an answer to the question, in what degree
-
and whether at all
-
contemporary political events
influenced a monetary iconography. The recognition of the content of images on dies will allow
-
in relation to
scantiness of written sources
-
on the reconstruction, to some extent, of group of the ideas connected with the ruler,
it will show also the role of coins as an important mean of transferring information, making up one of essential
elements of propagandist activity of the ruler.
The research will include coins (bracteates and denarii) struck by the representatives of the Piasts' dynasty, as
well as the dukes reigning on Silesia (Lower and Upper), which was the integral component of the Polish state in
interesting us period. However skipped here will be magnate's and church emissions, distinguished mainly on the
ground of surveys of
Stanisław Suchodolski.
The beginning of period comprised by the researches marks
1173,
when the duke of Great Poland Mieszko III
becomes the senior, immediately carrying out radical monetary reform and introducing to the circulation
-
instead
of two-sided denarii
-
bracteates struck by one die, intensifying at the same time, initiated, during the reign of
Władysław
II the Exile, the system of periodic exchange of coin. This activity resulted in consequences for subject
of this work. The necessity of clear differentiation of the dies of following after themselves emissions extorted search
for new
-
often original
-
iconographie
solutions. In the consequence variety of types of dies grew up vehemently.
Use only one surface of coin created the necessity of condensing record. This circumstance also led to developing
specific
iconographie
solutions (e.g. division of space of die on several zones), and also to compress of representation
by addition "extra" symbols and signs. However such steps were taken not in all cases because often only short record
were put.
Inconvenient for population the monetary politics of Mieszko in the period of his first senior rules was one of
reasons of the Mieszko's removal in
1177
from the Cracovian throne. The years, that follow this event are the least
examined in the Polish medieval numismatics. Despite the possibility of assignment of some emission to individual
rulers (mainly thanks to their names in legend), the attribution of majority of coins is based on more or less accurate
assumptions. The coinage of
Kazimierz
the Just is recognized, at present, only in small measure, and the only
bracteates attributed more certain with the name of this ruler come from unknown hoard. For the period after
1177
periodical activity of the archbishop's mint in
Gniezno
is possible, though this hypothesis does not have a support
in sources. However it is sure, that the new senior decreased considerably his financial liabilities as well as resigned
from some prerogatives belonged only to the superior duke. The result was, that mint activity in their own districts
was launched by the remaining representatives of the dynasty, as Odon Mieszkowic
(1177-1192)
in Great Poland,
Leszek Bolesławowie
(1177-1186,
emissions after
ca. 1182)
inMazovia whether sons of
Władysław
the Exile-
Bolesław
the Tall and Mieszko
Plątonogi,
who their Silesian districts regained already in
1163,
however they began to strike
their own coins most certainly after the expulsion of Mieszko III from Cracow. Intensive mint activity
-
mainly
by the Jewish businessmen's hands
-
conducted also the former senior, which in
1181,
managed to return to the
capital of Great Poland. Also his sons with the Kievan princess Eudoksja
-
Mieszko called the Younger
(1186-1193)
as well as the duke of
Kujawy Bolesław
(1191-1194/95)
undoubtedly struck their own coins, however this possibility
is sometimes questioned.
Equally unclear, how in the last quarter of the 12th c, is currently for us the monetary situation in Poland in the
first half of the next century. Certain amount of coins with the name of
Władysława
can be distributed between the
son of Mieszko the Old
-
Władysław Laskonogi
(1202-1229)
and his opponent
Władysław Odonic
(1207-1217,1223-
1238).
Some emissions can be attributed to the sons of
Władysław
Odonic
-
Bolesław Pobożny
(1241-1279)
as well
as
Przemysł
I
(1247-1257).
Among coins of
Kujawy
and Mazovia we can deal with the emissions of
Konrad
in
Płock
as well as his sons
-
Kazimierz
I (after
1236
in
Inowrocław)
and
Bolesław
I
(1234-1248,
after
1236
in
Płock),
though
all those hypothesis require more investigations. Discovered recently so called Cracovian hoard can provide us, in
turn, with many valuable informations regarding the contemporary coinage of Little Poland. So far on the ground
of analysis of this hoard was undertaken the attempt of identifying the bracteate of the duchess Helena, the widow
after
Kazimierz
the Just (emission in years
1194/95-1198)
as well as the Cracovian duke
Leszek Biały
(1194-1227).
It
is conceivable, that the mint activity conducted here also as the Cracovian duke (in years
1241-1243),
Konrad
the
Mazovian, and some emissions from later period can be attributed with large dose of probability to
Bolesław
the
Bashful
(1243-1279).
372
I IKONOGRAFIA
MONET
PIASTOWSKICH
The case of Silesia looks less complicatedly because the process of coin evolution ran here differently than it took
place in the remaining districts of Poland. The mint activity started here after
1177
Bolesław
the Tall and Mieszko
Plątonogi,
striking two-sided denarii, though Mieszko
-
as it is supposed recently
-
could also strike bracteates in
Wroclaw (in years
1177-1179),
continuing this activity later in
Racibórz. Bolesław
introduced in his district (Lower
Silesia) bracteates most probably in the 1190s. About the year
1200
the bracteates of
Daszów-Kluczbork
appeared,
making up an indirect link between the coins of
Bolesław
the Tall and later, the heavily barbarized bracteates found
in the village
Rataje.
