Aerosols handbook: measurement, dosimetry, and health effects
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
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Boca Raton [u.a.]
CRC Press
2005
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| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | XVI, 709 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 1566706114 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Aerosols handbook |b measurement, dosimetry, and health effects |c ed. by Lev S. Ruzer ... |
| 264 | 1 | |a Boca Raton [u.a.] |b CRC Press |c 2005 | |
| 300 | |a XVI, 709 S. |b Ill., graph. Darst. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
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| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 650 | 2 | |a Aerosols |a adverse effects | |
| 650 | 2 | |a Aerosols |a administration & dosage | |
| 650 | 2 | |a Air Pollution |a adverse effects | |
| 650 | 2 | |a Environmental Exposure |a adverse effects | |
| 650 | 2 | |a Radiation Effects | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Aerosols | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Aerosols |x Health aspects | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Aerosols |x Measurement | |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text | Contents
Chapter 1 Aspects of health-related aerosols 1
James W. Gentry
Chapter 2 Aerosol properties 19
William C. Hinds
Chapter 3 Advances in monitoring methods for airborne particles 35
Philip K. Hopke
Chapter 4 Ultrafine and nanoparticle emissions: A new challenge for internal
combustion engine designers 47
D. B. Kittelson, W.F. Watts, and J.P. Johnson
Chapter 5 Breathing zone exposure assessment 61
Charles E. Rodes and Jonathan W. Thornburg
Chapter 6 Mechanisms of particle deposition 75
Kristin K. Isaacs, Jacky A. Rosati, and Ted B. Martonen
Chapter 7 Aerosol dose 101
Lev S. Ruzer, Michael G. Apte, and Richard G. Sextro
Chapter 8 Modeling deposition of inhaled particles 113
Ted B. Martonen, Jacky A. Rosati, and Kristin K. Isaacs
Chapter 9 Assessing uncertainties in the relationship between inhaled
particle concentrations, internal deposition, and health effects 157
Phillip N. Price
Chapter 10 Aerosol chemistry and physics: Indoor perspective 189
Lara A. Gundel and Richard G. Sextro
Chapter 11 Aerosols in the industrial environment 225
Andrew D. Maynard and Paul A. Baron
Chapter 12 Medical and pharmaceutical aerosols 265
Hugh D.C. Smyth, Lucila Garcia-Contreras, Daniel J. Cooney, Robert J.
Garmise, Latarsha D. Jones, and Anthony J. Hickey
Chapter 13 Bioaerosols 291
Maire S.A. Heikkinen, Mervi K. Hjelmroos-Koski, Max M. Hdggblom, and Janet M. Macher
Chapter 14 Radioactive aerosols 343
; Lev S. Ruzer
I
j
xvi Aerosols Handbook: Measurement, Dosimetry, and Health Effects
Chapter 15 Dosimetry and epidemiology of Russian uranium mines* 503
IV. Pavlov
Chapter 16 Radioactive aerosols of the Chernobyl accident* 517
A.K. Budyka and B.I. Ogorodnikov
Chapter 17 Aerosol filtration (aerosol sampling by fibrous filters)* 541
A.K. Budyka and B.I. Ogorodnikov
Chapter 18 Radioactive aerosol standards 557
L.S. Ruzer, Yu.V. Kuznetzov, V.L. Kustova, D.E. Fertman, and A.]. Rizin
Chapter 19 Radon and thoron in the environment: Concentrations
and lung cancer risk 569
Naomi H. Harley
Chapter 20 Risk from inhalation of the long-lived radionuclides
uranium, thorium, and fallout plutonium in the atmosphere 585
Isabel M. Fisenne
Chapter 21 Health physics considerations of aerosols in radiosynthesis
laboratories 595
Mark L. Maiello
Chapter 22 Diesel exhaust 601
Jonathan M. Samet
Chapter 23 Health effects of ambient ultrafine particles 607
Beverly S. Cohen
Chapter 24 Health effects of aerosols: Mechanisms and epidemiology 619
Ira B. Tager
Index 697
*Chapter translated from original Russian WIpu c; R,17Ot.
