Verfügbarkeit: Criminal law and procedure

Criminal law and procedure:

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Bibliographische Detailangaben
1. Verfasser:	Scheb, John Malcolm (VerfasserIn)
Format:	Buch
Sprache:	English
Veröffentlicht:	Belmont, CA Thomson Wadsworth 2008
Ausgabe:	6th ed.
Schlagworte:	Criminal law > United States Criminal procedure > United States USA
Online-Zugang:	Inhaltsverzeichnis
Beschreibung:	XXIII, 691 S. Ill.
ISBN:	0495095486 9780495095484

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Datensatz im Suchindex

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adam_text	Contents Preface хыг PART ONE Legal Foundations of Criminal Justice 1 CHAPTER 1 Fundamentals of Criminal Law and Procedure 2 Introduction 3 What Is a Crime? 4 Felonies and Misdemeanors 5 Societal Interests Served by the Criminal Laiv ί Crime: An Injury Against Society 6 Criminal Responsibility 6 The Role of the Crime Victim 6 Criminal Law Distinguished from Civil Law 7 Origins and Sources of the Criminal Law 8 Development of Law in the Western World 8 Development of the English Common Law 8 Development of the American Criminal Law 9 State and Local Authority to Enact Criminal Prohibitions 9 Federal Authority to Define Crimes 10 The Model Penal Code 10 Sources of Procedural Law 11 The Role of Courts in Developing the Criminal Imvd 11 Constitutional Limitations The Bill of Rights 12 Due Process of Law 13 12 The Criminal Process 13 Plea Bargaining — The Reality of Criminal Justice 15 Criminal Sanctions 15 CHAPTER 2 ———— ^и^— ■■— мийниці miit, ..... mzz-zz:zz:zz^~7 :: . Organization of the Criminal Justice System 18 Introduction 19 Legislatures 19 Legislative Powers of Congress 19 State Legislatures 21 Law Enforcement Agencies 22 Historical Development 23 Policing in Modern America 23 Prosecutorial Agencies 25 Historical Background 25 Federal Prosecutors 25 State and Local Prosecutors 26 The Prosecutors Broad Discretion 26 Counsel for the Defense 26 Représentation of Indigent Defendants 27 The Role of Defense Attorneys 28 Juries 28 Grand Juries 29 Trial Juries 29 The Courts 30 The Federal Court System 30 State Court Systems 34 Contrasting Judicial Functions and Environments 35 The Juvenile Justice System 36 Historical Basis 37 The Constitutional Reform of Juvenile Justice 37 VII VIII H Contents The Corrections System 38 Historical Background 38 Contemporary Developments in Criminal Punishment 39 The Burgeoning Prison Population 39 The Future Outlook 40 PART TWO The Substantive Criminal Law 43 CHAPTER 3 Constitutional Limitations on the Prohibition of Criminal Conduct 44 Introduction 45 The Importance of Judicial Review 45 Unconstitutional Per Se and Unconstitutional as Applied 45 The Power to Enact Criminal Laws 46 Police Powers of State Legislatures 46 The Federal Lawrnaking Power 46 Delimiting the Crime of Treason 49 Levying War Against the United, States 49 Giving Aid and Comfort to the Enemies of the United States 50 Bills of Attainder and Ex Posi Facto Laws 50 Bids of Attainder 50 Ex Post Facto Laws 51 The Bill of Rights 52 Application of the Bill of Rights to State and Local Laws 53 The First Amendment Freedom of Expression 53 Advocacy of Unlawful Conduct 54 Symbolic Speech and Expressive Conduct 54 Free Expression Versus Maintenance of the Public Order 55 Hate Speech 55 Obscenity 56 Nude Dancing 57 Profanity 58 Freedom of Assembly 58 Free Exercise of Religion 59 Unusual Religious Practices 59 Refusal of Medical Treatment 60 The Right to Keep and Bear Arms 61 The Doctrines of Vagueness and Overbreadth 61 Freedom from Compulsory Self-Incrimination 63 The Prohibition against Cruel and Unusual Punishments 64 The Constitutional Right of Privacy 65 Abortion 66 Privacy and Sexual Conduct 66 The Right to Die 67 Equal Protection of the Laws 68 Standards of Judicial Review 69 The Importance of State Constitutions 70 CHAPTER 4 Elements of Crimes and Parties to Crimes 73 Introduction 74 The Actus Reus (The Act Requirement) 74 What Is an Act? 75 When Does Failure to Act Constitute an Act? 75 Possession as a Criminal Act 76 Status as a Criminal Act 77 The Mens Rea (The Criminal Intent Requirement) 78 Concurrence of Act and Intent 78 General and Specific Intent 78 The Model Penal Code Approach to Intent 80 The Doctrine of Transferred Intent 83 The Importance ofDetermmingthe Intent Required 84 Strict Liability Offenses 84 The Causation Requirement 86 Parties to a Crime 86 Common-Law Distinctions Among Participants in Crime 87 The Modern American Approach 87 CHAPTER 5 Inchoate Offenses 91 Introduction 92 Attempt 92 The Act Requirement 93 The Requisite Criminal Intent 94 Attempts in Relation to Substantive Grimes 94 Defenses to the Crime of Attempt 94 Contents □ IX Solicitation 95 The Act Requirement 95 Is an Uncommunicated Solicitation an Offense? 96 The Requisite Criminal Intent 96 Solicitation Distinguished from Other Inchoate Crimes 97 Defenses to the Crime of Solicitation 97 Conspiracy 98 Justification for the Offense of Conspiracy 99 The Range of Conspiracies In Society 99 The Act Element in Conspiracy 100 The Requisite Criminal Intent 100 Conspiracy Distinguished from Aiding and Abetting and Attempt 101 The Pinkerton Ruh 101 Some Unique Aspects of the (Offense of Conspiracy 102 Conspiracy Does Not Merge into the Target Crime 102 The Wharton s Rule Exception 103 Criticism of the Conspiracy Laws 103 Defenses to the Charge of Conspiracy 104 CHAPTER б Offenses against Persons 107 Introduction 108 The Common-Law Background 108 The American Development 108 Assaultive Offenses 109 Modem Statutory Development 109 Common Illustrations of Simple and Aggravated Assault and Battery 110 The Burden of the Prosecution 111 Defenses to Charges of Assault and Battery 112 Mayhem 112 Hazing 112 Stalking 113 Cyberstalking 115 Homicide 116 Modern Statutory Classifications of Homicide 116 First-Degree Murder 117 Fehny Murder 118 Second-Degree Murder 119 Manslaughter 121 Vehicular Homicide 123 Justifiable and Excusable Homiade 124 Removal of Life-Support Systems 125 Prosecutorial Burdens in Homicide. Cases 126 Defenses to Homicidal Crimes 129 Suicide; 129 The Michigan Experience 130 о Г The Washington Experience 130 Competing Values in Suicide Laws 131 Rape and Sexual Battery .132 The American Approach 133 