These bracteates, introduced certainly in the first decade of the 13th c, were, as it is accepted
generally, products of mints of two
Henryks:
the Bearded
(1201-1238)
and the Godly
(1238-1241).
Their continuation
were, distinguished recently, the bracteates of post-
Rataje
type (or
Kałowice
type), struck certainly in the 1240s. The
last stage of the bracteates' Silesian coinage is the appearance ca.
1250
so called wide bracteates, circulating till the
end of the 13th c, in terms of technique of realization and the iconography very similar to the later bracteates, so
called button, from the remaining districts of Poland.
Button bracteates however will not be taken under attention in this work, about which decided mainly
iconographie
criterion. The characteristic feature of these coins without legends is the considerable limitation of the
scale of passed on contents through the limitation of message to most often one sign, summarizing these information,
which the issuer was anxious to visualize. It caused the resignation from stage images and basing on symbolic
signs, related personally to the duke or district which he represented. The same we can say about the Silesian wide
bracteates, which will not be considered here also. For a moment of introduction of button bracteates on the Polish
grounds conventionally we can accept the year
1280,
remembering however, that on Silesia this processOnitiating the
production of wide bracteates) began about the quarter of age earlier. This is also the upper border date of the period
which is comprised by the researches.
Chapter
1.
The diversity and the frequency of the appearance of ruler's representations on Piasts' coins can testify about
this, that his figure on a die had special role. We can assume that every representation expressed its own contents, the
selection of definite image pattern was conditioned, at least in the most of cases, by the transfer of concrete, desirable
by an issuer announcement. The simplest
iconographie
form
-
the head presented straight on or in profile
-
could
also, according to the form of details, contain deeper symbolics. If sometimes the attempts of the individualization of
a ruler's picture were undertaken (most often through the addition of hair) then it never crossed certain established
border. Here however is necessary a distinction between the early-mediaeval representations, and later, from the end
of the 12th
с
and the first half of the
ІЗ'11
с.
These earlier had more in common with the settled already, characteristic
not only for coins convention, calculated most often on the expression of concrete contents, so later
-
it is mainly
about the "bearded" Piasts' bracteates, making up on the background of the bracteates' coinage (excluding emissions
of Jaksa from
Miechów
as the duke on Kopanik) true sensation
-
could contain a bit of realism. Maybe we should
notice in such cases the first symptoms of a withdrawal from characteristic mediaeval anonymity, though real
portraits will appear in two centuries.
The majesty of power was fully expressed by the representations, on which the ruler appeared in whole his figure,
or throning, or else riding on horseback or simply
-
as in the majority of discussed cases
-
standing (he could be
shown then also to a belt as well as in a bust). The figure of issuer was the most "classic" monetary representation,
because
-
regardless of the degree of the schematization of image
-
guaranteed good quality of a coin, and was her
special authentication sign. Depending on how the ruler presented himself on his emission, he could be, to some
degree, perceived so by his subjects because the representation on a coin got not only to magnate's manors, but also
to common population. Therefore so important role fulfilled here
insignias
and attributes, which
-
however certainly
not everybody seem to understand their wide symbolics
-
clearly favored the ruler among other representatives of
the elite in contemporary society. Nobody except the duke could present himself in a majestic frame, nobody else
could hold a sceptre and apple or wear a mitre or crown. The mounted representation
-
also reserved only for the elite
-
was more universal, because in such way the palatine
Piotr Wszeborowic
presented himself on his denarii. Maybe
therefore on the Piasts' coins such image were not very popular, however there is no doubt
-
about what testify among
other things German or Bohemian examples
-
that it also carried the symbolics proper to the sovereign ruler and
could sometimes
-
how in the case of the landgraves of
Turyngia
-
dominate monetary dies entirely.
The problem of the reality of introduced situations and views is the separate matter here. Differently speaking
-
it is sometimes unknown whether the Piasts' dukes really used a crown or apple of rule, or else they used this type
of representations only on monetary images in "arrogative" sense. Therefore can we speak here about materialized
on dies the idea of apple of rule, or about the reflection of real custom of using it? Is the "model" king(with a crown,
apple, sceptre and in overcoat) on a Piasts' bracteate only a monarch's idea or the Piasts' just look like that in their
"festive" version? The confrontation of different types of sources can bring us the most complete answer to these
kind of questions, in addition, coins
-
so far rather poorly valued in this way- can aspire here to the rank of excellent
certificates.
English
summary I
373
Especially interesting, in the group discussed above, are multi-figural representations, which probably are
the reflection of real political relationsialliances, arrangements, joint rules) in the Piasts' Poland. They should be
counted among group of particularly valuable documents, which correct interpretation can considerably extend our
knowledge about this distant period. Despite legends, which help sometimes in the attempts of the interpretation
of individual compositions, several
-
less or more probable
-
hypotheses' exists currently in relation to some coins,
which veracity can be verified, on the present stage of researches, by probably only new, well dated and completely
recognized finds.
