Hebrajskie inskrypcje na materiale kamiennym w Polsce w XIII - XX wieku: studium paleograficzno-epigraficzne
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Polish |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Lublin
Wydawn. Uniw. Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej
2007
|
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Beschreibung: | Dysk optyczny zawiera materiał inwentaryzacyjny (fotografie epigrafów i frotaże inskrypcji) 495 spośród 613 obiektów zamieszczonych w katalogu, uporządkowany według numerów katalogowych |
| Beschreibung: | 242, [76] Bl. Ill. CD-ROM (12 cm) |
| ISBN: | 9788322726310 |
Internformat
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| 264 | 1 | |a Lublin |b Wydawn. Uniw. Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej |c 2007 | |
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| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
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| 500 | |a Dysk optyczny zawiera materiał inwentaryzacyjny (fotografie epigrafów i frotaże inskrypcji) 495 spośród 613 obiektów zamieszczonych w katalogu, uporządkowany według numerów katalogowych | ||
| 505 | 0 | |a Bibliogr. s. [171]-190. Indeksy | |
| 648 | 7 | |a Geschichte 1200-2000 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf | |
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| 650 | 7 | |a Inskrypcje hebrajskie - Polska |2 jhpk | |
| 650 | 7 | |a Język hebrajski - pismo - CD-ROM-y |2 jhpk | |
| 650 | 7 | |a Język hebrajski - pismo |2 jhpk | |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804137332220100608 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | Spis
tresei
Nazwy liter i zasady transkrypcji fonetycznej z hebrajskiego i jidysz oraz wartości liczbowe
liter hebrajskich
............................... 9
Rozdział
1
Zagadnienia wstępne
1.1.
Paleografia
a epigrafika
............................. 11
1.2.
Założenia badawcze, cele rozprawy
........................ 16
1.3.
Rodzaje wykorzystanych źródeł i ogólna charakterystyka rozpoznanych zabytków
.... 17
1.4.
Stan badań nad pismem hebrajskim z okresu średniowiecza i nowożytnego
....... 21
1.4.1.
Zarys dziejów pisma hebrajskiego
...................... 22
1.4.2.
Cele i metody badawcze
.......................... 24
1.4.3.
Klasyfikacja i jej terminologia
........................ 26
1.4.3.1.
Aspekt regionalny
.......................... 26
1.4.3.2.
Aspekt funkcjonalny
......................... 29
1.4.3.3.
Aspekt chronologiczny
........................ 32
1.4.3.4.
Pismo drukowane na tle dziejów drukarstwa hebrajskiego
......... 34
1.4.4.
Terminologia opisu liter
.......................... 38
Rozdział
2
Pismo kwadratowe
2.1.
Metoda, reguły
paleografii
hebrajskiej, terminologia, narzędzia badawcze
........ 41
2.1.1.
Metoda
................................. 41
2.1.2.
Podstawowe reguły
paleografii
hebrajskiej
................... 42
2.1.3.
Linie i strefy pisma
............................ 43
2.1.4.
Wizualizacja struktury i formy liter oraz znaków nieliterowych
......... 43
2.1.5.
Graficzne komponenty liter
......................... 45
2.1.6.
Kwestionariusz cech pisma do analizy paleograficznej
.............. 47
2.1.6.1.
Cechy mierzalne
........................... 47
2.1.6.2.
Cechy niemierzalne
......................... 48
2.2.
Analiza paleograficzna
............................. 49
2.2.1.
Rozbiór paleograficzny wybranych liter
.................... 50
2.2.2.
Zestawienie cech
............................. 84
2.2.3.
Ogólne cechy pisma inslcrypcji jako całości
.................. 93
2.2.3.1.
Waga pisma
............................. 93
2.2.3.2.
Różnica grubości między horyzontałami a wertykałami
.......... 93
2.2.3.3.
Ogólne pochylenie pisma
....................... 94
2.2.3.4.
Ogólna charakterystyka zdobnictwa liter
................. 94
2.2.4.
Wnioski
................................. 96
6
Spis treści
2.3.
Sposoby i
znala segmentacji tekstu
........................ 97
2.3.1.
Inwentarz znaków
............................. 99
2.3.1.1.
Znaki dwuelementowe w układzie pionowym (jeden nad drugim)
...... 99
2.3.1.2.
Znaki jednoelementowe oraz konwencjonalne znaki zwarte
........ 100
2.3.1.3.
Znaki złożone z trzech lub więcej elementów w układzie pionowym
..... 101
2.3.1.4.
Znaki złożone z dwu lub więcej jednakowych elementów w układzie poziomym
lub blokowym
............................ 101
2.3.1.5.
Znaki o formach zindywidualizowanych
................. 101
2.3.1.6.
Znaki mocno rozciągnięte w poziomie
................. 102
2.3.1.7.
Znaki interpunkcyjne przejęte z pisma łacińskiego
............ 102
2.3.2.
Funkcja znaków
.............................. 103
2.3.2.1.
Oznaczenie zakończenia tekstu
.................... 103
2.3.2.2.
Funkcja oddzielenia
......................... 103
2.3.2.3.
Znak przed tekstem
......................... 105
2.3.2.4.
Wypełnianie wolnej przestrzeni
.................... 105
2.4.
Brachygrafia
.................................. 105
2.4.1.
Natura abrewiacji
............................. 106
2.4.2.
Znaki abrewiacji
............................. 111
2.4.2.1.
Znaki wąskie
............................ 111
2.4.2.2.
Znaki szerokie
........................... 113
2.4.2.3.
Pozycja i funkcja znaków
....................... 114
2.5.
Varia
..................................... 114
Rozdział
3
Pismo niekwadratowe
3.1.
Uwagi wstępne
................................ 115
3.2.
Rodzaje epigrafów
............................... 116
3.2.1.
Inskrypcje nagrobkowe
........................... 116
3.2.2.
Graffiti
................................. 117
3.2.3.
Inne
................................... 117
3.3.
Analiza paleograficzna
............................. 118
3.4.
Podsumowanie
................................. 126
Rozdział
4
Klasyfikacja pisma
4.1.
Klasyfikacja pisma kwadratowego
.......................... 127
4.2.
Pismo a epoki stylowe
............................. 135
Rozdział
5
Kompleksowe ujęcie epigrafu
5.1.
Typy obiektów
................................. 140
5.2.
Cechy formalnostylowe obiektu
......................... 142
5.2.1.
Stele
.........................■......... 142
5.2.2.
Inne obiekty
............................... 143
5.3.
Treść i funkcja inskrypcji
............................ 144
Spis treści
7
5.4.
Kontekst
archeologiczny i historyczny
....................... 145
5.5.
Materiał
................................... 145
5.6.
Technika wykonania
.............................. 146
5.6.1.
Technika wykonania całego obiektu
..................... 146
5.6.2.
Technika wykonania napisu
......................... 147
5.6.3.
Malatura
................................. 149
5.7.
Wielkość liter inskrypcji
............................. 149
5.8.
Układ tekstu
................................. 150
5.9.
Aspekty filologiczne tekstu
........................... 152
Rozdział
6
Praktyczne zastosowanie metod i narzędzi (analiza wybranych obiektów)
6.1.
Obiekty z synagogi Starej w Krakowie
....................... 155
6.1.1.
Oprawa aron ha-kodesz
.......................... 155
6.1.2.
Oprawa skarbony
(1)........................... 156
6.1.3.
Oprawa skarbony
(2)........................... 158
6.2.
Oprawa aron ha-kodesz w synagodze
Remu
w Krakowie
............... 159
6.3.
Oprawa aron ha-kodesz w synagodze w Szczebrzeszynie
............... 161
6.4.
Nagrobek Szaloma Szachny
ben
Josef (zm.
1558)
na starym cmentarzu żydowskim
w Lublinie
.................................. 162
Zakończenie
................................... 165
Wykaz skrótów bibliograficznych
.......................... 169
Źródła i opracowania wykorzystane w pracy
..................... 171
Indeks rzeczowy
.................................. 191
Indeks nazw geograficznych
............................ 201
Indeks osób
.................................... 205
Summary
..................................... 209
Aneks
...................................... 215
Ilustracje i plansze katalogu
............................ 233
Summary
Hebrew Inscriptions on Stone
in Poland from the Thirteenth to Twentieth Century:
A Paleographic-Epigraphic Study
Since the second part of the 20th century we have witnessed a worldwide revival of studies on various
monuments
-
the carriers of Hebrew script
-
especially epigraphs, codices, prints, but also
paléographie
studies.