Statutory Rape Laws 134 Reform in the American Law of Rape 134 A Contemporary Statutory Treatment of Sexual Offenses 137 Demise of the Marital Exception 138 Prosecutorial Burdens 139 Rape Trauma Syndrome 140 Sex Offender Registration Laws 142 Defenses to Charges of Sexual Battery 143 Sodomy 143 Abortion 144 The Conflict over Partial Birth Abortion 144 Abusive Offenses 145 Child Abuse 145 Spousal Abuse 147 Abuse of the Elderly 148 False Imprisonment and Kidnapping 149 The Statutory Offense of False Imprisonment 149 Modem Statutory Treatment of Kidnapping 150 The Requirement of Asportatioti in Kidnapping 151 Federal Kidnapping Laws 151 Defenses to Charges of False Imprisonment and Kidnapping 152 Child Snatching 153 Civil Rights Offenses 153 Hate Crimes 155 CHAPTER 7 Property Crimes Introduction 16.1 160 The Common-Law Background 161 161 The, Common-Law Theft Offenses Larceny 162 Fake Pretenses, Embezzhment, and Receiving Stolen Property 162 The Modern Approach to Theft Offenses Federal Approaches 164 State Approaches 165 Computer Crime: New Offenses to Cope with High-Tech Crime 167 A Unique Prosecutorial Burden in Theft Offenses 168 164 Χ ■ Contents 170 Identity Theft 169 Federal Legislation 169 State Legislation 170 Intellectual Property Offenses Patent Infringement 171 Copyright Infringement 171 Trademark Counterfeiting 172 Theft of Track Secrets 173 Robbery 174 Statutory Approaches to Robbery 175 The Temporal Relationship of Force to the Taking 176 Carjacking 177 Forgery and Uttering a Forged Instrument 178 Statutory Expansion of Forgery Offenses 178 Common Examples of Forgery and Uttering a Forged Instrument 180 Worthless Checks 180 Access Device Fraud 181 Habitation Offenses 183 Burglary at Common Law 184 Statutory Revisions of Burglary 184 Possession of Burgh s Took 185 Arson at Common Law 186 Statutory Revision of Arson 186 Malicious Mischief 187 Extortion 188 Extortion under Federal Law 189 Defenses to Propert} Crimes 189 CHAPTER 8 Offenses against Public Morality Introduction 194 The Common-Law Background 194 Religious Influences 194 Is Morality a Legitimate Basil for Legislation? Police Power and the Social Consensus 195 Constitutional Limitations 195 Criminal Prohibitions of Consensual Sexual Conduct 196 Fornication, Adultery, and Seduction 197 Incest 197 Bigamy 198 Sodomy: The Demise of a Historic Offense 198 Prosfåution 200 Criticism of Latas Regulating Consensual Sextuil Conduct 201 The Prognosis for Reform 202 193 195 Indecent Exposure 203 Nude Dancing in Places of Public Accommodation 204 Nudity and Seminudity on Public Beaches 204 Voyeurism 204 Obscenity and Pornography 205 The Emerging Constitutional Standards 206 The Intractable Obscenity Problem 206 Significant Post-Miller Developments 207 State and Local Regulation of Obscenity 208 Defenses to Charges of Obscenity 209 Problems of Enforcement 209 Pornography on the Internet 210 Child Pornography 211 Profanity 211 Gambling 213 What Constitutes Gambling? 214 Statutory Regulation of Gambling 215 Prosecutorial Problems and Defenses 215 The Paradox of Gambling Laws 216 Animal Cruelty 216 CHAPTER 9 219 Alcohol and Drug Offenses Introduction 220 Prohibition and Regulation of Alcoholic Beverages 220 Prohibition 220 Offenses Related to the Consumption of Alcohol by Minors 221 Public Intoxication 222 Driving under die Influence 222 Zero Tolerance for Juveniles 223 Prosecution ofDWI, DUI, andDUBAL Charges Implied Consent Statutes 225 Origins of the Prohibition of Drugs 225 The Harmon Act 225 Prohibition of Marijuana 226 Modern Drug Laws 226 Modern State Drug Laws 227 The Marijuana Controversy 228 The Crystal Meth Crisis 229 Prohibition of Drug Paraphernalia 230 Problems of Drug Enforcement and Prosecution 231 Actual and Constructive Possession 231 Defenses in Drug Cases 233 223 Contents α ХІ The War on Drags 233 The Drug Enforcement Administration 233 Mandatory Minimum Sentences 234 Drug Testing of Public Employees and Public School Students 234 Asset Forfeiture 235 The Office of National Drug Control Policy 238 Assessing the War on Drugs 238 Drug Courts: A New Approach 239 Proliferation of Drug Courts 239 Methodology of Drug Court Programs 239 Evaluation of Drug Courts 240 CHAPTER 10 White-Collar and Organized Crime 243 Introduction 244 Legal Principles Governing White-Collar Crimes 245 Prosecution of Corporate Defendant s 245 Acts by Corporate Agents 246 Common Federal White-Collar Crimes 246 Antitrust Violations 247 Computer Crimes 247 Valse Statements and Bankruptcy Fraud 249 The False Claims Act 249 The Federal Mail Fraud and Wire Fraud Statutes 251 Money Laundering and Currency Reporting Violations 252 Securities Fraud 253 Churning and Insider Trading 254 The Hobhs Act 255 Tax Fraud 255 Criminal Prosecution of Tax Violations 256 Organized Crime 257 The Organized Crime Control Act of 1970 257 Defenses in White-Collar and Organized Crime Cases 262 CHAPTER 11 Offenses against Public Health and the Environment 265 Introduction 266 Sources of Late Deßning Crimes against the Public Health and the Environment 266 Public Health Legislation 267 The Federal Pure Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act 268 Stria Liability Offenses 269 Criminal Liability of Responsible Corporate Officers 270 Defenses under the FDCA 271 Planning and Zoning Laws 272 The Scope of Federal and State Emdronmental Statutes 273 Major Federal Environmental legislation Providing Criminal Sanctions 274 The Clean Air Act 274 The Clean Water Act 275 The Government s Requirement of Proof of Violation of the Clean Water Act 2 76 The Point Source Problem 276 The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 278 The Government s Requirement of Proof of RC R A Offenses 279 The Toxic Substances Control Act 280 The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 281 Standard of Liability of Corporate Officers 281 Lack of Uniformity in Environmental Laws 281 Defenses to Environmental Crimes 282 Noise Pollution 284 Antismoking Legislation 285 The Florida Initiative 286 New York s Comprehensive Smoking Ban 286 Wildlife Protection Laws 286 The Migratory Bird Act 287 The Endangered Species Act 288 State Regulation of Wildlife 289 What Constitutes Possession? 