The ruler presented on a die of his coin in "military" version evoked probably feeling of safety among subjects and
looked like an invincible warrior towards his enemies(it is possible to say that he acted as a particular "apotropaion",
scaring off however not supernatural, but terrestrial forces). In the "peaceful" version(with a palm, cross etc.) he
informed about virtues which possession guarantee him a favor of sacrum, translating in turn on prosperity of
population. The definite presentations called most often representative poses, associating certainly for subjects with
normal situations known to them(a horseback tour of territory, an enforcement of jurisdictional authorizations etc.).
They could also
-
e.g. throning
-
evoke associations with present in contemporary "iconosphere" images of Christ on
a majesty and call sacred elements of power, and in consequence
-
strengthen an authority of the ruler.
The ruler on coins is a figure somewhat different than e.g. on stamps whether on cards of manuscripts. When
these last are penetrated by individual conventionality, schematism, it is possible to say even: "representative
hieratic character", then the images on dies are characterized by a search for new forms as well as an
iconographie
differentiation, enriched sometimes by a dose of true artistic skill. The person on a coin is first of all the ruler "on
different occasions", the ruler "for general use". His diverse "varieties" are also single fragments of puzzle making up
promoted in the contemporary ideology the image of ideal monarch.
Chapter
2.
Architecture played on the dies of mediaeval coins extremely significant role. With her help it was tried to
reproduce vital ideas, which presence we perceive also on different products of artistic manufacture:
1.
The idea of integrity
-
represented with help of circle, quadrangle or different polygon of battlemented(entirely
or partly) walls, symbolizing closed space, empty or fulfilled (most often by ruler's figure), with the possible reference
to the idea of holy centre, moreover walls dependent on contents which had to be illustrated, could be provided in
additional architectural elements(towers, gate clearances, arcade's galleries);
2.
The idea of defences
-
expressed through all kind of elements of military architecture, often specially highlighted,
increased or reduced to minimum number(e.g. battlements), both assembled in monumental constructions, and also
pushed off somewhere aside, nevertheless however present and important in a program of die;
3.
The idea of representativeness
-
arcade, domed towers (including "melon-like"), splendor, extended
symmetrically and most often
triaxial
layouts, forms unprecedented in reality, often about clear ancient connotations
(e.g. "twisted" towers), sometimes however reduced also to not distinctive in program of die details.
Architecture fulfilled also arranging functions
-
separated the surface of a coin on zones, in which we can
recognize from time to time some semantic fields about the different ranges of
symbolics(both
about wider meaning,
as also concerned directly to coinage master). Meet here the elements existing in reality, smuggled maybe into
the structure of "normalized", established roughly pattern, do not authorize to advance the theses' about realistic
character of monetary architecture. Similarly as appearing sometimes on coins an eagle's nose, advanced lower jaw,
beard or long hair in a ruler's physiognomy could be his particularly characteristic features, and nevertheless we
can not in no case speak about the mediaeval monetary portrait (in today's meaning of this word), the same about
appearing on dies architectural constructions, nevertheless, that sometimes they can contain allusions to really
appearing originally features, we can not consider as the real images of church and residential buildings, or all the
more whole cities. If the constructions compiled according to arranging principles, chosen regarding contents, were
similar in larger or smaller degree to the real layouts
-
better for them. However that was not about such similarity
first of all here, but about the transfer of intentional contents with help of suitably sorted motives. Even a perspective
had not only to enrich the image artistically or testify about manual abilities of the engravers of dies and play her
specific part as an element helping better to understand transmitted content. A die of coin offered not enough space
to come out beyond accurate intended information
-
every detail made up a part of a puzzle here, however not so
much formal, how much just content
-
the puzzle which could call often several different associations. Currently it is
impossible to unambiguously affirm whether near every similar formal solution, individual elements of composition
were given similar symbolic range. Sometimes similar arrangements could transfer different content.
On the "architectural" dies there was certain rules, which main, as it seems, was the symmetry relative to vertical
axis. The adaptation of image to the round field of a coin also forced some limitations, however this defect was
often turned in an advantage, creating the compositions superbly fitting in with circular form. Small diameter of a
disc forced the reduction of
iconographie
program. The architectural motives were put together not paying larger
attention on actual condition
-
such "shortcuts" was not subject to the rights of physics, therefore the massive "burg"
374
I IKONOGRAFIA
MONET
PIASTOWSKICH
could safely lay on the openwork gallery. The over-material contents mattered here
-
anyway mainly in this epoch
-
to express which architecture was only auxiliary mean.
In many cases on the small dies we can observe certain characteristic tendencies also for the contemporary
monumental realizations. The Romanesque architecture (mainly a church, but not only) was characterized by even
division of larger blocks on smaller, similar to each other parts. That rhythmical articulation of space manifest
among other things through a predilection to columnar arcade, extended cornices as well as architectural elements
such columns, pillars or pilaster-strips. This trend we can observe also on dies of coins, on which architectural
constructions are provided(and often without connection with reality) with this type of additions, buildings are
divided on several stories and the space is separated with help of columns or (often imaginary) bows. It is noticeable,
that German buildings, in contrast with e.g. French, Italian or English, aim chiefly to strong and fantastic effects, and
this statement perfectly illustrates the character of architectural constructions appearing on the 12th
с
bracteates of
our western neighbors. Just this fantasticality, that complex unreality give in result the splendor of monetary palatios
and churches.
Chapter
3.