In East Central Europe, after the disintegration of the Communist bloc, within the intensive development of
Jewish studies there has appeared a notable rise in interest in Hebrew epigraphs, especially on tombstones,
which constitute the most abundant remains after the murdered Jewish people (Katzenelson). This also con¬
cerns historical landmarks from the Polish Commonwealth in its historical borders and the research in this
field has resulted in numerous works. Most of them are editions of sources, but there are also dissertations, in
which one can clearly notice the treatment of inscriptions as a historical source. Moreover, there are studies
from the perspective of art history and philology. Despite this, the
paléographie
approach is almost absent. The
present study intends to partly fill in this gap.
In the Introduction I present the general assumptions of my study. The research subject has been
limited to stone epigraphs. Geographically, the territories of the Polish Commonwealth in its historical borders
have been taken into account. The chronological framework is maximal
-
from the oldest monument
(1203)
to
the Holocaust, that is more than
700
years. The general intention of the study is to give a complementary
treatment of paleography and epigraphy. Within the assumed criteria, the main aim is to examine
-
from the
paléographie
perspective
-
Hebrew script on stone monuments, and from the epigraphic point of view
-
a complex treatment of the epigraph as a whole, treated as a cultural text. The particular aims of the study are
as follows:
1)
to acquaint readers with the state of research on Hebrew script from the Middle Ages to moder¬
nity;
2)
to suggest Polish terminology in the field of Hebrew paleography,-
3)
to present methods and tools for
analysis of Hebrew epigraphic script and multifarious examinations of various objects treated as unities;
4)
to
apply methods and tools to describe changes occurring in the examined script;
5)
to suggest an updated classifi¬
cation of script;
6)
to practically apply the methods and tools for an analysis of selected landmarks,-
7)
to present
objects and manifestations of script used in epigraphs from various periods (photographs of monuments,
inscription rubbings, tables with sketches of letters).
The source base of the dissertation consists in the existent epigraphs as well as those that have not
been preserved but have been recorded on photographs or drawings, of which I have examined a few thousand
objects. From among them
613
are represented in the supplementary illustrative material. Editions of the texts
themselves have been used as intermediary sources. Among the identified landmarks, the number of which is
estimated as a few million, tombstones come to the fore; there are few non-sepulchlar epigraphs and graffiti.
Epigraphic items from outside the discussed territory as well as script on manuscripts and prints have been in¬
cluded as comparative material.
I discuss in detail the state of
paléographie
research (from the mid-nineteenth century till today) on
Hebrew script from the Middle Ages and modernity. The following issues are raised: research aims and
methods, classification of script and its terminology (in regional, functional and chronological aspects) as well
as terminology used to describe the letters. Against this background the basic principles of script classification
have been accepted and defined: type, kind, group and style. I use the following terms to describe various kinds
of script: square script and non-square script (including cursive, semi-cursive and intermediate kinds). Taking
into account the aspect of shaping the sign, I have also introduced an essential distinction into written and
drawn letters.
A variety of script appear on the discussed landmarks but square script dominates. Chapter
2
is
devoted to this land of script. First I present my research method, the rules of Hebrew paleography, the accepted
210________
Hebrajskie inskrypcje na materiale kamiennym w Polsce w
XIII-XX
wieku...
_______________
terminology and research tools for script analysis. The research method, which consists in combining a tradi¬
tional description of features with objective quantitative records, was adapted on the basis of empirically tested
methods used by Malachi
Beit-Arié,
Ada Yardeni and Edna
Engel.
The basic features of this method are the
following:
1)
a detailed descriptive record of morphological features of the letters combined with objective
measurements;
2)
maximal objectivization of research by separating the analysis of form from the analysis of
letter structure and application of the potentially largest set of tools allowing for the quantitative record of script
features;
3)
preference for the analysis of letter components over the analysis of the sign as a whole. The sum of
morphological and structural features of typical components gives a picture of the whole sign
-
as a representa¬
tive (model) letter. Recording and analysis of these features in a diachronic order give insight into the transfor¬
mations of the letter in temporal perspective. While presenting basic rules of Hebrew paleography I accepted
and defined general terms pertaining to the description of letters (root, body, written lines and zones of script,
horizontal, vertical, diagonal, ascender, descender) as well as detailed names of letter components. Next I pre¬
sented and defined tools for the visualization of the structure and form of letters and non-letter signs: sign con¬
tour, letter skeleton, rectangles with co-ordinates, geometrical form of letter. For
paléographie
analysis of script
features I have used a research questionnaire in which I distinguished two feature categories:
1 )
measurable fea¬
tures (usually pertaining to structural features): module, script weight, difference in thickness between horizon¬
tals and verticals, course of components, conjunctions of components, number of components, number of frac¬
tures, letter angles, general inclination of the script;
2)
and non-measurable features (pertaining to formal
features): form of components (i.e., general form, form of contour line, form of ending, relation of the ending
to adjacent letters, the degree of change of thickness, form of decorative elements) and form of component
conjunction.
Next I present a detailed
paléographie
analysis of letters as individual signs on the basis of four selected
letters: aleph, khet, tzade, shin, and present the results of the analysis of these parameters, which pertain to
general features of epigraph script as a whole (script weight, difference in thickness between horizontals and
verticals, general inclination of script, general characteristics of letter decoration). The results of
paléographie
analysis testified that in the earliest period, letters possessed pre-Ashkenazi features, subsequently Ashkenazi
and later Sephardi ones. The basic tendency was to submit to Sephardi influences. Singular, typically Sephardi
features appear gradually in concrete letters at different times but the period of their increased frequency occurs
in the
1
8th century with the peak in its third and fourth quarters, but from the perspective of the entire body of
the discussed material epigraphs consistently made in Sephardi script predominate around the mid-nineteenth
century. Some Ashkenazi features (and very rarely realizations with purely Ashkenazi features) were not com¬
pletely absent and survived till the end of the discussed period. Some features of script in the entire discussed
period remain common for both Ashkenazi and Sephardi types, which results not only from the root of the He¬
brew letter but also indicates preservation of the feature adopted from the mutual predecessor, that is Oriental
script.
In Ashkenazi letters in the initial period (till around mid-seventeenth century) features typical for co¬
dex script are quite visible, which implies that the basic patters for stonecutters was script used by scribes
[sofeiim] in codices and later (a very similar) script of early prints. Next, realizations of drawn letters predomi¬
nate, often decorative, where quantitative supply
-
especially of forms
-
is quite substantial. Such realizations,
of substantial autonomy, can be defined as specific for epigraphic script (not only in stone). Sephardi letters in
the discussed inscriptions are usually characteristic for the later version of this type of script, that is the Am¬
sterdam letter and its derivatives. Such a state of affairs is sufficiently explained by the enormous popularity of
the Amsterdam letter (not only in prints but in manuscripts as well), and later of its mutations.
The analysis of the components indicated that their features, and consequently the features of particu¬
lar letters as a whole, change at their own speed (which is a general principle already noticed by paleographers).
If we have a closer look at the letters in the
synchronie
option, we shall see that they can be compared to an
arrangement of blocks (constituted by the components). In some periods of time we notice uniformity or at
least a large similarity of the general picture of components in the whole alphabet, while in other periods
discordances occur. If we systematize and group the components according to these general similarities and
then trace their functioning in epigraph letters from the diachronic point of view, we shall notice clear regulari¬
ties in changes of a periodical and cyclical nature. After a period in which there is a similarity of the general pic¬
ture of the components applied (or at least a domination of some group), a period follows in which particular
block-components (or barely components segments) are gradually exchanged for others. Upon the dominance
of those other new components there follows the next period of stabilization of this group. In the entire dis¬
cussed period this cycle has been repeated several times with some general forms of components having a diffe¬
rent functioning period, some of them even markedly longer than the period of dominance of particular groups
of script. These observations allow us to formulate the following hypothesis: the letters do not change as
a whole, modifications occur in them via mutations or exchanges of the tiniest morphological elements and
structural features. Albeit to a smaller degree, this concerns the entire set of letters of the alphabet used at
a certain time period. This set is usually not exchanged as a whole (such examples, however, can be indicated
especially in the later period). Particular letters reveal a varied dynamics of change, i.e. speed and degree of
changes.