chapter one
Aspects of health-related aerosols
James W. Gentry
University of Maryland
Contents
1.1 Overview 1
1.2 Total deposition 1
1.3 Regional deposition measurements and mucociliary clearance 4
1.4 Composition of aerosols 6
1.5 Principal laboratories 9
1.6 Journals and organizations 11
1.7 Awards 12
References 13
chapter two
Aerosol properties
William C. Hinds
UCLA School of Public Health
Contents
2.1 Introduction 19
2.1.1 Concentration 21
2.2 Basic particle properties 21
2.2.1 Particle size 21
2.2.2 Particle density 23
2.2.3 Particle shape 24
2.3 Kinetic properties of aerosols 24
2.3.1 Mechanical 24
2.3.1.1 Settling velocity 24
2.3.1.2 Inertial 26
2.3.1.3 Diffusion 26
2.3.2 Electrical 27
2.3.3 Optical 27
2.3.4 Growth processes 29
2.3.4.1 Coagulation 29
2.3.4.2 Condensation 29
2.4 Chemical properties 30
2.5 Atmospheric particle size ranges 32
Glossary 32
References 33
chapter three
Advances in monitoring methods for
airborne particles
Philip K. Hopke
Clarkson University
Contents
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Filter-based measurements 36
3.2.1 Mass 36
3.2.1.1 Fine particles 36
3.2.1.2 Coarse particles 37
3.2.2 Continuous mass measurements 38
3.2.2.1 Fine particles 38
3.2.2.2 Coarse particles 40
3.3 Particulate constituent measurements, fixed site 40
3.3.1 Filter-based integrated monitors 40
3.3.2 Continuous monitors 41
3.4 Supersites 44
3.5 Next steps 45
3.6 Conclusions 45
References 45
chapter four
Ultrafine and nanoparticle emissions:
A new challenge for internal combustion
engine designers
D. B. Kittelson, W.E Watts, and J.P. Johnson
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Minnesota
Contents
4.1 Introduction 47
4.2 Measurement of size and composition of diesel particles 49
4.2.1 Sampling issues 49
4.2.2 On-road and laboratory measurements of diesel particles 50
4.2.3 Particle structure and composition measurements 52
4.2.4 Particles from engines equipped with exhaust filters 55
4.3 Some future engine design issues 56
4.4 Discussion and conclusions 58
References 58
chapter five
Breathing zone exposure assessment
Charles E. Rodes and Jonathan W. Thornburg
RTI International
Contents
5.1 General sampling 61
5.1.1 Exposure assessment 61
5.1.2 Concentrations vs. personal exposures 62
5.1.3 Breathing zone exposures 63
5.1.3.1 Defining the breathing zone 64
5.1.3.2 Bluff body bias 67
5.1.4 BZE sampling applications 69
5.1.5 BZE sampling compliance 70
5.2 Sampling by contaminant type 70
References 71
chapter six
Mechanisms of particle deposition
Kristin K. Isaacs
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Jacky A. Rosati
U.S. EPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Ted B. Martonen
U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Laboratory and University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Contents
6.1 Introduction 76
6.2 Fundamentals of inhaled aerosols 76
6.2.1 Stokes slaw 76
6.2.2 Terminal settling velocity and relaxation time 77
6.2.3 Aerodynamic diameter 77
6.2.4 Modifications to the aerodynamic equations 77
6.2.4.1 Correction for nonspherical particles 78
6.2.4.2 Correction for slip 78
6.2.4.3 Hygroscopicity 79
6.3 Domains of particle dynamics 81
6.3.1 Free-molecule regime 81
6.3.2 Continuum regime 81
6.3.3 Slip-flow regime 81
6.4 Fluid dynamics in airways 82
6.4.1 Fundamentals of flow 82
6.4.1.1 Steady vs. unsteady flow 82
6.4.1.2 Laminar vs. turbulent flow 82
6.4.2 Flow in idealized tubes 83
6.4.3 Flow in curved tubes 85
6.4.4 Flow in bifurcations and branching networks 85
6.5 Particle motion 86
6.5.1 Primary deposition mechanisms 86
6.5.1.1 Inertial impaction 87
6.5.1.1.1 Laminar conditions 88
6.5.1.1.2 Turbulent conditions 88
6.5.1.2 Sedimentation 88
6.5.1.2.1 Laminar conditions 88
6.5.1.2.2 Turbulent conditions 89
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6.5.1.3 Diffusion 89
6.5.1.3.1 Laminar conditions 89
6.5.1.3.2 Turbulent conditions 89
6.5.2 Secondary deposition mechanisms 90
6.5.2.1 Interception 90
6.5.2.1.1 Laminar conditions 90
6.5.2.1.2 Turbulent conditions 91
6.5.2.2 Electrostatic charge 91
6.5.2.3 Cloud motion 92
6.6 Conclusions 93
Nomenclature 93
Disclaimer 94
Acknowledgement 94
References 95
chapter seven
Aerosol dose
Lev S. Ruzer, Michael G. Apte, and Richard G. Sextro
Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory
Contents
7.1 Introduction 101
7.2 Environmental dosimetry 102
7.3 Exposure and dose definitions 104
7.4 Uncertainty in dose assessment 105
7.5 Aerosol concentration safety standards 106
7.6 Nonuniformity of deposition and ultrafine/nanometer-sized particles 106
7.7 Characteristics of nanometer particles 108
7.8 Experimental data on nanometer particles 108
7.9 Radioactive markers 109