The appearance of animals on mediaeval coins at all
-
and Piasts' particularly
-
has rich ancient tradition. Basing
mainly on the forms and the contents developed by Christian antiquity, the art of Middle Ages "assimilated" the
images of animals in so high degree that it is unthinkable any branch of artistic production, in which representatives
of the world of fauna would not occupy responsible position. Also in the Piasts' coinage of the bracteates' period the
zoomorphic motives were used generally, and they are outnumbered probably only by the images of the ruler, which
they often accompanied.
The beastiarium presents on Polish coins
-
though artistic level in the majority of cases is not rather (except for
several glorious exceptions) too high here
-
transferred by coins contents we can compare to the bestiary from cards
of illuminated manuscripts or from portals of Romanesque churches. On the small silver plates appear animals in
whole their spectrum of meaning. They carry the contents connected directly with sacrum (Christologic symbols),
represent the ruler (symbolically replacing him or becoming element of the ancestral emblems), they make up both
the threat for man (in the scenes of fights), and they help him in everyday
life(falconry),
they have to warn, induce to
reflection as well as bring on the road of salvation. There are also here the most popular local species (deer, aurochs,
eagle, hare, snake), and exotic ones(lion), and even fantastic(dragon, griffin, siren), which were believed that really
exist, living at the end of world. The fact, that they appeared on a monetary die induces sometimes to glance on
their symbolics under different angle. Special function of a coin, as well as her huge propaganda strength, permits
sometimes on supposing here the most actual, political contents, expressed with help of animal allegories.
The Piasts' monetary bestiary was one of the most interesting in whole contemporary Europe. Animals did not
appear on Polish coins by accident
-
every of them had to fulfill some(most often didactic) part, every animal carried
proper message, which at present
-
at least in some cases
-
not easily to read correctly. Animals were perceived as
special links between transcendent and real world. In the animal customs, whole wisdom of God was contained, and
man could, copying some of them (using additionally Christian writers' interpretations), to obey His commandments
and in consequence to reach salvation.
On the bracteates and denarii of the Polish dukes appear both fantastic and real animals. Among these last
dominate the familiar fauna(deer, aurochs, falcon, eagle), and lion is the only representative of exoticism which does
not prevent him however to outnumber the remaining menagerie. The royal predator play on the Piasts' coin of the
height of the Middle Ages special part, which is probably connected with his popularity in art of whole contemporary
Europe, but not only, because the numerous references to this animal appear in the manuscripts from the epoch
(Gall,
Kadłubek),
as well as
-
and rather first of all
-
in Bible, which was for artists basic source of inspiration.
Amazing variety of types and contents characterized also the monetary eagles
-
they reach to sacrum, they draw from
profanum, they call sacrum
imperium,
or they are the part of magic world. This testifies doubtless about the meaning
attach by men of power to elevated symbolics, which was carried by this royal bird. The predilection for eagle and lion
on the Polish coins should not surprise
-
after all they were the best exponents of the idea of kingship.
Stated already many times the significative ambivalence of zoomorphic pictures in the Middle Ages is visible
also on talked over bracteates. The dragon, for example, appears as a duke's enemy here, a representative of forces of
darkness and a sin, that is in his "classic" image promoted by Apocalypse, but also
-
supposedly
-
he is the symbol
of a "spitting fire" ruler, an invincible warrior with dragon's glance. Similarly, the lion
-
as a roaring and dangerous
enemy of mankind (participating both in the ideology of power
oí
sacrum and profanum, though such distinction is
not always possible) attacks with bared claws defending with a sword person, but he also is
-
as the royal animal and
noble
-
the symbolic personifying of the ruler.
On the Piasts' coins of the height of the Middle Ages can be notified the intensification of zoomorphic combatant
scenes and also often in very original versions (the fight of two birds). We can suppose, that in the majority of cases
they stick
-
as a kind of
exempla
-
in church symbolics, though it is possible, that
-
being the transfer of the relations
English
summary I
375
existing among men into the animal world
-
they contain also the allusions to current political situation. Often
the ruler himself fights with the representatives of the world of fauna, dealing a death blow to, not only commonly
meet then in Poland (obviously only in iconosphere) lion, but also
-
which is already artist's inventiveness(or else
originator) working for
a Piast
-
to the charging aurochs. Even in so violent battle pieces, where exhibiting secular
advantages definitely advanced on the first plan, it was possible to recognize the sacred elements, as for instance in the
representation of ruler tearing jaws of pinned to the ground beast, referring to Old Testament episode with Samson.
Characteristic for the Middle Ages the miraculousness and belief in the monsters resident borders of then known
world her reflection found also on the dies of Polish bracteates. Except the most popular in the iconosphere of this
epoch dragon, also were introduced several times a griffin as well as a hybrid appeared on coins rather seldom: a
siren (in her fish-tailed version) as well as a centaur (with a spear and hunting-horn). The role of those fabulous
animals in these concrete cases is not easy to determine. We can suppose, that the dragon or griffin
-
and maybe
the centaur
-
existed in the positive regions of the symbolics of power, concerning the person of the coinage master
and showing on proper to him, the features connected with fight. Different however is the case of siren, which on
known from Polish coins the representation does not allow herself to fit in the ideology serving creation of the ideal
ruler's image. Maybe the reason of her appearance on Piasts' bracteates we should look for in the sphere of magic,
making up the inseparable component of the contemporary philosophy of life. If the ruler
-
warrior in definite
situations permanently set such monsters to his own protection(engraving on a sword e.g. the image of dragon) then
he similarly could lay them down on a die of coin, giving her secondarily features of repelling an evil apotropaion.