Summary
_________ 211
While discussing the means and signs of text segmentation I first present an inventory of signs, ar¬
ranged according to mixed classification, giving preference to the genetic aspect and in particular groups of signs
to the morphological structure of the sign with regard to chronology and frequency. Then I discuss the function
of signs. In the monument material I have recognized the following functions: the marking of the text ending;
separation function (separating phrases
-
a stronger and weaker logical pause, separating words, separating let¬
ters, flanking line treatment, separating conventional formulas, separating larger portions of the text); signs be¬
fore the text; filling in blank space. In numerous early epigraphs (especially medieval ones, but in early modern
ones as well) there are no signs of text segmentation; oftentimes there are not even spaces between logical
phrases or words. In the period between the mid-sixteenth till the mid-nineteenth century decorative signs of
varied individualized form were widely used. In later epigraphs
(
19ш-20љ
century) we additionally notice sepa¬
rating logical parts of the text in a stychometric way (i.e. from the next line) and introducing signs adopted from
the Latin script.
The analysis of inscriptions did not reveal regular relationships between form and function of the signs
of text segmentation (which is analogous to manuscripts). If we notice some regularities in this respect, they
concern groups of epigraphs produced in a place and time period and probably are a result of the authors (edi¬
tors , producers ) inscriptions. A high degree of arbitrariness, lack of rules and inconsistencies lead to a situa¬
tion that the actual function of signs or rather intention of their usage may be deduced on the principle of repet-
itiveness of some applications.
In the classification of the brachygraphic system two criteria were taken into account:
1)
the nature of
abbreviations,
2)
form of abbreviation signs and the means of their application. The following methods of
abbreviation appearing in epigraphic material and concerning the abbreviation of one, two or more words have
been discussed: removal of letters from the end of the word (suspension), removal of letters from the middle of
the word (contraction), removal of letters from the beginning of the word, keeping the letter from the middle
of the word, conventional signs, ligature, change in the sequence of letters remaining from the particular words
of the sequence, combination of sequences of words into one sequence with the reduction of the letter, and
-
additionally
-
unconventional abbreviations. The classification of abbreviation signs was based on the morpho¬
logical principle (with the distinction of two basic groups: narrow signs and broad signs), taking into consider¬
ation the chronological and functional aspect. Abbreviation signs occur as early as in the oldest items from the
discussed collection. In some medieval epigraphs two signs can be noticed, in the later ones the number of va¬
rious signs used in one epigraph is oftentimes three, four or even five. Basically, in the majority of examples this
differentiation of sign forms does not result in the differentiation of their function, indicating that this variety
had a largely decorative value and a selection of signs, especially more decorative ones, was a question of local
fads and individual choices of the inscription makers. In the analyzed epigraph material a certain supply of
signs predominates and their form and manner of usage have not changed in the entire discussed period. These
are the simplest graphic signs based on the point as well as on the line (basically identical with those most often
used in manuscripts
-
from the early Oriental ones and next in prints and their formal similarity to masoretic
signs is probably not coincidental). Among the abbreviation methods, in the majority of them the abbreviated
version is connected with the graphic signs which suggest shortening. In fact quite often such markings are
absent or used inconsistently or else unnecessarily placed. Regular and consistent marking of abbreviations is in
turn quite frequent from the
1
9th century on, especially in epigraphs made in mechanized stone workshops. It is
worth noticing that at least since the end of the 18th century and in the 19th century abbreviation signs were
frequently not cut in stone but merely painted and often have not survived to the present.
The analyzed epigraphic material allows us to claim that at least to the end of the 16th century there
have not been varied signs marking the abbreviation of one word in opposition to the abbreviation of a sequence
of words. Such a differentiation appeared after the introduction since the first quarter of the 17th century of
broad signs, but this was not used consistently. Only during the 19th century do we notice an increased fre¬
quency of using standardized signs: geresh
-
to mark the abbreviation of one word, gershayim
-
to mark the ab¬
breviation of a word sequence. The monuments in which merely those two signs were used prevailed only in the
20th century. Signs used to mark abbreviations were also used to mark numbers (usually these are inscriptions
of dates), chronograms or acrostychs.
Non-square script also appears in the stone inscriptions, to which Chapter
3
is devoted. I have identi¬
fied this ldnd of script in the following types of epigraphs:
1)
sepulchlar inscriptions in a certain period of time
from the mid-sixteenth to mid-seventeenth century, primarily at the end of a text, where it was used for a few
typical formulas,- moreover non-square letters were used to supplement missing words or letters and to fill in
the end of a line in order to contain the text in a line,·
2)
in graffiti
-
only one albeit abundant collection of a few
hundred graffiti has been identified; it was made on the plastered walls and some elements of stonework in the
synagogue at
Pińczów
(the dates appearing in some inscriptions encompass the years
1637-1638
up to
1746-1747); 3)
in stonecutters signatures
-
singular examples from the late period.
The inventory of identified realizations made in non-square script is very limited and reveals substan¬
tial time gaps. This does not allow us to collect a representative set of letters and makes it impossible to conduct
a paléographie
analysis parallel to that conducted in the case of the square script. Therefore a general presenta¬
tion of the script was carried out on the basis of
54
inscriptions. In spite of the limited number of examples,
212___________
Hebrajskie inskrypcje na materiale kamiennym w Polsce w
Х111-ХХ
wieku.
.._______________
some regularities are easily noticeable in those realizations. All the letters belong to the Ashkenazi type, with
some revealing Polish or German graphics. In the early epigraphs (from the
16*-17
century) forms characte¬
ristic for late medieval and early modern script are used, while in those from the
20
century only the last phase
of the letters evolution can be discerned. In the sepulchlar inscriptions from the
16
to
17
century semi-cur¬
sive letters predominate, or forms used both in semi-cursive and cursive script. In singular realizations, next to
semi-cursive letters clearly cursive or even square letters were used. Non-square letters present the calligraphic
norm adequate to square letters, usually meticulous. In spite of the fact that semi-cursive and cursive signs are
an imitation of hand-written letters) they should be treated as drawn ones, as apart from rare exceptions they
are large-sized, carefully sketched, with a concern for details, and then engraved. In the graffiti from the
1
7th
and 18th centuries (including the non-dated ones) cursive forms predominate next to semi-cursive, and occa¬
sionally semi-square ones. There are also cases of extreme cursive script, including numerous examples with
a lack of distinctive features in which letters can be identified only in the context of the whole word. Epigraphs
from the 20th century consistently contain letters of the cursive form, including its extreme variety. In some re¬
alizations marks of text segmentation and abbreviation signs were used. Ligatures appear only in singular cases.
Non-letter signs are the same as in the case of square letters but with a much more limited inventory of forms
.
Chapter
4
contains a proposal of script classification. Three main criteria accepted in modern paleo¬
graphy for the typology of Hebrew script were taken into consideration: regional, functional and chronological.
On their basis types, kinds, groups and styles of script have been distinguished. The present classification
reflects the specificity of the discussed material with the following consequences:
1 )
It encompasses only square
script, as the number and range of realizations with other kinds of script are too scarce to consider them as
representative material suitable for classification.
2)
The upper time caesura in the discussed collection of
epigraphs reaches almost the mid-twentieth century. From the Middle Ages to that time the changes that
occurred within the script are so substantial that they require updating of the concept script type and
subsequently distinguishing separate units at this level of classification.
3)
On the basis of the investigations
conducted so far I am unable to make a complete and definitive distinction of script within the Sephardi type
(represented by the most numerous group of epigraphs
-
reaching millions) and therefore I am leaving gaps to
be filled in in the future,· likewise at the level of script styles in the eclectic and Sephardi type, where I have
distinguished only clearly characteristic items. It is worth noticing that this is the first attempt at covering such
abundant material; further inventarization and detailed investigations are required in order to reach more
definitive conclusions. At present I have distinguished and described the following script units:
(Type
1)
Proto-Ashkenazi script (represented by the oldest epigraph from the year
1203).