290 Defenses Rejected 290 CHAPTER 12 Offenses against Public Order, Safety, and National Security 293 Introduction 294 Breaches of the Peace 295 Unlawful Assembly and Riot 295 Disorderly Conduri 297 Excessive Noise 299 Vagrancy, Loitering, Curfews, and Panhandling 300 The American Approach to Vagrancy 301 XU α Contents The Death Knell of Vagrancy Imws 301 Loitering 302 Curfews 304 Panhandling 306 Motor Vehicle Violations 308 Decriminalization of Traffic Offenses 308 Seat Belts and Cell Phones 308 Weapons Offenses 309 Concealed Weapons 311 Federal Gun Control Laws 311 Offenses against National Security 312 Treason 313 Espionage 313 Sabotage 314 Sedition 314 Terrorism and Weapons of Mass Destruction 315 Antiterrorism Legislation 315 Weapons of Mass Destruction 317 Detention and Trial of Accused Terrorists Captured Abroad: 317 Immigration Offenses 318 CHAPTER 13 Offenses against Justice and Public Administration 322 Introduction 323 Bribery 323 TJie Modern Statutory Offense of Bribery 323 The Range of Bribery Offenses 324 The Burden of the Prosecution 324 Offenses Extending the Concept of Bribery 325 Defenses to the Crime of Bribery 326 Perjury 327 Elements of the Offense of Perjury 327 The Burden of the Prosecution 327 Perjury by Contradictory Statements 328 Subornation of Perjury 328 Defenses to the Crime of Perjury 330 Obstruction of Justice 331 Modern Statutory Developments 331 The Citizens Duty to Assist Law Enforcement Officers 332 Resisting Arrest 332 Compounding a Crime 333 The Modern Statutory Approach 333 A Common Scenario of Compounding a Crime 334 Escape 334 Modern Statutory Approaches to Escape 334 The Elements of the Offense of Escape 334 Defenses to the Charge of Escape 335 Contempt 336 Civil Contempt 337 Criminal Contempt 337 Direct and Indirect Criminal Contempt 337 Is Criminal Contempt Really a Crime? 338 CHAPTER 14 Criminal Responsibility and Defenses 343 Introduction 344 Defenses in General 344 Defenses Asserting Lack of Capacity to Commit a Crime 345 Infancy 345 Intoxication 346 Insanity 347 Automatism 352 Defenses Asserting Excuse or Justification 353 Duress 353 Necessity 354 Consent 356 Mistake of Law 356 Mistake of Fact 357 Alibi 358 Defenses Justifying the Use of Force 359 Self-Defense 359 Defense of Others 362 Defense of Habitation 363 Defense of Property 364 Defense to Being Arrested 365 Use of Force by Police 366 Defenses Based on Constitutional and Statutory Authority 367 Constitutional Immunity 367 Other Forms of Immunity 368 Double Jeopardy 368 Statutes of Limitation 371 Defenses Based on Improper Government Conduct 372 Entrapment 372 Selective Prosecution 376 Nontraditional Defenses 377 Unusual Religious Beliefs and Practices 377 Contents xiii Victim s Negligence 378 Premenstrual Stjndrome 378 Compulsine Gambling 378 Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome 378 The Junk Food Defense 379 Television Intoxication 379 Pornographic Intoxication 379 XYY Chromosome Abnormality 379 Multiple Personality Defense 379 Black Rage and Urban Survival Defenses 379 PART THREE Law Enforcement and Criminal Procedure 385 CHAPTER 15 Search and Seizure 386 Introduction 387 Historical Background 387 Adoption of the Fourth Amendment 388 Extension of the Fourth Amendment to Apply to State and Local Action 389 When, Where, and to Whom the Fourth Amendment Applies 390 Border Searches and Searches Outside the United States 390 The Horne, Its Curtilage, and the Open Fields Doctrine 390 Applicability of the Fourth Amendment to Administrative Searches 391 Searches of Abandoned Property 392 Automobile Inventory Searches 392 Searches Based on Consent 393 The Scope of Privacy Protected by the Fourth Amendment 395 Reasonable Expectations of Privacy 395 Sobriety Checkpoints 396 Jail and Prison Searches and Strip Searches 397 The Warrant Requirement 397 The Probable Cause Requirement 398 Issuance of the Search Warrant 398 The Supporting Affidavit 399 Tips from Police Informants 401 Required Specificity of a Search Warrant 402 Anticipatory Search Warrants 404 Execution of a Search Warrant 405 The Knock-and-Announce Ruh 405 Testing the Sufficiency of the Basis for Issuing a Search Warrant 407 Return of Seized Property 407 Exceptions to the Warrant Requirement 407 Evidence in Plain View 407 Emergency Searches 408 Preservation of Evidence 409 Search Incident to a Lawful Arrest 409 Hot Pursuit 410 Automobile Stops and Roadside Searches of Motor Vehicles 410 Exceptions to the Probable Cause Requirement 413 Stop-and-Frisk 413 Drug Courier Profiles 414 School Searches 414 Drug Testing 415 Electronic Surveillance 416 Expectations of Privacy with Respect to Electronic Surveillance 416 The Supreme Court s Major Decisions in the Area of Electronic Surveillance 417 Federal Legislation Governing Interception of Electronic Communications 418 The Exclusionary Rule 422 The Fruit of the Poisonous Tree Doctrine 422 The Erosion of the Exclusionary Rule 423 The Good-Faith Exception 423 Standing to Invoke the Exclusionary Rule 424 CHAPTER 16 Arrest, Interrogation, and Identification Procedures 430 Introduction 431 Arrest 432 The Probable Cause Requirement 432 The Warrant Requirement 432 Warrantless Arrests 433 The Right of an Arrestee to a Prompt Appearance Before a Magistrate 434 Use of Force by Police Making Arrests 434 Arrest of Persons with Disabilities 437 Citizen s Arrest 437 Arrests for Minor Traffic Offenses 437 Search Incident to Arrest 439 Investigatory Detention 439 What Constitutes Reasonable Suspicion? 439 The Idingth of an Investigatory Detention 440 When May Police Conduct a Frisk? 441 xiv Contents Investigatory Automobile Stops 441 Automobile Stops Based on Anonymous Tips 442 Pretextual Automobile Stops 443 Can Police Require Drivers and Passengers to Exit Their Vehicles? 443 Use of Drug Courier Profiles 443 Racial Profiling 444 Roadblocks, Sobriety Checkpoints, and Drug Checkpoints 445 Drug Checkpoints 445 The Latest Word from the U.S. Supreme Court on Checkpoints 447 Requests for Information or Identification 447 Interrogation and Confessions 448 The Fruit of the Poisonous Tree Doctrine 449 The Public Safety Exception to Miranda 450 What Constitutes an Interrogation? 