This thesis is difficult to prove at present, however it seems, we should not exclude her completely. The originality of
zoomorphic compositions on the dies of Piasts' coins testifies about intellectual level of their creators and about use
by them different sources, the most often reaching apogee of their development bestiaries.
Chapter
4.
The motives about clear sacred symbolics form the comparatively large group among the images present on the
dies of Piasts' coins. The fact, that almost all emissions of that type we can attribute with large dose of probability
to the secular issuers, convinces of the huge part of element of sacrum in the contemporary ideology of rules. The
certain intensification of sacred contents on Polish bracteates and denarii is not nothing exceptional
-
many similar
motives and compositions appear in Bohemian, German or Hungarian(where we can notice special liking for cross)
coinage. This certain trend, common for the whole Europe, appeared by the participation of strict secular objects
(coins) in sacred symbolics.
However there is no doubt, that also in the group discussed here, comes to voice the originality of Piasts' coins
on the European background. Most clearly it is visible in the case of bracteates with the names(and sometimes also
with images) of virtues (IUSTITI A, FIDES,
CARITAS, MILOST).
Their comparatively large variety (both names and
views) allow to assume certain wider conceived program of ruler's(or rulers') glorification, however this is not
-
in the
face of lack of exact attributions of this type of coins
-
reliable hypothesis on the present stage of researches. We can
observe that, what was on e.g. cards of manuscripts in complex version(the figures of virtues accompanying throning
ruler), on small silver plates was drastically reduced. This resulted in the specific shaping of images on dies, resulting
among other things in the creation of "condensed" compositions, which content
-
taking into consideration also
often uniqueness and poor condition of some types
-
is not clear for us at present. The bracteates with name of virtues
reflect the next fragment of the ideology of power
-
special fragment, exposing in original way "peaceful" overtone
of holding rules, creating the rule-landlord, ruler-protector and ruler-God's confidant, guaranteeing subjects peace
and happiness.
On Piasts' coins there is also comparatively large choice of saints with considerable variety of views and are
outnumbered probably only by German coins. Their images are sometimes important sources for the researches over
development of characteristic for given martyr iconography because definite
iconographie
types appear often for
the first time exactly on coins, which on more monumental works popularity will take really later. The mentioned
specific of monetary iconography became the reason of developing views, which were possible to meet only on a die
(e.g. St John shown as Witness of Light) and which appearance was limited to only one concrete case. We can observe
this first of all on bracteates where the deficit of the space became stimulus to develop
iconographie
inventiveness. In
the group of saints we can distinguish first of all the state patrons(Wojciech) as well as
-
at least initially
-
the regional
ones(Stanisław, Jan),
or even as we can suppose, the
local(Wacław).
Separate category are the representations of St
Maurycy,
which does not appear on the dies concerning religious cult, but
-
we can suppose
-
his person connects
directly with the idea of crusades(alive in Poland particularly in the
1.
half of the
ІЗ"1
с),
through the symbolic
identification with the ruler-issuer making of him example of God's knight. Numerically St
Wojciech
leads among
monetary martyrs (initially as the patron of whole country, and then just only
Gniezno
and Great Poland) as well
as the protector of the diocese of Wroclaw St Jan the Baptist, which
-
particularly on the bracteates from
Rataje
hoard
-
appears even more often than the ruler himself(sometimes it is difficult to distinguish apart, in the face
of the schematization of image, both these persons). It wonders however the certain absence on coins St
Stanisław,
3761
IKONOGRAFIA MONET PIASTOWSKICH
however it should be probably explained by comparatively the late
-
taking into consideration the period included in
researches
-
date of his canonization as well as the circumstance, that initially this cults served more the Cracovian
clergy than the ruler, clear union accents gaining really later. We can not properly identify many representations
of saints on Polish "mute" coins at the present stage of researches, however also these coins consist on this original
monetary "Golden Legend
",
which with the passage of time
-
how it is pointed out by the hoard from Cracow
-
will
be certainly systematically enriched.
The remaining motives about clear sacred symbolics present on Piasts' coins (crosses, the Lamb of God,
Dextera Dei etc.) occur also commonly on the emissions of neighbouring countries, becoming the part of tendency
characteristic for the whole monetary iconosphere of the time. They should not be connected only
-
what should
be underlined once again
-
with the products of church mints, because, similarly as names and images of virtues,
they could transfer symbolics desirable for the secular ruler. The motive of angel, the Lamb of God, cross, or even
-
how on Bohemian denarii
-
Christ himself granted the rules of coin master clear sacred sanction, located him on a
plane carrying out over the "terrestrial" mediocrity and was one of elements establishing his dominant position. The
expression of such contents was indispensable in the creation of the ideal ruler's image, therefore the presence of all
those representations on a die of most bearing then medium becomes entirely comprehensible.
Chapter
5.
Separate group of Piasts' coins from described period are the coins with Hebrew inscriptions. Their analysis
leads to the conclusion, that the creators of very original representations on dies were Jews leasing the duke's mints.