(Type
2)
Ashkenazi script.
(Group
2.1.)
Gothic script.
(Style
2.1.1.)
Patterned on written codex script, appearing from the
1
3th century (the earliest relic from
1246)
until around mid-17th century.
(Style
2.1.2.)
Patterned on drawn codex script, occurring from the second half of the 16th century till
around mid-17th century.
(Group
2.2.)
Post-Gothic script, occurring from the beginning of the
1
7th century to the second half of
the 19th century; in later periods it appears very rarely.
(Style
2.2.1.)
Gothic-Renaissance script, occurring in its purest form in the first half of the 17th century,
later remaining only in particular letters.
(Type
3)
Eclectic script (a compilation of the mutated Ashkenazi and Sephardi features).
(Group
3.1.)
Script with a substantial participation of Ashkenazi features, occurring from the first quar¬
ter of the 18th century to the third quarter of the 19th century, rarely in later periods.
(Style
3.1.1.)
Baroque script, occurring from the second quarter to the end of the 18th century, in
particular letters it remained visible at least to the third quarter of the 19th century.
(Group
3.2.)
Script with the predominance of Sephardi features: occurrence period (except early cases)
-
from the third quarter of the 18th century till the end of the discussed period.
(Type
4)
Sephardi script (Amsterdam letters and their derivatives). Occurrence period of the fully con¬
sistent realizations: from the last decade of the 18th century until the end of the discussed period.
(Type
5)
Modern script, occurring from the first decade of the 20th century. In the discussed epigraphs
this type of script was barely initiated and it had a limited application. Two stylistic poles are visible: in the
spirit of modernism and constructivism as well as intermediate realizations which retain traces of Sephardi
script, and more rarely of Ashkenazi script.
The discussed epigraphs also include letters revealing features of the scroll square script
(Stam
script).
In the early inscriptions these constitute some features of the letters, while from the
1
8th century on entire let¬
ters as well. I have identified consistent realizations of whole inscriptions with the script imitating
Stam
letters
in singular examples from as late as the 20th century. The features typical of Ashkenazi script predominate
while letters with the Sephardi features are rare.
The analysis of inscriptions also revealed other analogies to monumental manuscripts and prints.
Stonecutters imitated the text arrangement (pattern) and various other measures which served to produce an
Summary
213
even left margin
-
used by scribes on the pages of codices (and later adapted in early prints). From late 19th cen¬
tury on can detect a clear resemblance to contemporary prints.
In the discussed monuments one can find correlations between the changes in square script and style
epochs (in the sense in which the concept of style epoch functions in European art and culture). From this per¬
spective, one can state that in response to the problem of relationships between script style and stylistic features
of epigraphs as a whole, the application of new patterns from the repertoire of the artistic style of the epoch
is ahead of stylistic features of the script (the inertia in using stylistic forms, not only in the provinces, being
another question).
Chapter
5
concerns the extended concept of epigraphy, that requires examining the whole object on
which the inscription is placed as an artifact carrying all kinds of information. Complex, multifarious treat¬
ment of a landmark requires recording, analysis of features and information, and finally their interpretation,
which includes knowledge from various fields apart from paleography: history, art history, petrography, mate¬
rials processing technology, philology. A complex approach leads to the mutual complementing of information,
bringing feed back effects: an object in its specific context is a carrier of all lands of information the sum of
which facilitates its analysis and interpretation. With such an option the
paléographie
analysis would be (like in
codicology) part of a complex multifarious analysis of an artifact.
As for the epigraphs which are the subject of this study, extending the analysis to the aspects going
beyond purely
paléographie
ones will enable us to capture certain regularities in diachronic and
synchronie
per¬
spective, both in a general and local dimension (both in reference to stylistic and workshop artifacts as well as
the contents and form of the text)
.
This can be very helpful especially for estimating the dates of landmarks, e.g.
those which do not contain the date (or where the date has been destroyed), dating epigraphs made in a later pe¬
riod which repeat the content of earlier inscriptions (especially the cases of matzevot shemyot
-
the secondary
gravestones), sometimes to correct erroneous reading of dates (even in the cases when the epigraph as such is
not known and we have only a copy of the inscription at our disposal), to estimate the origin of objects (inclu¬
ding identification of imports), defining the social and economic status of the object s founder and possibly the
degree of his/her acculturation.
I discuss the range of the postulated complex approach in reference to the landmarks which are the
subject of this study. Some basic issues have not been settled to date, others are completely absent in scholarly
literature. Therefore I have systematized and discussed the usefulness of the following issues:
1)
Classification
of objects with inscriptions (types of objects: gravestones, synagogue equipment, framings of architectural open¬
ings, not self-contained inscription tablets, self-contained inscription tablets) with the extended classification of
gravestones,-
2)
formal-stylistic features of the whole object;
3)
content and function of inscriptions (including
typology of inscriptions: sepulchlar, sententious, votive, explanatory, liturgical, legal, certifying);
4)
archeologi-
cal and historical context;
5)
material from which an object was made;
6)
techniques used to make the whole
object and the inscription itself;
7)
size of inscription letters;
8)
arrangement of the texts, including numerous
ways serving to produce an even left margin;
9)
philological aspects of the text (especially the presence, place
and proportions of particular elements in the form of inscription as well as its language).
Chapter
б
is an attempt at a practical demonstration of the methods and tools presented in the for¬
mer chapters in which
paléographie
analysis is only a part of the complex treatment of the object. The basic aim
is to estimate the date of the object s origin and the inscriptions it contains
-
un-dated or with questionably
deciphered dates. I have selected for analysis framings of aron ha-kodesh and synagogue money-boxes as well as
a tombstone.
* * *
The present study is barely a point of departure for further investigations in the field of medieval and
modern Hebrew epigraphy. It describes the current state of affairs, and more often than that it indicates the
issues that have not been researched so far, rather posing questions than providing answers. It is barely a small
particle that one researcher could raise on his own. To be effective contemporary epigraphy requires larger orga¬
nized research teams which can explore, document, analyze and process the collected data. Of primary impor¬
tance is that systematic basic investigations should be conducted, that is a detailed inventory of landmarks with
regard to
paléographie
aspects.
Translated from the Polish by
Monika Adamczyk-Garbowska
|
| adam_txt |
Spis
tresei
Nazwy liter i zasady transkrypcji fonetycznej z hebrajskiego i jidysz oraz wartości liczbowe
liter hebrajskich
. 9
Rozdział
1
Zagadnienia wstępne
1.1.
Paleografia
a epigrafika
. 11
1.2.
Założenia badawcze, cele rozprawy
. 16
1.3.
Rodzaje wykorzystanych źródeł i ogólna charakterystyka rozpoznanych zabytków
. 17
1.4.
Stan badań nad pismem hebrajskim z okresu średniowiecza i nowożytnego
. 21
1.4.1.
Zarys dziejów pisma hebrajskiego
. 22
1.4.2.
Cele i metody badawcze
. 24
1.4.3.
Klasyfikacja i jej terminologia
. 26
1.4.3.1.
Aspekt regionalny
. 26
1.4.3.2.
Aspekt funkcjonalny
. 29
1.4.3.3.
Aspekt chronologiczny
. 32
1.4.3.4.
Pismo drukowane na tle dziejów drukarstwa hebrajskiego
. 34
1.4.4.
Terminologia opisu liter
. 38
Rozdział
2
Pismo kwadratowe
2.1.
Metoda, reguły
paleografii
hebrajskiej, terminologia, narzędzia badawcze
. 41
2.1.1.
Metoda
. 41
2.1.2.
Podstawowe reguły
paleografii
hebrajskiej
. 42
2.1.3.
Linie i strefy pisma
. 43
2.1.4.
Wizualizacja struktury i formy liter oraz znaków nieliterowych
. 43
2.1.5.
Graficzne komponenty liter
. 45
2.1.6.
Kwestionariusz cech pisma do analizy paleograficznej
. 47
2.1.6.1.
Cechy mierzalne
. 47
2.1.6.2.
Cechy niemierzalne
. 48
2.2.
Analiza paleograficzna
. 49
2.2.1.