4SI Waiver of Miranda Rights 451 Coerced Confessions 452 Police Deception 452 Factors Considered by Judges in Evaluating Confessions 453 Identification Procedures 453 Forensic Methods 453 Lineups 454 Showups 455 Photo Packs 456 CHAPTER 17 The Pretrial Process 460 Introduction 461 The Right to Counsel 462 Common-Law Background of the Right to Counsel 462 The Modern American Approach 462 Indigena/ and the Right to Counsel 463 Self-Representation 465 Disposition of Petty Offenses 467 The Initial Court Appearance 468 Pretrial Release and Pretrial Detention 469 Modes of Pretrial Release 469 The Issue of Excessive Bail 470 Pretrial Detention 470 The Fonnál Charging Process 471 Determining the Sufficiency of the Government s Case 472 The Preliminary Hearing 473 The Grand Jury 473 Exclusion of Minorities from Grand Juries 474 Functions and Powers of the Grand Juru 474 Rights of Witnesses and Suspects 475 Evidence Before the Grami Jury 475 Right to a Prompt Indictment 476 Extradition 476 Jurisdiction and Venue 477 Joinder and Severance 478 Severance of Charges 479 Joinder and Severance of Parties 479 Pretrial Motions 481 Arraignment 483 Plea Bargaining 484 Availability of Compulsory Process 486 Pretrial Discovery 486 Discovery in the Federal Courts 488 The Right to a Speedy Trial 490 CHAPTER 18 The Criminal Trial 494 Introduction 495 Constitutional Rights Pertaining to the Criminal Trial 495 The Right to Compulsory Process 496 The Right to an Open Public Trial 496 The Right to Trial by Jury 496 The Right to Counsel 498 Selection of the Jury 499 The Voir Dire 500 Challenges for Cause 500 The Problem of Death-Qualified Juries 501 Peremptory Challenges of Jurors 501 Impaneling of the Jury 503 Proposah for Jury Reform 504 Free Press versus Fair Trial 504 Cameras in the Courtroom 505 Order in the Court 506 Unruly Defendants 507 Behavior of Counsel 508 The Rules of Evidence 509 Judicial Notice 509 Proof beyond a Reasonable Doubt 510 Evidentiary Presumptions 510 Requirements of Admissibility 511 Similar Fact Evidence 511 Classifications of Evidence 512 Contents D XV The Requirement of Competency 514 Expert Witnesses 514 Scientific Evidence in the Courtroom 515 Hypnotically Enhanced Testimony 515 Polygraph Evidence 516 Battered Woman Syndroine 517 Db!A Evidence 517 Your Honor, I Object 519 Privileged Communications 520 The Trial Process 522 The Opening Statements 523 The Case for the Prosecution 523 The Right to Confrontation and Cross- Examination 524 The Defense Strategy in Moving for a Judgment of Acquittal 525 The Defense Case: Will the Defendant Take the Stand? 526 The Rebuttals 526 Conduct of the Jury during the Trial 526 The Jury Instructions Conference 527 The Closing Arguments of Counsel 527 The Judge Instructs the Jury 528 The Jury Deliberates and Returns Its Verdict 530 The Deadlocked Jury 530 Jury Pardons 531 The Verdict 532 Polling the Jury 532 Posttrial Motions 532 CHAPTER 19 Sentencing and Punishment 537 Introduction 538 The Common-Law Background 538 The American Experience 538 Legal Constraints on Sentencing and Punishment 539 Contemporary Forms of Criminal Punishment 540 Fines 540 Forfeiture of Property 540 Incarceration 541 The Boot Camp: An Alternative to Prison? 541 Probation 542 Community Seroice 545 Community Control 545 Creative Alternative,,·; to Confinement 545 The Death Penalty 546 Historical Background 547 Revival of the Death Penalty 547 The Federal Death Penalty 548 Death, Deterrence, Retribution, and Incapacitation 550 Is the Death Penalty Racially Discriminatory? 550 Capital Punishment of Juvenile, Offenders 550 Execution of Prisoners Who Have Become, Insane 551 Execution of Mentally Retarded Persons 552 Methods of Execution 552 The Sentencing Stage of the Criminal Process 554 The Presentenee Report 554 The Sentencing Hearing 555 Pronouncement of Sentence 556 Concurrent and Consecutive Sentences 557 Sentencing in Capital Cases 557 Granting and Revoking Probation 559 Revocation of Probation 560 Statutory Approaches to Incarceration 562 Indeterminate Sentencing 562 Definite and Determinate Sentencing 563 Indefinite Sentencing 563 Mandatory Minimum Sentencing 564 Habitual Offender Statutes 564 Three Strikes and You re Out 565 Truth in Sentencing 566 Penalty Enhancement 566 Sentencing Guidelines 567 The Rights of Prisoners 570 The Overcrowding Issue 571 The Problem of Prison Rape 572 Other Rights of Prisoners 572 Prison Disciplinary Measures 573 Parole and Its Revocation 573 The Rights of Crime Victims 574 The Uniform Victims of Crime Ait 574 Restitution 574 CHAPTER 20 Appeal and Postconviction Relief Introduction 580 Error Correction and Lawmaking Fumtions of Appellate Courts 580 The Common-Law Background 580 Appeal of Right 581 What Defejuhnts May Challenge on Appeal 582 The Dottrine cf Harmless Error 583 When an Appeal May Be Taken by a Defendant 583 579 XVI Contents Appeals by the Prosecution 584 Trial de Novo in Minor Misdemeanor Cases 585 Discretionary Review 585 The Appellate Process 586 Release of Defendant on Bail Pending Appeal 587 Right to Counsel on Appeal 588 Filing the Appeal 589 Motions 589 Submission ofBriifs 590 Oral Argument 590 The Judicial Conference 591 judgment of the Court 591 Appettate Court Opinions 591 Publication of Appellate Decisions 592 Motions for Rehearing 592 Postconviction Relief 592 Challenging State Court Convictions in Federal Court 592 Assistance of Counsel in Federal Habeas Corpus Cases 593 Ineffective Counsel as a Basis for Postconviction Relief 594 The Supreme Court Restricts Access to Federal Habeas Corpus 595 Congress Modifies the Federal Habeas Corpus Procedure 598 Collateral Attack in State Court 599 DNA Evidence as a Basis for Postconviction Relief 599 Nonjudicial Remedies Available to Persons Convicted of Crimes 602 Presidential Pardons 602 Clemency at the State Level 602 APPENDIX A Access to the Law through Legal Research 607 The Nature of Legal Research 607 Getting Started in Legal Research 607 Primary Legal Sources 608 The United States Code Annotated 608 Annotated State Codes 608 The National Reporter System 612 ТЫ Regional Reporters 612 Syllabi, Headnotes, and Key Numbers 614 United States Law Week 614 Criminal Law Reporter 616 The Digests 616 Shepard s Citations 616 Key Cite 616 Secondary Sources 618 Legal Encyclopedias 618 Textboob 620 Law Reviews 620 Professional Publications and Other Useful Secondary Sources 620 Computerized Legal Research 620 Legal Research Using the Internet 622 How to Research a Specific Point of Law Conclusion 625 623 APPENDIXB The Constitution of the United States of America 626 Glossary 641 Case Index 663 Subject Index 672