On the bracteates with Hebrew inscriptions of Mieszko the Old, struck probably shortly after
1181,
we can
recognize the intention of the identification of the duke with heroes of Old Testament
-
the high-priest Aaron and
the king David
-
not without connection with political situation in partite on districts Poland. In such cases the
composition of adequate attributes (a blooming Aaron's rod, lion, palm and crowned head) was created, or the
biblical episodes were used in aim to indicate on the present political situation (the high-priest Achimelek passing on
bread and the Goliath sword in sanctuary in Nob,
1
Sm
21, 2-Ю).
In this case Mieszko is New David and New Aaron
-
chosen person, marked by the power
oí
sacrum, predestinate to final victory.
Unusually original are in turn the bracteates, which appeared, so far, only in the hoard from Moskorzyn. The
motives appearing on them we can connect most probably with the influence of Judaic iconography. The element
defined most often as "flower" is very similar to e.g. appearing in Jewish ancient art (on sarcophagus' or lintels of
synagogues) motives, which was possible to interpret as the representation of menorah showed under the figure of
Tree of Life and Light. The similar contents we can connect with the image of bird on schematically showed tree,
which accompanies the ring, pointing maybe on the solar symbolics of this representation. The Jewish origin can also
have, numerous on bracteates of Mieszko or his sons, the images of animals (characteristically presented dragons,
two antithetically showed eagles).
On Hebrew bracteates the most numerous group of inscriptions are wishes of blessing and happiness, directed
certainly to the duke. The names of Jews appear here also often
-
Jacob, Joseph, Abraham, Menachem
-
holders, and
simultaneously certainly administrators of mints. The bracteates with four-rowed legend in Hebrew are the most
interesting phenomena in the history of the money of mediaeval Europeiincluding the holder's name with the mark of
his priestly descent as well as his father's name), which fills whole field of die. We can not exclude here the influence of
ancient coinage(Jewish coins struck in
Judea
since 2nd c. B.C.), at the same time it is possible to notice, that Jews, living
in
Kalisz
certainly since the end of the 12th c, used the denarii of
Bolesław Kędzierzawy,
struck most probably after
1157,
on which on the obverse appear exactly the same composition(along with lines dividing rows of letters), with
the name of the duke (BOLESLAVS), or the saint patron of the country (ADALBERTVS). Therefore maybe here we
should look for a direct pattern. There is no doubt, that the Hebrew bracteates with legends were clearly ostentatious
emission of the large load of representativeness. To realize that, it is enough to look on the similar examples of coins
from neighboring countries (Bohemia, Hungary, Denmark), on which the rows-legend scheme (occuring only on
denarii and rather in very rare cases) brought the name of the ruler or saint, enjoying special authority in state.
The next peculiarity of Piasts' coinage are the bracteates with representation (most often head) of Jew, from
which the most interesting is specimen found in the "Cracovian" hoard, with bearded half figure in pointed hat,
making by right hand difficult to interpretation gesture. On the present stage of researches on meaning of gesture on
this bracteates, we have only the group of more or less equivalent, in relation to probability, interpretations. Maybe
it is about the expression of superior authority over mint(therefore on a die would appear a superior of mint), or
maybe it is just the representation of rabbi with merits for mint or some biblical hero(Moses? Aaron?), patterned
after appearing on different dies Christian saints, or maybe it is symbol, which
-
similarly as later the star of David
-
would point on the fact, that this bracteate was struck by Hebrews. However it is the fact, that this is the only known
in mediaeval Europe coin at the present, on which as an independent motive of die appears Jew, which make gesture,
testifying about the will of delivery of definite information.
English
summary I
377
Final remarks
Several causes influenced on the wealth of monetary images, which the most important was the intensification
of renovatio system. The aim to differentiation of dies of following emissions resulted in introducing the motives on
coins, which earlier did not appear on them, it was also stimulus to developing such solutions, which in shortened
-
and therefore original
-
form expressed desirable for the issuer contents. For that reason in many cases there is
no formal analogs for discussed compositions among the products of different kinds of artistic production. The
regional fragmentation also contributed to iconography differentiation, which
-
particularly after coming to the
power of
Kazimierz
the Just
-
entered its prosperity period. Practically independent apart the dukes for the point of
honor considered
-
who only had suitable conditions for it
-
the emission of own money, and not only in economic
purpose, but also
-
and maybe first of all
-
representative. The change of technique of striking coins also influenced on
composition of the image. Use of only one die forced to use shortcuts, ideograms and capacious of content symbols,
unconventional and original solutions and caused the division of the surface of a die on separate zones
-
diverse
semantic fields
-
which contained rich in contents, often multidimensional source.
It is difficult to give a clear answer to the question, was the iconography of Piasts' coins subject, in the century
comprised by the researches, to some perceptible evolution, first of all because of the lack of exact attributions. This
circumstance causes, that often it is not known, whether the coin comes from the 12th or 13th
с
Therefore it is possible
to draw conclusions only of general nature with restriction, that in the future, in the face of new sources, they can be
far modified.