Rozbiór paleograficzny wybranych liter
. 50
2.2.2.
Zestawienie cech
. 84
2.2.3.
Ogólne cechy pisma inslcrypcji jako całości
. 93
2.2.3.1.
Waga pisma
. 93
2.2.3.2.
Różnica grubości między horyzontałami a wertykałami
. 93
2.2.3.3.
Ogólne pochylenie pisma
. 94
2.2.3.4.
Ogólna charakterystyka zdobnictwa liter
. 94
2.2.4.
Wnioski
. 96
6
Spis treści
2.3.
Sposoby i
znala segmentacji tekstu
. 97
2.3.1.
Inwentarz znaków
. 99
2.3.1.1.
Znaki dwuelementowe w układzie pionowym (jeden nad drugim)
. 99
2.3.1.2.
Znaki jednoelementowe oraz konwencjonalne znaki zwarte
. 100
2.3.1.3.
Znaki złożone z trzech lub więcej elementów w układzie pionowym
. 101
2.3.1.4.
Znaki złożone z dwu lub więcej jednakowych elementów w układzie poziomym
lub blokowym
. 101
2.3.1.5.
Znaki o formach zindywidualizowanych
. 101
2.3.1.6.
Znaki mocno rozciągnięte w poziomie
. 102
2.3.1.7.
Znaki interpunkcyjne przejęte z pisma łacińskiego
. 102
2.3.2.
Funkcja znaków
. 103
2.3.2.1.
Oznaczenie zakończenia tekstu
. 103
2.3.2.2.
Funkcja oddzielenia
. 103
2.3.2.3.
Znak przed tekstem
. 105
2.3.2.4.
Wypełnianie wolnej przestrzeni
. 105
2.4.
Brachygrafia
. 105
2.4.1.
Natura abrewiacji
. 106
2.4.2.
Znaki abrewiacji
. 111
2.4.2.1.
Znaki wąskie
. 111
2.4.2.2.
Znaki szerokie
. 113
2.4.2.3.
Pozycja i funkcja znaków
. 114
2.5.
Varia
. 114
Rozdział
3
Pismo niekwadratowe
3.1.
Uwagi wstępne
. 115
3.2.
Rodzaje epigrafów
. 116
3.2.1.
Inskrypcje nagrobkowe
. 116
3.2.2.
Graffiti
. 117
3.2.3.
Inne
. 117
3.3.
Analiza paleograficzna
. 118
3.4.
Podsumowanie
. 126
Rozdział
4
Klasyfikacja pisma
4.1.
Klasyfikacja pisma kwadratowego
. 127
4.2.
Pismo a epoki stylowe
. 135
Rozdział
5
Kompleksowe ujęcie epigrafu
5.1.
Typy obiektów
. 140
5.2.
Cechy formalnostylowe obiektu
. 142
5.2.1.
Stele
.■. 142
5.2.2.
Inne obiekty
. 143
5.3.
Treść i funkcja inskrypcji
. 144
Spis treści
7
5.4.
Kontekst
archeologiczny i historyczny
. 145
5.5.
Materiał
. 145
5.6.
Technika wykonania
. 146
5.6.1.
Technika wykonania całego obiektu
. 146
5.6.2.
Technika wykonania napisu
. 147
5.6.3.
Malatura
. 149
5.7.
Wielkość liter inskrypcji
. 149
5.8.
Układ tekstu
. 150
5.9.
Aspekty filologiczne tekstu
. 152
Rozdział
6
Praktyczne zastosowanie metod i narzędzi (analiza wybranych obiektów)
6.1.
Obiekty z synagogi Starej w Krakowie
. 155
6.1.1.
Oprawa aron ha-kodesz
. 155
6.1.2.
Oprawa skarbony
(1). 156
6.1.3.
Oprawa skarbony
(2). 158
6.2.
Oprawa aron ha-kodesz w synagodze
Remu
w Krakowie
. 159
6.3.
Oprawa aron ha-kodesz w synagodze w Szczebrzeszynie
. 161
6.4.
Nagrobek Szaloma Szachny
ben
Josef (zm.
1558)
na starym cmentarzu żydowskim
w Lublinie
. 162
Zakończenie
. 165
Wykaz skrótów bibliograficznych
. 169
Źródła i opracowania wykorzystane w pracy
. 171
Indeks rzeczowy
. 191
Indeks nazw geograficznych
. 201
Indeks osób
. 205
Summary
. 209
Aneks
. 215
Ilustracje i plansze katalogu
. 233
Summary
Hebrew Inscriptions on Stone
in Poland from the Thirteenth to Twentieth Century:
A Paleographic-Epigraphic Study
Since the second part of the 20th century we have witnessed a worldwide revival of studies on various
monuments
-
the carriers of Hebrew script
-
especially epigraphs, codices, prints, but also
paléographie
studies.
In East Central Europe, after the disintegration of the Communist bloc, within the intensive development of
Jewish studies there has appeared a notable rise in interest in Hebrew epigraphs, especially on tombstones,
which constitute the most abundant remains after the "murdered Jewish people"(Katzenelson). This also con¬
cerns historical landmarks from the Polish Commonwealth in its historical borders and the research in this
field has resulted in numerous works. Most of them are editions of sources, but there are also dissertations, in
which one can clearly notice the treatment of inscriptions as a historical source. Moreover, there are studies
from the perspective of art history and philology. Despite this, the
paléographie
approach is almost absent. The
present study intends to partly fill in this gap.
In the Introduction I present the general assumptions of my study. The research subject has been
limited to stone epigraphs. Geographically, the territories of the Polish Commonwealth in its historical borders
have been taken into account. The chronological framework is maximal
-
from the oldest monument
(1203)
to
the Holocaust, that is more than
700
years. The general intention of the study is to give a complementary
treatment of paleography and epigraphy. Within the assumed criteria, the main aim is to examine
-
from the
paléographie
perspective
-
Hebrew script on stone monuments, and from the epigraphic point of view
-
a complex treatment of the epigraph as a whole, treated as a "cultural text." The particular aims of the study are
as follows:
1)
to acquaint readers with the state of research on Hebrew script from the Middle Ages to moder¬
nity;
2)
to suggest Polish terminology in the field of Hebrew paleography,-
3)
to present methods and tools for
analysis of Hebrew epigraphic script and multifarious examinations of various objects treated as unities;
4)
to
apply methods and tools to describe changes occurring in the examined script;
5)
to suggest an updated classifi¬
cation of script;
6)
to practically apply the methods and tools for an analysis of selected landmarks,-
7)
to present
objects and manifestations of script used in epigraphs from various periods (photographs of monuments,
inscription rubbings, tables with sketches of letters).
The source base of the dissertation consists in the existent epigraphs as well as those that have not
been preserved but have been recorded on photographs or drawings, of which I have examined a few thousand
objects. From among them
613
are represented in the supplementary illustrative material. Editions of the texts
themselves have been used as intermediary sources. Among the identified landmarks, the number of which is
estimated as a few million, tombstones come to the fore; there are few non-sepulchlar epigraphs and graffiti.
Epigraphic items from outside the discussed territory as well as script on manuscripts and prints have been in¬
cluded as comparative material.
I discuss in detail the state of
paléographie
research (from the mid-nineteenth century till today) on
Hebrew script from the Middle Ages and modernity. The following issues are raised: research aims and
methods, classification of script and its terminology (in regional, functional and chronological aspects) as well
as terminology used to describe the letters. Against this background the basic principles of script classification
have been accepted and defined: type, kind, group and style. I use the following terms to describe various kinds
of script: square script and non-square script (including cursive, semi-cursive and intermediate kinds). Taking
into account the aspect of shaping the sign, I have also introduced an essential distinction into written and
drawn letters.
A variety of script appear on the discussed landmarks but square script dominates. Chapter
2
is
devoted to this land of script. First I present my research method, the rules of Hebrew paleography, the accepted
210_
Hebrajskie inskrypcje na materiale kamiennym w Polsce w
XIII-XX
wieku.
_
terminology and research tools for script analysis. The research method, which consists in combining a tradi¬
tional description of features with objective quantitative records, was adapted on the basis of empirically tested
methods used by Malachi
Beit-Arié,
Ada Yardeni and Edna
Engel.