adam_txt	Contents Preface хыг PART ONE Legal Foundations of Criminal Justice 1 CHAPTER 1 Fundamentals of Criminal Law and Procedure 2 Introduction 3 What Is a Crime? 4 Felonies and Misdemeanors 5 Societal Interests Served by the Criminal Laiv ί Crime: An Injury Against Society 6 Criminal Responsibility 6 The Role of the Crime Victim 6 Criminal Law Distinguished from Civil Law 7 Origins and Sources of the Criminal Law 8 Development of Law in the Western World 8 Development of the English Common Law 8 Development of the American Criminal Law 9 State and Local Authority to Enact Criminal Prohibitions 9 Federal Authority to Define Crimes 10 The Model Penal Code 10 Sources of Procedural Law 11 The Role of Courts in Developing the Criminal Imvd 11 Constitutional Limitations The Bill of Rights 12 Due Process of Law 13 12 The Criminal Process 13 Plea Bargaining — The Reality of Criminal Justice 15 Criminal Sanctions 15 CHAPTER 2 ———— ^и^— ■■— мийниці miit, . mzz-zz:zz:zz^~7\ :: . Organization of the Criminal Justice System 18 Introduction 19 Legislatures 19 Legislative Powers of Congress 19 State Legislatures 21 Law Enforcement Agencies 22 Historical Development 23 Policing in Modern America 23 Prosecutorial Agencies 25 Historical Background 25 Federal Prosecutors 25 State and Local Prosecutors 26 The Prosecutors Broad Discretion 26 Counsel for the Defense 26 Représentation of Indigent Defendants 27 The Role of Defense Attorneys 28 Juries 28 Grand Juries 29 Trial Juries 29 The Courts 30 The Federal Court System 30 State Court Systems 34 Contrasting Judicial Functions and Environments 35 The Juvenile Justice System 36 Historical Basis 37 The Constitutional Reform of Juvenile Justice 37 VII VIII H Contents The Corrections System 38 Historical Background 38 Contemporary Developments in Criminal Punishment 39 The Burgeoning Prison Population 39 The Future Outlook 40 PART TWO The Substantive Criminal Law 43 CHAPTER 3 Constitutional Limitations on the Prohibition of Criminal Conduct 44 Introduction 45 The Importance of Judicial Review 45 Unconstitutional Per Se and Unconstitutional as Applied 45 The Power to Enact Criminal Laws 46 Police Powers of State Legislatures 46 The Federal Lawrnaking Power 46 Delimiting the Crime of Treason 49 Levying War Against the United, States 49 Giving Aid and Comfort to the Enemies of the United States 50 Bills of Attainder and Ex Posi Facto Laws 50 Bids of Attainder 50 Ex Post Facto Laws 51 The Bill of Rights 52 Application of the Bill of Rights to State and Local Laws 53 The First Amendment Freedom of Expression 53 Advocacy of Unlawful Conduct 54 Symbolic Speech and Expressive Conduct 54 Free Expression Versus Maintenance of the Public Order 55 Hate Speech 55 Obscenity 56' Nude Dancing 57 Profanity 58 Freedom of Assembly 58 Free Exercise of Religion 59 Unusual Religious Practices 59 Refusal of Medical Treatment 60 The Right to Keep and Bear Arms 61 The Doctrines of Vagueness and Overbreadth 61 Freedom from Compulsory Self-Incrimination 63 The Prohibition against Cruel and Unusual Punishments 64 The Constitutional Right of Privacy 65 Abortion 66 Privacy and Sexual Conduct 66 The Right to Die 67 Equal Protection of the Laws 68 Standards of Judicial Review 69 The Importance of State Constitutions 70 CHAPTER 4 Elements of Crimes and Parties to Crimes 73 Introduction 74 The Actus Reus (The Act Requirement) 74 What Is an Act? 75 When Does Failure to Act Constitute an Act? 75 Possession as a Criminal Act 76 Status as a Criminal Act 77 The Mens Rea (The Criminal Intent Requirement) 78 Concurrence of Act and Intent 78 General and Specific Intent 78 The Model Penal Code Approach to Intent 80 The Doctrine of Transferred Intent 83 The Importance ofDetermmingthe Intent Required 84 Strict Liability Offenses 84 The Causation Requirement 86 Parties to a Crime 86 Common-Law Distinctions Among Participants in Crime 87 The Modern American Approach 87 CHAPTER 5 Inchoate Offenses 91 Introduction 92 Attempt 92 The Act Requirement 93 The Requisite Criminal Intent 94 Attempts in Relation to Substantive Grimes 94 Defenses to the Crime of Attempt 94 Contents □ IX Solicitation 95 The Act Requirement 95 Is an Uncommunicated Solicitation an Offense? 96 The Requisite Criminal Intent 96 Solicitation Distinguished from Other Inchoate Crimes 97 Defenses to the Crime of Solicitation 97 Conspiracy 98 Justification for the Offense of Conspiracy 99 The Range of Conspiracies In Society 99 The Act Element in Conspiracy 100 The Requisite Criminal Intent 100 Conspiracy Distinguished from Aiding and Abetting and Attempt 101 The Pinkerton Ruh 101 Some Unique Aspects of the (Offense of Conspiracy 102 Conspiracy Does Not Merge into the Target Crime 102 The Wharton's Rule Exception 103 Criticism of the Conspiracy Laws 103 Defenses to the Charge of Conspiracy 104 CHAPTER б Offenses against Persons 107 Introduction 108 The Common-Law Background 108 The American Development 108 Assaultive Offenses 109 Modem Statutory Development 109 Common Illustrations of Simple and Aggravated Assault and Battery 110 The Burden of the Prosecution 111 Defenses to Charges of Assault and Battery 112 Mayhem 112 Hazing 112 Stalking 113 Cyberstalking 115 Homicide 116 Modern Statutory Classifications of Homicide 116 First-Degree Murder 117 Fehny Murder 118 Second-Degree Murder 119 Manslaughter 121 Vehicular Homicide 123 Justifiable and Excusable Homiade 124 Removal of Life-Support Systems 125 Prosecutorial Burdens in Homicide. Cases 126 Defenses to Homicidal Crimes 129 Suicide; 129 The Michigan Experience 130 о Г The Washington Experience 130 Competing Values in Suicide Laws 131 Rape and Sexual Battery .132 The American Approach 133 Statutory Rape Laws 134 Reform in the American Law of Rape 134 A Contemporary Statutory Treatment of Sexual Offenses 137 Demise of the Marital Exception 138 Prosecutorial Burdens 139 Rape Trauma Syndrome 140 Sex Offender Registration Laws 142 Defenses to Charges of Sexual Battery 143 Sodomy 143 Abortion 144 The Conflict over Partial Birth Abortion 144 Abusive Offenses 145 Child Abuse 145 Spousal Abuse 147 Abuse of the Elderly 148 False Imprisonment and Kidnapping 149 The Statutory Offense