The conducted researches indicates that the century of flat bracteates characterize
-
in pictorial sphere
-
not
static, but rather dynamics "not oriented". The character of image changes, but no over-regional rules direct this
process. In the particular districts vector of these changes can point on different directions. The Silesian coins
-
initially comparatively
iconographie
rich and made by able craftsmen (if not artists), some time later "change" in
the bracteates of
Rataje
type, and yet later
-
Kałowice
type. However the degeneration of form is not accompanied
by
iconographie
poverty
-
on the contrary. The inventiveness of the originators of a dies
-
particularly in the case of
portraying the figure of saint John the Baptist
-
reach its apogee then.
Opposite process we can observe in Little Poland. Here however we have, particularly for the 12th c, very random
information because the production of the Cracovian mint in this period is practically not recognized. Several
bracteates with the name of
Kazimierz
coming from unknown hoard are practically all concrete starting points. We
can suppose with large dose of probability, that Mieszko the Old as a senior struck bracteates in Cracow, however
what types that was
-
we do not know this. The Cracovian emissions occur undoubtedly in so called Cracovian
hoard. The coins from this find, majority of them most probably contemporary to bracteates of type
Rataje,
present
very high artistic level and amaze by the richness of their iconography. The accumulation of original (even on
European background), not occurred in the coinage nor earlier, nor later types. So
-
differently than on Silesia
-
artistic development went here together with the increase of inventiveness of designers of dies. The care about
external form did not impoverish the content of representations and, on the contrary, she became stimulus to search
for new solutions.
In Great Poland, where also
-
in the face of several more certain attributions
-
we can attempt to make certain
general conclusions, the development went by different road, than in the previously discussed districts. In the result
of triple in year exchange of coins, Mieszko the Old as a senior made big
"iconographie
revolution", continuing his
mint activity after the return from the banishment. The unusual originality of Great Poland's coins in the last twenty
years of the 12th
с
we owe however to Jewish holders, which
-
as it is possible to allege
-
got permission from the duke
on creation of dies, introducing on bracteates compositions and motives, which is hard to find on European coins
except for the Piasts' domain. Seems, that later
(1.
half of the
ІЗ*
с.)
the variety of dies began to disappear and also
here it was stopped on characteristic division on two parts, first with the representation of the ruler and second with
saint patron, though the originality of views was not already
-
it is possible to affirm according to known types
-
so
large, as on Silesia.
It is hard however on the present stage of researches to characterize transformations in the iconography of coins
of
Kujawy
and Mazovia. Among these last were recognized only the individual cases, it is not known exactly also,
which specimens we can attribute to the rulers of Kujawy(though doubtlessly they occur in the finds from Anusin,
Głębokie
or
Wieniec).
Very compact in style are e.g. the denarii and bracteates from
Ujma Duża,
representing as a
whole unusually interesting
iconographie
group, worthy of separate, wider conceived researches. Can we tell here
about specific "school of
Kujawy",
it is difficult to decide at present.
It is not easy to answer also on question if we can distinguish some regional features in the iconography of Piasts'
coins. Main differentiating are obviously the representations of saints, attributed to the definite regions or cities. We
can suppose (though there are no rules for that), that on coins of Great Poland will appear in enlarged intensity saint
Wojciech,
on Silesian coins saint Jan the Baptist, in Little Poland however or saint
Wacław,
or
-
however rather from
the half of the 13th
с
-
saint
Stanisław
(maybe also saint
Florian).
The matter of Silesia looks comparatively clearly,
especially after the introduction of the bracteates of type
Rataje,
which sloppy production caused specific
iconographie
insularity and division of monetary iconosphere on two mainstreams
-
"saint" and "ruler's". The remaining motives
378 1
IKONOGRAFIA MONET PIASTOWSKICH
do not seem however already to belong to some definite district. The multi-figural representations, scenes of fights
(including animal), images of virtues, representatives of world of fauna (real and fantastic) appear on the terrain of
whole Poland, and uncertain attributions do not allow to draw further conclusions here.
The adaptation of ready patterns from the monetary circle of Germany or Bohemia testifies about inseparable
contact of Poland with the culture of Western Europe. Several directions of influences in the iconosphere of
Piasts' coins of the height of the Middle Ages can be distingushed. In the group of adaptation of German patterns
comparatively easy to identify is "current of Magdeburg", in several cases were used patterns from the bracteates of
county Arnstein, from
Miśnia,
Saxony, Brandenburg, south Germany or even Wetterau. Sometimes representations
were clearly patterned after
-
similarly to earlier epoch, but with smaller intensity
-
Bohemian coinage. Sometimes
unexpectedly Adriatic, Southern Italy
-
or hypothetically
-
Spanish inspirations appear on Polish coins. The foreign
solutions were willingly accepted if only expressed well intended by the issuer contents. This does not mean however
that the iconosphere of Piasts' coins based mainly on derivative solutions. On the contrary
-
we can assume, that
-
despite using the forms of neighboring countries
-
originality of Polish coins clearly appears on the European
background.