The basic features of this method are the
following:
1)
a detailed descriptive record of morphological features of the letters combined with objective
measurements;
2)
maximal objectivization of research by separating the analysis of form from the analysis of
letter structure and application of the potentially largest set of tools allowing for the quantitative record of script
features;
3)
preference for the analysis of letter components over the analysis of the sign as a whole. The sum of
morphological and structural features of typical components gives a picture of the whole sign
-
as a representa¬
tive (model) letter. Recording and analysis of these features in a diachronic order give insight into the transfor¬
mations of the letter in temporal perspective. While presenting basic rules of Hebrew paleography I accepted
and defined general terms pertaining to the description of letters (root, body, written lines and zones of script,
horizontal, vertical, diagonal, ascender, descender) as well as detailed names of letter components. Next I pre¬
sented and defined tools for the visualization of the structure and form of letters and non-letter signs: sign con¬
tour, letter skeleton, rectangles with co-ordinates, geometrical form of letter. For
paléographie
analysis of script
features I have used a research questionnaire in which I distinguished two feature categories:
1 )
measurable fea¬
tures (usually pertaining to structural features): module, script weight, difference in thickness between horizon¬
tals and verticals, course of components, conjunctions of components, number of components, number of frac¬
tures, letter angles, general inclination of the script;
2)
and non-measurable features (pertaining to formal
features): form of components (i.e., general form, form of contour line, form of ending, relation of the ending
to adjacent letters, the degree of change of thickness, form of decorative elements) and form of component
conjunction.
Next I present a detailed
paléographie
analysis of letters as individual signs on the basis of four selected
letters: aleph, khet, tzade, shin, and present the results of the analysis of these parameters, which pertain to
general features of epigraph script as a whole (script weight, difference in thickness between horizontals and
verticals, general inclination of script, general characteristics of letter decoration). The results of
paléographie
analysis testified that in the earliest period, letters possessed pre-Ashkenazi features, subsequently Ashkenazi
and later Sephardi ones. The basic tendency was to submit to Sephardi influences. Singular, typically Sephardi
features appear gradually in concrete letters at different times but the period of their increased frequency occurs
in the
1
8th century with the peak in its third and fourth quarters, but from the perspective of the entire body of
the discussed material epigraphs consistently made in Sephardi script predominate around the mid-nineteenth
century. Some Ashkenazi features (and very rarely realizations with purely Ashkenazi features) were not com¬
pletely absent and survived till the end of the discussed period. Some features of script in the entire discussed
period remain common for both Ashkenazi and Sephardi types, which results not only from the root of the He¬
brew letter but also indicates preservation of the feature adopted from the mutual predecessor, that is Oriental
script.
In Ashkenazi letters in the initial period (till around mid-seventeenth century) features typical for co¬
dex script are quite visible, which implies that the basic patters for stonecutters was script used by scribes
[sofeiim] in codices and later (a very similar) script of early prints. Next, realizations of drawn letters predomi¬
nate, often decorative, where quantitative supply
-
especially of forms
-
is quite substantial. Such realizations,
of substantial autonomy, can be defined as specific for epigraphic script (not only in stone). Sephardi letters in
the discussed inscriptions are usually characteristic for the later version of this type of script, that is the "Am¬
sterdam letter" and its derivatives. Such a state of affairs is sufficiently explained by the enormous popularity of
the Amsterdam letter (not only in prints but in manuscripts as well), and later of its mutations.
The analysis of the components indicated that their features, and consequently the features of particu¬
lar letters as a whole, change at their own speed (which is a general principle already noticed by paleographers).
If we have a closer look at the letters in the
synchronie
option, we shall see that they can be compared to an
arrangement of blocks (constituted by the components). In some periods of time we notice uniformity or at
least a large similarity of the general picture of components in the whole alphabet, while in other periods
discordances occur. If we systematize and group the components according to these general similarities and
then trace their functioning in epigraph letters from the diachronic point of view, we shall notice clear regulari¬
ties in changes of a periodical and cyclical nature. After a period in which there is a similarity of the general pic¬
ture of the components applied (or at least a domination of some group), a period follows in which particular
block-components (or barely components' segments) are gradually exchanged for others. Upon the dominance
of those other new components there follows the next period of stabilization of this group. In the entire dis¬
cussed period this cycle has been repeated several times with some general forms of components having a diffe¬
rent functioning period, some of them even markedly longer than the period of dominance of particular groups
of script. These observations allow us to formulate the following hypothesis: the letters do not change as
a whole, modifications occur in them via mutations or exchanges of the tiniest morphological elements and
structural features. Albeit to a smaller degree, this concerns the entire "set of letters" of the alphabet used at
a certain time period. This "set" is usually not exchanged as a whole (such examples, however, can be indicated
especially in the later period). Particular letters reveal a varied dynamics of change, i.e. speed and degree of
changes.
Summary
_ 211
While discussing the means and signs of text segmentation I first present an inventory of signs, ar¬
ranged according to mixed classification, giving preference to the genetic aspect and in particular groups of signs
to the morphological structure of the sign with regard to chronology and frequency. Then I discuss the function
of signs. In the monument material I have recognized the following functions: the marking of the text ending;
separation function (separating phrases
-
a stronger and weaker logical pause, separating words, separating let¬
ters, flanking line treatment, separating conventional formulas, separating larger portions of the text); signs be¬
fore the text; filling in blank space. In numerous early epigraphs (especially medieval ones, but in early modern
ones as well) there are no signs of text segmentation; oftentimes there are not even spaces between logical
phrases or words. In the period between the mid-sixteenth till the mid-nineteenth century decorative signs of
varied individualized form were widely used. In later epigraphs
(
19ш-20љ
century) we additionally notice sepa¬
rating logical parts of the text in a stychometric way (i.e. from the next line) and introducing signs adopted from
the Latin script.
The analysis of inscriptions did not reveal regular relationships between form and function of the signs
of text segmentation (which is analogous to manuscripts). If we notice some regularities in this respect, they
concern groups of epigraphs produced in a place and time period and probably are a result of the authors' (edi¬
tors', producers') inscriptions. A high degree of arbitrariness, lack of rules and inconsistencies lead to a situa¬
tion that the actual function of signs or rather intention of their usage may be deduced on the principle of repet-
itiveness of some applications.
In the classification of the brachygraphic system two criteria were taken into account:
1)
the nature of
abbreviations,
2)
form of abbreviation signs and the means of their application. The following methods of
abbreviation appearing in epigraphic material and concerning the abbreviation of one, two or more words have
been discussed: removal of letters from the end of the word (suspension), removal of letters from the middle of
the word (contraction), removal of letters from the beginning of the word, keeping the letter from the middle
of the word, conventional signs, ligature, change in the sequence of letters remaining from the particular words
of the sequence, combination of sequences of words into one sequence with the reduction of the letter, and
-
additionally
-
unconventional abbreviations. The classification of abbreviation signs was based on the morpho¬
logical principle (with the distinction of two basic groups: narrow signs and broad signs), taking into consider¬
ation the chronological and functional aspect. Abbreviation signs occur as early as in the oldest items from the
discussed collection. In some medieval epigraphs two signs can be noticed, in the later ones the number of va¬
rious signs used in one epigraph is oftentimes three, four or even five. Basically, in the majority of examples this
differentiation of sign forms does not result in the differentiation of their function, indicating that this variety
had a largely decorative value and a selection of signs, especially more decorative ones, was a question of local
"fads" and individual choices of the inscription makers. In the analyzed epigraph material a certain supply of
signs predominates and their form and manner of usage have not changed in the entire discussed period. These
are the simplest graphic signs based on the point as well as on the line (basically identical with those most often
used in manuscripts
-
from the early Oriental ones and next in prints and their formal similarity to masoretic
signs is probably not coincidental). Among the abbreviation methods, in the majority of them the abbreviated
version is connected with the graphic signs which suggest shortening. In fact quite often such markings are
absent or used inconsistently or else unnecessarily placed. Regular and consistent marking of abbreviations is in
turn quite frequent from the
1
9th century on, especially in epigraphs made in mechanized stone workshops. It is
worth noticing that at least since the end of the 18th century and in the 19th century abbreviation signs were
frequently not cut in stone but merely painted and often have not survived to the present.