of False Imprisonment 149 Modem Statutory Treatment of Kidnapping 150 The Requirement of Asportatioti in Kidnapping 151 Federal Kidnapping Laws 151 Defenses to Charges of False Imprisonment and Kidnapping 152 Child Snatching 153 Civil Rights Offenses 153 Hate Crimes 155 CHAPTER 7 Property Crimes Introduction 16.1 160 The Common-Law Background 161 161 The, Common-Law Theft Offenses Larceny 162 Fake Pretenses, Embezzhment, and Receiving Stolen Property 162 The Modern Approach to Theft Offenses Federal Approaches 164 State Approaches 165 Computer Crime: New Offenses to Cope with High-Tech Crime 167 A Unique Prosecutorial Burden in Theft Offenses 168 164 Χ ■ Contents 170 Identity Theft 169 Federal Legislation 169 State Legislation 170 Intellectual Property Offenses Patent Infringement 171 Copyright Infringement 171 Trademark Counterfeiting 172 Theft of Track Secrets 173 Robbery 174 Statutory Approaches to Robbery 175 The Temporal Relationship of Force to the Taking 176 Carjacking 177 Forgery and Uttering a Forged Instrument 178 Statutory Expansion of Forgery Offenses 178 Common Examples of Forgery and Uttering a Forged Instrument 180 Worthless Checks 180 Access Device Fraud 181 Habitation Offenses 183 Burglary at Common Law 184 Statutory Revisions of Burglary 184 Possession of Burgh's Took 185 Arson at Common Law 186 Statutory Revision of Arson 186 Malicious Mischief 187 Extortion 188 Extortion under Federal Law 189 Defenses to Propert}' Crimes 189 CHAPTER 8 Offenses against Public Morality Introduction 194 The Common-Law Background 194 Religious Influences 194 Is Morality a Legitimate Basil for Legislation? Police Power and the Social Consensus 195 Constitutional Limitations 195 Criminal Prohibitions of Consensual Sexual Conduct 196 Fornication, Adultery, and Seduction 197 Incest 197 Bigamy 198 Sodomy: The Demise of a Historic Offense 198 Prosfåution 200 Criticism of Latas Regulating Consensual Sextuil Conduct 201 The Prognosis for Reform 202 193 195 Indecent Exposure 203 Nude Dancing in Places of Public Accommodation 204 Nudity and Seminudity on Public Beaches 204 Voyeurism 204 Obscenity and Pornography 205 The Emerging Constitutional Standards 206 The Intractable Obscenity Problem 206 Significant Post-Miller Developments 207 State and Local Regulation of Obscenity 208 Defenses to Charges of Obscenity 209 Problems of Enforcement 209 Pornography on the Internet 210 Child Pornography 211 Profanity 211 Gambling 213 What Constitutes Gambling? 214 Statutory Regulation of Gambling 215 Prosecutorial Problems and Defenses 215 The Paradox of Gambling Laws 216 Animal Cruelty 216 CHAPTER 9 219 Alcohol and Drug Offenses Introduction 220 Prohibition and Regulation of Alcoholic Beverages 220 "Prohibition" 220 Offenses Related to the Consumption of Alcohol by Minors 221 Public Intoxication 222 Driving under die Influence 222 Zero Tolerance for Juveniles 223 Prosecution ofDWI, DUI, andDUBAL Charges Implied Consent Statutes 225 Origins of the Prohibition of Drugs 225 The Harmon Act 225 Prohibition of Marijuana 226 Modern Drug Laws 226 Modern State Drug Laws 227 The Marijuana Controversy 228 The Crystal Meth Crisis 229 Prohibition of Drug Paraphernalia 230 Problems of Drug Enforcement and Prosecution 231 Actual and Constructive Possession 231 Defenses in Drug Cases 233 223 Contents α ХІ The "War on Drags" 233 The Drug Enforcement Administration 233 Mandatory Minimum Sentences 234 Drug Testing of Public Employees and Public School Students 234 Asset Forfeiture 235 The Office of National Drug Control Policy 238 Assessing the War on Drugs 238 Drug Courts: A New Approach 239 Proliferation of Drug Courts 239 Methodology of Drug Court Programs 239 Evaluation of Drug Courts 240 CHAPTER 10 White-Collar and Organized Crime 243 Introduction 244 Legal Principles Governing White-Collar Crimes 245 Prosecution of Corporate Defendant's 245 Acts by Corporate Agents 246 Common Federal White-Collar Crimes 246 Antitrust Violations 247 Computer Crimes 247 Valse Statements and Bankruptcy Fraud 249 The False Claims Act 249 The Federal Mail Fraud and Wire Fraud Statutes 251 Money Laundering and Currency Reporting Violations 252 Securities Fraud 253 Churning and Insider Trading 254 The Hobhs Act 255 Tax Fraud 255 Criminal Prosecution of Tax Violations 256 Organized Crime 257 The Organized Crime Control Act of 1970 257 Defenses in White-Collar and Organized Crime Cases 262 CHAPTER 11 Offenses against Public Health and the Environment 265 Introduction 266 Sources of Late Deßning Crimes against the Public Health and the Environment 266 Public Health Legislation 267 The Federal Pure Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act 268 Stria Liability Offenses 269 Criminal Liability of Responsible Corporate Officers 270 Defenses under the FDCA 271 Planning and Zoning Laws 272 The Scope of Federal and State Emdronmental Statutes 273 Major Federal Environmental legislation Providing Criminal Sanctions 274 The Clean Air Act 274 The Clean Water Act 275 The Government's Requirement of Proof of Violation of the Clean Water Act 2 76 The Point Source Problem 276 The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 278 The Government's Requirement of Proof of RC R A Offenses 279 The Toxic Substances Control Act 280 The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 281 Standard of Liability of Corporate Officers 281 Lack of Uniformity in Environmental Laws 281 Defenses to Environmental Crimes 282 Noise Pollution 284 Antismoking Legislation 285 The Florida Initiative 286 New York's Comprehensive Smoking Ban 286 Wildlife Protection Laws 286 The Migratory Bird Act 287 The Endangered Species Act 288 State Regulation of Wildlife 289 What Constitutes Possession? 