Among mentioned earlier peculiarities of the Piasts' numismatics we can count first of all bracteates with the
Hebrew legends with the representations inspired by Jewish iconography. This is not however only
differente, specifica
because we should mention also: the intensification of scenes of animal fights, among which appear original (fight of
two birds, fight of eagle with dragon) or compositions rare occurred on coins (eagle attacking hare); the intensification
of emissions with the names and images of virtues, or some presentations of combatant scenes (fight of duke with
aurochs). Some representations of ruler are also characterized by originality (or rulers, e.g. two half-figures with
apples of rule turned apart), which testifies about abandoning by designers strongly exploited solutions (though
obviously they were not given up entirely) and about will of special experimentation with small field of coin. The
result was, among other things, that the monetary iconography in many cases differs from this more monumental
(illuminations, masonry, goldsmithery), on which influenced first of all technical conditions determining form
of transmission. Therefore Piasts' coins in many cases are the products of native culture, independent of foreign
patterns, invoking to existing in Poland relations, ideas circulating around Piasts' courts and reflecting intellectual
level of contemporary elites. Their part in solving of many unclear problems relating to the history and culture of
our country can not be overestimated at the present, in order to mention here only matter of using by Piasts' an
apple of rule, spear of saint
Maurycy
and ceremonial headgear, or even the decisive part of numismatical sources in
determining origin of Eagle as the emblem of the Polish Kingdom.
The images on dies of coins were doubtlessly the instrument of the propaganda of authorities, of which strength
some rulers (e.g. Mieszko the Old) were perfectly aware. They propagated both in the country and
-
in limited range
-
beyond his borders, such representation of the ruler, which currently suited him, or should be promoted at the
moment. Therefore we encounter on dies the ruler
-
donor of peace, ruler
-
warrior (defender of subjects) or ruler
-
God's knight whose representation could be inspired by the ideology of crusades. The monetary compositions were
indented as
exempla,
expressing symbolics, which filled whole contemporary culture. The animal scenes, so often
met in the different kinds of arts, also on coins transferred first of all didactic contents, though it is possible, that they
contained the allusions to current political events. It should be mentioned here also about the magic function of coin
(or rather image on her) in the Middle Ages
-
function recognized also in Piats' Poland. |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| any_adam_object_boolean | 1 |
| author | Garbaczewski, Witold |
| author_facet | Garbaczewski, Witold |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Garbaczewski, Witold |
| author_variant | w g wg |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV023269469 |
| contents | Bibliogr. s. 339-356. Indeksy |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)177285674 (DE-599)BVBBV023269469 |
| era | Geschichte 1173-1280 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1173-1280 |
| format | Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV023269469 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T20:35:18Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T21:14:35Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9788389616166 |
| language | Polish |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-016454513 |
| oclc_num | 177285674 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 DE-B220 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 DE-B220 |
| physical | 378 s. zahlr. Ill. 31 cm |
| publishDate | 2007 |
| publishDateSearch | 2007 |
| publishDateSort | 2007 |
| publisher | Polskie Towarzystwo Numizmatyczne |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Garbaczewski, Witold Verfasser aut Ikonografia monet piastowskich 1173 - ok. 1280 Witold Garbaczewski Warszawa [u.a.] Polskie Towarzystwo Numizmatyczne 2007 378 s. zahlr. Ill. 31 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Zsfassung in engl. Sprache Bibliogr. s. 339-356. Indeksy Piastowie Familie ca. ab 10. bis 17. Jh. (DE-588)118742302 gnd rswk-swf Geschichte 1173-1280 gnd rswk-swf Münze (DE-588)4040629-5 gnd rswk-swf Ikonographie (DE-588)4026535-3 gnd rswk-swf Piastowie Familie ca. ab 10. bis 17. Jh. (DE-588)118742302 p Münze (DE-588)4040629-5 s Ikonographie (DE-588)4026535-3 s Geschichte 1173-1280 z DE-604 Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016454513&sequence=000005&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016454513&sequence=000006&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Garbaczewski, Witold Ikonografia monet piastowskich 1173 - ok. 1280 Bibliogr. s. 339-356. Indeksy Piastowie Familie ca. ab 10. bis 17. Jh. (DE-588)118742302 gnd Münze (DE-588)4040629-5 gnd Ikonographie (DE-588)4026535-3 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)118742302 (DE-588)4040629-5 (DE-588)4026535-3 |
| title | Ikonografia monet piastowskich 1173 - ok. 1280 |
| title_auth | Ikonografia monet piastowskich 1173 - ok. 1280 |
| title_exact_search | Ikonografia monet piastowskich 1173 - ok. 1280 |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Ikonografia monet piastowskich 1173 - ok. 1280 |
| title_full | Ikonografia monet piastowskich 1173 - ok. 1280 Witold Garbaczewski |
| title_fullStr | Ikonografia monet piastowskich 1173 - ok. 1280 Witold Garbaczewski |
| title_full_unstemmed | Ikonografia monet piastowskich 1173 - ok. 1280 Witold Garbaczewski |
| title_short | Ikonografia monet piastowskich |
| title_sort | ikonografia monet piastowskich 1173 ok 1280 |
| title_sub | 1173 - ok. 1280 |
| topic | Piastowie Familie ca. ab 10. bis 17. Jh. (DE-588)118742302 gnd Münze (DE-588)4040629-5 gnd Ikonographie (DE-588)4026535-3 gnd |
| topic_facet | Piastowie Familie ca. ab 10. bis 17. Jh. Münze Ikonographie |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016454513&sequence=000005&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016454513&sequence=000006&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT garbaczewskiwitold ikonografiamonetpiastowskich1173ok1280 |