The analyzed epigraphic material allows us to claim that at least to the end of the 16th century there
have not been varied signs marking the abbreviation of one word in opposition to the abbreviation of a sequence
of words. Such a differentiation appeared after the introduction since the first quarter of the 17th century of
broad signs, but this was not used consistently. Only during the 19th century do we notice an increased fre¬
quency of using standardized signs: geresh
-
to mark the abbreviation of one word, gershayim
-
to mark the ab¬
breviation of a word sequence. The monuments in which merely those two signs were used prevailed only in the
20th century. Signs used to mark abbreviations were also used to mark numbers (usually these are inscriptions
of dates), chronograms or acrostychs.
Non-square script also appears in the stone inscriptions, to which Chapter
3
is devoted. I have identi¬
fied this ldnd of script in the following types of epigraphs:
1)
sepulchlar inscriptions in a certain period of time
from the mid-sixteenth to mid-seventeenth century, primarily at the end of a text, where it was used for a few
typical formulas,- moreover non-square letters were used to supplement missing words or letters and to fill in
the end of a line in order to contain the text in a line,·
2)
in graffiti
-
only one albeit abundant collection of a few
hundred graffiti has been identified; it was made on the plastered walls and some elements of stonework in the
synagogue at
Pińczów
(the dates appearing in some inscriptions encompass the years
1637-1638
up to
1746-1747); 3)
in stonecutters' signatures
-
singular examples from the late period.
The inventory of identified realizations made in non-square script is very limited and reveals substan¬
tial time gaps. This does not allow us to collect a representative set of letters and makes it impossible to conduct
a paléographie
analysis parallel to that conducted in the case of the square script. Therefore a general presenta¬
tion of the script was carried out on the basis of
54
inscriptions. In spite of the limited number of examples,
212_
Hebrajskie inskrypcje na materiale kamiennym w Polsce w
Х111-ХХ
wieku.
._
some regularities are easily noticeable in those realizations. All the letters belong to the Ashkenazi type, with
some revealing Polish or German graphics. In the early epigraphs (from the
16*-17'
century) forms characte¬
ristic for late medieval and early modern script are used, while in those from the
20'
century only the last phase
of the letters' evolution can be discerned. In the sepulchlar inscriptions from the
16'
to
17'
century semi-cur¬
sive letters predominate, or forms used both in semi-cursive and cursive script. In singular realizations, next to
semi-cursive letters clearly cursive or even square letters were used. Non-square letters present the calligraphic
norm adequate to square letters, usually meticulous. In spite of the fact that semi-cursive and cursive signs are
an imitation of hand-written letters) they should be treated as drawn ones, as apart from rare exceptions they
are large-sized, carefully sketched, with a concern for details, and then engraved. In the graffiti from the
1
7th
and 18th centuries (including the non-dated ones) cursive forms predominate next to semi-cursive, and occa¬
sionally semi-square ones. There are also cases of extreme cursive script, including numerous examples with
a lack of distinctive features in which letters can be identified only in the context of the whole word. Epigraphs
from the 20th century consistently contain letters of the cursive form, including its extreme variety. In some re¬
alizations marks of text segmentation and abbreviation signs were used. Ligatures appear only in singular cases.
Non-letter signs are the same as in the case of square letters but with a much more limited inventory of forms
.
Chapter
4
contains a proposal of script classification. Three main criteria accepted in modern paleo¬
graphy for the typology of Hebrew script were taken into consideration: regional, functional and chronological.
On their basis types, kinds, groups and styles of script have been distinguished. The present classification
reflects the specificity of the discussed material with the following consequences:
1 )
It encompasses only square
script, as the number and range of realizations with other kinds of script are too scarce to consider them as
representative material suitable for classification.
2)
The upper time caesura in the discussed collection of
epigraphs reaches almost the mid-twentieth century. From the Middle Ages to that time the changes that
occurred within the script are so substantial that they require updating of the concept "script type" and
subsequently distinguishing separate units at this level of classification.
3)
On the basis of the investigations
conducted so far I am unable to make a complete and definitive distinction of script within the Sephardi type
(represented by the most numerous group of epigraphs
-
reaching millions) and therefore I am leaving gaps to
be filled in in the future,· likewise at the level of script styles in the eclectic and Sephardi type, where I have
distinguished only clearly characteristic items. It is worth noticing that this is the first attempt at covering such
abundant material; further inventarization and detailed investigations are required in order to reach more
definitive conclusions. At present I have distinguished and described the following script units:
(Type
1)
Proto-Ashkenazi script (represented by the oldest epigraph from the year
1203).
(Type
2)
Ashkenazi script.
(Group
2.1.)
Gothic script.
(Style
2.1.1.)
Patterned on written codex script, appearing from the
1
3th century (the earliest relic from
1246)
until around mid-17th century.
(Style
2.1.2.)
Patterned on drawn codex script, occurring from the second half of the 16th century till
around mid-17th century.
(Group
2.2.)
Post-Gothic script, occurring from the beginning of the
1
7th century to the second half of
the 19th century; in later periods it appears very rarely.
(Style
2.2.1.)
Gothic-Renaissance script, occurring in its purest form in the first half of the 17th century,
later remaining only in particular letters.
(Type
3)
Eclectic script (a compilation of the mutated Ashkenazi and Sephardi features).
(Group
3.1.)
Script with a substantial participation of Ashkenazi features, occurring from the first quar¬
ter of the 18th century to the third quarter of the 19th century, rarely in later periods.
(Style
3.1.1.)
Baroque script, occurring from the second quarter to the end of the 18th century, in
particular letters it remained visible at least to the third quarter of the 19th century.
(Group
3.2.)
Script with the predominance of Sephardi features: occurrence period (except early cases)
-
from the third quarter of the 18th century till the end of the discussed period.
(Type
4)
Sephardi script (Amsterdam letters and their derivatives). Occurrence period of the fully con¬
sistent realizations: from the last decade of the 18th century until the end of the discussed period.
(Type
5)
Modern script, occurring from the first decade of the 20th century. In the discussed epigraphs
this type of script was barely initiated and it had a limited application. Two stylistic poles are visible: in the
spirit of modernism and constructivism as well as intermediate realizations which retain traces of Sephardi
script, and more rarely of Ashkenazi script.
The discussed epigraphs also include letters revealing features of the scroll square script
(Stam
script).
In the early inscriptions these constitute some features of the letters, while from the
1
8th century on entire let¬
ters as well. I have identified consistent realizations of whole inscriptions with the script imitating
Stam
letters
in singular examples from as late as the 20th century. The features typical of Ashkenazi script predominate
while letters with the Sephardi features are rare.
The analysis of inscriptions also revealed other analogies to monumental manuscripts and prints.
Stonecutters imitated the text arrangement (pattern) and various other measures which served to produce an
Summary
213
even left margin
-
used by scribes on the pages of codices (and later adapted in early prints). From late 19th cen¬
tury on can detect a clear resemblance to contemporary prints.
In the discussed monuments one can find correlations between the changes in square script and style
epochs (in the sense in which the concept of style epoch functions in European art and culture). From this per¬
spective, one can state that in response to the problem of relationships between script style and stylistic features
of epigraphs as a whole, the application of new patterns from the repertoire of the artistic style of the epoch
is ahead of stylistic features of the script (the inertia in using stylistic forms, not only in the provinces, being
another question).
Chapter
5
concerns the extended concept of epigraphy, that requires examining the whole object on
which the inscription is placed as an artifact carrying all kinds of information. Complex, multifarious treat¬
ment of a landmark requires recording, analysis of features and information, and finally their interpretation,
which includes knowledge from various fields apart from paleography: history, art history, petrography, mate¬
rials processing technology, philology. A complex approach leads to the mutual complementing of information,
bringing feed back effects: an object in its specific context is a carrier of all lands of information the sum of
which facilitates its analysis and interpretation. With such an option the
paléographie
analysis would be (like in
codicology) part of a complex multifarious analysis of an artifact.
As for the epigraphs which are the subject of this study, extending the analysis to the aspects going
beyond purely
paléographie
ones will enable us to capture certain regularities in diachronic and
synchronie
per¬
spective, both in a general and local dimension (both in reference to stylistic and workshop artifacts as well as
the contents and form of the text)
.