290 Defenses Rejected 290 CHAPTER 12 Offenses against Public Order, Safety, and National Security 293 Introduction 294 Breaches of the Peace 295 Unlawful Assembly and Riot 295 Disorderly Conduri 297 Excessive Noise 299 Vagrancy, Loitering, Curfews, and Panhandling 300 The American Approach to Vagrancy 301 XU α Contents The Death Knell of Vagrancy Imws 301 Loitering 302 Curfews 304 Panhandling 306 Motor Vehicle Violations 308 Decriminalization of Traffic Offenses 308 Seat Belts and Cell Phones 308 Weapons Offenses 309 Concealed Weapons 311 Federal Gun Control Laws 311 Offenses against National Security 312 Treason 313 Espionage 313 Sabotage 314 Sedition 314 Terrorism and Weapons of Mass Destruction 315 Antiterrorism Legislation 315 Weapons of Mass Destruction 317 Detention and Trial of Accused Terrorists Captured Abroad: 317 Immigration Offenses 318 CHAPTER 13 Offenses against Justice and Public Administration 322 Introduction 323 Bribery 323 TJie Modern Statutory Offense of Bribery 323 The Range of Bribery Offenses 324 The Burden of the Prosecution 324 Offenses Extending the Concept of Bribery 325 Defenses to the Crime of Bribery 326 Perjury 327 Elements of the Offense of Perjury 327 The Burden of the Prosecution 327 Perjury by Contradictory Statements 328 Subornation of Perjury 328 Defenses to the Crime of Perjury 330 Obstruction of Justice 331 Modern Statutory Developments 331 The Citizens Duty to Assist Law Enforcement Officers 332 Resisting Arrest 332 Compounding a Crime 333 The Modern Statutory Approach 333 A Common Scenario of Compounding a Crime 334 Escape 334 Modern Statutory Approaches to Escape 334 The Elements of the Offense of Escape 334 Defenses to the Charge of Escape 335 Contempt 336 Civil Contempt 337 Criminal Contempt 337 Direct and Indirect Criminal Contempt 337 Is Criminal Contempt Really a Crime? 338 CHAPTER 14 Criminal Responsibility and Defenses 343 Introduction 344 Defenses in General 344 Defenses Asserting Lack of Capacity to Commit a Crime 345 Infancy 345 Intoxication 346 Insanity 347 Automatism 352 Defenses Asserting Excuse or Justification 353 Duress 353 Necessity 354 Consent 356 Mistake of Law 356 Mistake of Fact 357 Alibi 358 Defenses Justifying the Use of Force 359 Self-Defense ' 359 Defense of Others 362 Defense of Habitation 363 Defense of Property 364 Defense to Being Arrested 365 Use of Force by Police 366 Defenses Based on Constitutional and Statutory Authority 367 Constitutional Immunity 367 Other Forms of Immunity 368 Double Jeopardy 368 Statutes of Limitation 371 Defenses Based on Improper Government Conduct 372 Entrapment 372 Selective Prosecution 376 Nontraditional Defenses 377 Unusual Religious Beliefs and Practices 377 Contents xiii Victim's Negligence 378 Premenstrual Stjndrome 378 Compulsine Gambling 378 Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome 378 The "Junk Food" Defense 379 Television Intoxication 379 Pornographic Intoxication 379 XYY Chromosome Abnormality 379 Multiple Personality Defense 379 Black Rage and Urban Survival Defenses 379 PART THREE Law Enforcement and Criminal Procedure 385 CHAPTER 15 Search and Seizure 386 Introduction 387 Historical Background 387 Adoption of the Fourth Amendment 388 Extension of the Fourth Amendment to Apply to State and Local Action 389 When, Where, and to Whom the Fourth Amendment Applies 390 Border Searches and Searches Outside the United States 390 The Horne, Its Curtilage, and the Open Fields Doctrine 390 Applicability of the Fourth Amendment to Administrative Searches 391 Searches of Abandoned Property 392 Automobile Inventory Searches 392 Searches Based on Consent 393 The Scope of Privacy Protected by the Fourth Amendment 395 Reasonable Expectations of Privacy 395 Sobriety Checkpoints 396 Jail and Prison Searches and Strip Searches 397 The Warrant Requirement 397 The Probable Cause Requirement 398 Issuance of the Search Warrant 398 The Supporting Affidavit 399 Tips from Police Informants 401 Required Specificity of a Search Warrant 402 Anticipatory Search Warrants 404 Execution of a Search Warrant 405 The Knock-and-Announce Ruh 405 Testing the Sufficiency of the Basis for Issuing a Search Warrant 407 Return of Seized Property 407 Exceptions to the Warrant Requirement 407 Evidence in Plain View 407 Emergency Searches 408 Preservation of Evidence 409 Search Incident to a Lawful Arrest 409 Hot Pursuit 410 Automobile Stops and Roadside Searches of Motor Vehicles 410 Exceptions to the Probable Cause Requirement 413 Stop-and-Frisk 413 Drug Courier Profiles 414 School Searches 414 Drug Testing 415 Electronic Surveillance 416 Expectations of Privacy with Respect to Electronic Surveillance 416 The Supreme Court's Major Decisions in the Area of Electronic Surveillance 417 Federal Legislation Governing Interception of Electronic Communications 418 The Exclusionary Rule 422 The Fruit of the Poisonous Tree Doctrine 422 The Erosion of the Exclusionary Rule 423 The Good-Faith Exception 423 Standing to Invoke the Exclusionary Rule 424 CHAPTER 16 Arrest, Interrogation, and Identification Procedures 430 Introduction 431 Arrest 432 The Probable Cause Requirement 432 The Warrant Requirement 432 Warrantless Arrests 433 The Right of an Arrestee to a Prompt Appearance Before a Magistrate 434 Use of Force by Police Making Arrests 434 Arrest of Persons with Disabilities 437 Citizen's Arrest 437 Arrests for Minor Traffic Offenses 437 Search Incident to Arrest 439 Investigatory Detention 439 What Constitutes Reasonable Suspicion? 439 The Idingth of an Investigatory Detention 440 When May Police Conduct a Frisk? 441 xiv Contents Investigatory Automobile Stops 441 Automobile Stops Based on Anonymous Tips 442 Pretextual Automobile Stops 443 Can Police Require Drivers and Passengers to Exit Their Vehicles? 443 Use of Drug Courier Profiles 443 Racial Profiling 444 Roadblocks, Sobriety Checkpoints, and Drug Checkpoints 445 Drug Checkpoints 445 The Latest Word from the U.S. Supreme Court on Checkpoints 447 Requests for Information or Identification 447 Interrogation and Confessions 448 The Fruit of the Poisonous Tree Doctrine 449 The Public Safety Exception to Miranda 450 What Constitutes an Interrogation? 4SI Waiver of Miranda Rights 451 Coerced Confessions 452 Police Deception 452 Factors Considered by Judges in Evaluating Confessions 453 Identification Procedures 453 Forensic Methods 453 Lineups 454 Showups 455 Photo Packs 456 CHAPTER 17 The Pretrial Process 460 Introduction 461 The Right to Counsel 462 Common-Law Background of the Right to Counsel 462 The Modern American Approach 462 Indigena/ and the Right to Counsel 463 Self-Representation 465 Disposition of Petty' Offenses 467 The Initial Court Appearance 468 Pretrial Release and Pretrial Detention 469 Modes of Pretrial Release 469 The Issue of Excessive Bail 470 Pretrial Detention 470 The Fonnál Charging Process 471 Determining the Sufficiency of the Government's Case 472 The Preliminary Hearing 473 The Grand Jury' 473 Exclusion of Minorities from Grand Juries 474 Functions and Powers of the Grand Juru 474 Rights of Witnesses and Suspects 475 Evidence Before the Grami Jury 475 Right to a Prompt Indictment 476 Extradition 476 Jurisdiction and Venue 477 Joinder and Severance 478 Severance of Charges 479 Joinder and Severance of Parties 479 Pretrial Motions 481 Arraignment 483 Plea Bargaining 484 Availability of Compulsory Process 486 Pretrial Discovery 486 Discovery in the Federal Courts 488 The Right to a Speedy Trial 490 CHAPTER 18 The Criminal Trial 494 Introduction 495 Constitutional Rights Pertaining to the Criminal Trial 495 The Right to Compulsory Process 496 The Right to an Open Public Trial 496 The Right to Trial by Jury 496 The Right to Counsel 498 Selection of the Jury 499 The Voir Dire 500 Challenges for Cause 500 The Problem of "Death-Qualified" Juries 501 Peremptory Challenges of Jurors 501 Impaneling of the Jury 503 Proposah for Jury Reform 504 Free Press versus Fair Trial 504 Cameras in the Courtroom 505 "Order in the Court" 506 Unruly Defendants 507 Behavior of Counsel 508 The Rules of Evidence 509 Judicial Notice 509 Proof beyond a Reasonable Doubt 510 Evidentiary Presumptions 510 Requirements of Admissibility 511 Similar Fact Evidence 511 Classifications of Evidence 512 Contents D XV The Requirement of Competency 514 Expert Witnesses 514 Scientific Evidence in the Courtroom 515 Hypnotically Enhanced Testimony 515 Polygraph Evidence 516 Battered Woman Syndroine 517 Db!A Evidence 517 "Your Honor, I Object" 519 Privileged Communications 520 The Trial Process 522 The Opening Statements 523 The Case for the Prosecution 523 The Right to Confrontation and Cross- Examination 524 The Defense Strategy in Moving for a Judgment of Acquittal 525 The Defense Case: Will the Defendant Take the Stand? 526 The Rebuttals 526 Conduct of the Jury during the Trial 526 The Jury Instructions Conference 527 The Closing Arguments of Counsel 527 The Judge Instructs the Jury 528 The Jury Deliberates and Returns Its Verdict 530 The Deadlocked Jury 530 Jury Pardons 531 The Verdict 532 Polling the Jury 532 Posttrial Motions 532 CHAPTER 19 Sentencing and Punishment 537 Introduction 538 The Common-Law Background 538 The American Experience 538 Legal Constraints on Sentencing and Punishment 539 Contemporary Forms of Criminal Punishment 540 Fines 540 Forfeiture of Property 540 Incarceration 541 The Boot Camp: An Alternative to Prison? 541 Probation 542 Community Seroice 545 Community Control 545 Creative Alternative,,·; to Confinement 545 The Death Penalty 546 Historical Background 547 Revival of the Death Penalty 547 The Federal Death Penalty 548 Death, Deterrence, Retribution, and Incapacitation 550 Is the Death Penalty Racially Discriminatory? 550 Capital Punishment of Juvenile, Offenders 550 Execution of Prisoners Who Have Become, Insane 551 Execution of Mentally Retarded Persons 552 Methods of Execution 552 The Sentencing Stage of the Criminal Process 554 The Presentenee Report 554 The Sentencing Hearing 555 Pronouncement of Sentence 556 Concurrent and Consecutive Sentences 557 Sentencing in Capital Cases 557 Granting and Revoking Probation 559 Revocation of Probation 560 Statutory Approaches to Incarceration 562 Indeterminate Sentencing 562 Definite and Determinate Sentencing 563 Indefinite Sentencing 563 Mandatory Minimum Sentencing 564 Habitual Offender Statutes 564 "Three Strikes and You're Out" 565 Truth in Sentencing 566 Penalty Enhancement 566 Sentencing Guidelines 567 The Rights of Prisoners 570 The Overcrowding Issue 571 The Problem of Prison Rape 572 Other Rights of Prisoners 572 Prison Disciplinary Measures 573 Parole and Its Revocation 573 The Rights of Crime Victims 574 The Uniform Victims of Crime Ait 574 Restitution 574 CHAPTER 20 Appeal and Postconviction Relief Introduction 580 Error Correction and Lawmaking Fumtions of Appellate Courts 580 The Common-Law Background 580 Appeal of Right 581 What Defejuhnts May Challenge on Appeal 582 The Dottrine cf Harmless Error 583 When an Appeal May Be Taken by a Defendant 583 579 XVI Contents Appeals by the Prosecution 584 Trial de Novo in Minor Misdemeanor Cases 585 Discretionary Review 585 The Appellate Process 586 Release of Defendant on Bail Pending Appeal 587 Right to Counsel on Appeal 588 Filing the Appeal 589 Motions 589 Submission ofBriifs 590 Oral Argument 590 The Judicial Conference 591 judgment of the Court 591 Appettate Court Opinions 591 Publication of Appellate Decisions 592 Motions for Rehearing 592 Postconviction Relief 592 Challenging State Court Convictions in Federal Court 592 Assistance of Counsel in Federal Habeas Corpus Cases 593 Ineffective Counsel as a Basis for Postconviction Relief 594 The Supreme Court Restricts Access to Federal Habeas Corpus 595 Congress Modifies the Federal Habeas Corpus Procedure 598 Collateral Attack in State Court 599 DNA Evidence as a Basis for Postconviction Relief 599 Nonjudicial Remedies Available to Persons Convicted of Crimes 602 Presidential Pardons 602 Clemency at the State Level 602 APPENDIX A Access to the Law through Legal Research 607 The Nature of Legal Research 607 Getting Started in Legal Research 607 Primary Legal Sources 608 The United States Code Annotated 608 Annotated State Codes 608 The National Reporter System 612 ТЫ Regional Reporters 612 Syllabi, Headnotes, and Key Numbers 614 United States Law Week 614 Criminal Law Reporter 616 The Digests 616 Shepard's Citations 616 Key Cite 616 Secondary Sources 618 Legal Encyclopedias 618 Textboob 620 Law Reviews 620 Professional Publications and Other Useful Secondary Sources 620 Computerized Legal Research 620 Legal Research Using the Internet 622 How to Research a Specific Point of Law Conclusion 625 623 APPENDIXB The Constitution of the United States of America 626 Glossary 641 Case Index 663 Subject Index 672
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title	Criminal law and procedure
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title_short	Criminal law and procedure
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topic	Criminal law United States Criminal procedure United States
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