This can be very helpful especially for estimating the dates of landmarks, e.g.
those which do not contain the date (or where the date has been destroyed), dating epigraphs made in a later pe¬
riod which repeat the content of earlier inscriptions (especially the cases of matzevot shemyot
-
the secondary
gravestones), sometimes to correct erroneous reading of dates (even in the cases when the epigraph as such is
not known and we have only a copy of the inscription at our disposal), to estimate the origin of objects (inclu¬
ding identification of imports), defining the social and economic status of the object's founder and possibly the
degree of his/her acculturation.
I discuss the range of the postulated complex approach in reference to the landmarks which are the
subject of this study. Some basic issues have not been settled to date, others are completely absent in scholarly
literature. Therefore I have systematized and discussed the usefulness of the following issues:
1)
Classification
of objects with inscriptions (types of objects: gravestones, synagogue equipment, framings of architectural open¬
ings, not self-contained inscription tablets, self-contained inscription tablets) with the extended classification of
gravestones,-
2)
formal-stylistic features of the whole object;
3)
content and function of inscriptions (including
typology of inscriptions: sepulchlar, sententious, votive, explanatory, liturgical, legal, certifying);
4)
archeologi-
cal and historical context;
5)
material from which an object was made;
6)
techniques used to make the whole
object and the inscription itself;
7)
size of inscription letters;
8)
arrangement of the texts, including numerous
ways serving to produce an even left margin;
9)
philological aspects of the text (especially the presence, place
and proportions of particular elements in the form of inscription as well as its language).
Chapter
б
is an attempt at a practical demonstration of the methods and tools presented in the for¬
mer chapters in which
paléographie
analysis is only a part of the complex treatment of the object. The basic aim
is to estimate the date of the object's origin and the inscriptions it contains
-
un-dated or with questionably
deciphered dates. I have selected for analysis framings of aron ha-kodesh and synagogue money-boxes as well as
a tombstone.
* * *
The present study is barely a point of departure for further investigations in the field of medieval and
modern Hebrew epigraphy. It describes the current state of affairs, and more often than that it indicates the
issues that have not been researched so far, rather posing questions than providing answers. It is barely a small
particle that one researcher could raise on his own. To be effective contemporary epigraphy requires larger orga¬
nized research teams which can explore, document, analyze and process the collected data. Of primary impor¬
tance is that systematic basic investigations should be conducted, that is a detailed inventory of landmarks with
regard to
paléographie
aspects.
Translated from the Polish by
Monika Adamczyk-Garbowska |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
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| author | Trzciński, Andrzej |
| author_facet | Trzciński, Andrzej |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Trzciński, Andrzej |
| author_variant | a t at |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV023083397 |
| contents | Bibliogr. s. [171]-190. Indeksy |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)177286367 (DE-599)BVBBV023083397 |
| era | Geschichte 1200-2000 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1200-2000 |
| format | Book |
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| publisher | Wydawn. Uniw. Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej |
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| spelling | Trzciński, Andrzej Verfasser aut Hebrajskie inskrypcje na materiale kamiennym w Polsce w XIII - XX wieku studium paleograficzno-epigraficzne Andrzej Trzciński Lublin Wydawn. Uniw. Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej 2007 242, [76] Bl. Ill. CD-ROM (12 cm) txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Dysk optyczny zawiera materiał inwentaryzacyjny (fotografie epigrafów i frotaże inskrypcji) 495 spośród 613 obiektów zamieszczonych w katalogu, uporządkowany według numerów katalogowych Bibliogr. s. [171]-190. Indeksy Geschichte 1200-2000 gnd rswk-swf Inskrypcje hebrajskie / Polska jhpk Inskrypcje hebrajskie / Polska / CD-ROM-y jhpk Język hebrajski / pismo jhpk Język hebrajski / pismo / CD-ROM-y jhpk Inskrypcje hebrajskie - Polska - CD-ROM-y jhpk Inskrypcje hebrajskie - Polska jhpk Język hebrajski - pismo - CD-ROM-y jhpk Język hebrajski - pismo jhpk Hebräisch (DE-588)4023922-6 gnd rswk-swf Stein (DE-588)4183014-3 gnd rswk-swf Inschrift (DE-588)4027107-9 gnd rswk-swf Polen (DE-588)4046496-9 gnd rswk-swf Polen (DE-588)4046496-9 g Hebräisch (DE-588)4023922-6 s Inschrift (DE-588)4027107-9 s Stein (DE-588)4183014-3 s Geschichte 1200-2000 z DE-604 Digitalisierung BSBMuenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016286378&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016286378&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Trzciński, Andrzej Hebrajskie inskrypcje na materiale kamiennym w Polsce w XIII - XX wieku studium paleograficzno-epigraficzne Bibliogr. s. [171]-190. Indeksy Inskrypcje hebrajskie / Polska jhpk Inskrypcje hebrajskie / Polska / CD-ROM-y jhpk Język hebrajski / pismo jhpk Język hebrajski / pismo / CD-ROM-y jhpk Inskrypcje hebrajskie - Polska - CD-ROM-y jhpk Inskrypcje hebrajskie - Polska jhpk Język hebrajski - pismo - CD-ROM-y jhpk Język hebrajski - pismo jhpk Hebräisch (DE-588)4023922-6 gnd Stein (DE-588)4183014-3 gnd Inschrift (DE-588)4027107-9 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4023922-6 (DE-588)4183014-3 (DE-588)4027107-9 (DE-588)4046496-9 |
| title | Hebrajskie inskrypcje na materiale kamiennym w Polsce w XIII - XX wieku studium paleograficzno-epigraficzne |
| title_auth | Hebrajskie inskrypcje na materiale kamiennym w Polsce w XIII - XX wieku studium paleograficzno-epigraficzne |
| title_exact_search | Hebrajskie inskrypcje na materiale kamiennym w Polsce w XIII - XX wieku studium paleograficzno-epigraficzne |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Hebrajskie inskrypcje na materiale kamiennym w Polsce w XIII - XX wieku studium paleograficzno-epigraficzne |
| title_full | Hebrajskie inskrypcje na materiale kamiennym w Polsce w XIII - XX wieku studium paleograficzno-epigraficzne Andrzej Trzciński |
| title_fullStr | Hebrajskie inskrypcje na materiale kamiennym w Polsce w XIII - XX wieku studium paleograficzno-epigraficzne Andrzej Trzciński |
| title_full_unstemmed | Hebrajskie inskrypcje na materiale kamiennym w Polsce w XIII - XX wieku studium paleograficzno-epigraficzne Andrzej Trzciński |
| title_short | Hebrajskie inskrypcje na materiale kamiennym w Polsce w XIII - XX wieku |
| title_sort | hebrajskie inskrypcje na materiale kamiennym w polsce w xiii xx wieku studium paleograficzno epigraficzne |
| title_sub | studium paleograficzno-epigraficzne |
| topic | Inskrypcje hebrajskie / Polska jhpk Inskrypcje hebrajskie / Polska / CD-ROM-y jhpk Język hebrajski / pismo jhpk Język hebrajski / pismo / CD-ROM-y jhpk Inskrypcje hebrajskie - Polska - CD-ROM-y jhpk Inskrypcje hebrajskie - Polska jhpk Język hebrajski - pismo - CD-ROM-y jhpk Język hebrajski - pismo jhpk Hebräisch (DE-588)4023922-6 gnd Stein (DE-588)4183014-3 gnd Inschrift (DE-588)4027107-9 gnd |
| topic_facet | Inskrypcje hebrajskie / Polska Inskrypcje hebrajskie / Polska / CD-ROM-y Język hebrajski / pismo Język hebrajski / pismo / CD-ROM-y Inskrypcje hebrajskie - Polska - CD-ROM-y Inskrypcje hebrajskie - Polska Język hebrajski - pismo - CD-ROM-y Język hebrajski - pismo Hebräisch Stein Inschrift Polen |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016286378&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016286378&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT trzcinskiandrzej hebrajskieinskrypcjenamaterialekamiennymwpolscewxiiixxwiekustudiumpaleograficznoepigraficzne |