7.10 Conclusion 109
References 110
chapter eight
Modeling deposition of inhaled particles
Ted B. Martonen
U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Laboratory and University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
facky A. Rosati
U.S. EPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Kristin K. Isaacs
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Contents
8.1 Introduction 114
8.2 Fluid dynamics in airways 115
8.2.1 Fundamental equations 115
8.2.2 Boundary conditions 116
8.2.3 Idealized velocity profiles 116
8.2.4 Computational fluid dynamics 117
8.3 Aerosol deposition models 117
8.3.1 Classes of models 117
8.3.1.1 Empirical models 118
8.3.1.2 Deterministic models 118
8.3.1.3 Stochastic models 119
8.3.1.4 Computational fluid-particle dynamics 119
8.3.2 Merits and limitations of deposition models 120
8.3.2.1 Scientific foundations 121
8.3.2.2 Biological realism 121
8.3.2.3 Hardware and software issues 121
8.3.2.4 Advantages of modeling and simulation 122
8.4 Factors influencing aerosol deposition patterns 122
8.4.1 Respiratory system morphology 122
8.4.1.1 Idealized models 122
8.4.1.2 Data-driven models 123
8.4.1.3 Surface features 123
8.4.2 Ventilatory conditions 125
8.4.2.1 Mode of respiration 125
8.4.2.1.1 Effect of oral or nasal breathing on particle delivery to
lungs 125
8.4.2.1.2 Effect of oral or nasal breathing on total particle deposition
within the respiratory tract 125
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8.4.2.2 Breathing pattern 125
8.4.2.2.1 Spontaneous breathing 126
8.4.2.2.2 Regulated breathing 126
8.4.3 Respiratory system environment 126
8.4.4 Clearance 128
8.4.4.1 Mucociliary clearance 128
8.4.4.1.1 Effect of drugs and inhaled contaminants on mucociliary
clearance 128
8.4.4.1.2 Effect of disease on mucociliary clearance 129
8.4.4.1.3 Effect of age and activity on mucociliary clearance 130
8.4.4.2 Macrophage clearance or phagocytosis 130
8.4.4.2.1 Effect of particle size/fiber length and shape on
macrophage clearance 130
8.4.4.2.2 Effect of drugs and inhaled contaminants on macrophage
clearance 130
8.4.4.3 Free particle uptake and translocation to the interstitium 131
8.4.4.4 Importance of clearance in particle deposition modeling 131
8.4.5 Disease 131
8.4.5.1 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 131
8.4.5.2 Asthma 132
8.4.5.3 Cystic fibrosis 132
8.4.5.4 Effect of obstructive disease on particle deposition and distribution 132
8.4.5.5 Modeling disease 132
8.4.6 Age 133
8.5 Theory and experiment 133
8.5.1 Predictions of particle deposition 133
8.5.2 Particle deposition measurements 134
8.5.2.1 Casts and models 134
8.5.2.2 Deposition patterns deduced from clearance studies 135
8.5.2.3 Light-scattering methods 135
8.5.2.4 Gamma scintigraphy 135
8.5.2.5 Microdosimetry 136
8.5.3 Comparison of modeling and data 139
8.5.3.1 Simulations of compartmental particle deposition 140
8.5.3.1.1 Extrathoracic 140
8.5.3.1.2 Tracheobronchial 140
8.5.3.1.3 Pulmonary 142
8.5.3.2 Simulations of particle distribution generation by generation 143
8.5.3.3 Simulations of local particle deposition 144
8.6 Summary 145
Disclaimer 145
Acknowledgment 145
References 145
chapter nine
Assessing uncertainties in the relationship
between inhaled particle concentrations,
internal deposition, and health effects
Phillip N. Price
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Contents
9.1 Introduction 158
9.1.1 Should we worry about dose or about exposure? 158
9.2 Epidemiological studies 160
9.2.1 Radon epidemiology 161
9.2.1.1 Background 161
9.2.1.2 Case-control studies of residential radon 162
9.2.1.3 Sources of error in exposure estimates in case-control studies of
residential radon 164
9.2.1.4 Ecological studies of residential radon 165
9.2.1.5 Discussion of radon risk estimates 166
9.2.1.6 Implications for other aerosol exposure problems 168
9.2.2 Epidemiological studies of the effects of fine particle inhalation 169
9.2.2.1 Time-series studies of the health effects of fine particles 169
9.2.2.2 Cohort studies of the health effects of fine particle inhalation 171
9.2.2.3 Ecological epidemiological studies of the health effects of fine
particle inhalation 171
9.3 Inhalation modeling and experiments 172
9.3.1 Motivation for experiments and modeling related to lung deposition of
aerosols 172
9.3.2 Assessing uncertainties 172
9.3.3 General approach to assessing the effects of interpersonal variability 174
9.3.4 Respiratory tract morphology and other factors such as medical condition....l75
9.3.5 Intersubject morphometric variability 175
9.3.6 Systematic morphometric variability 177
9.3.7 Breathing rate and inhalation details 178
9.3.8 Clearance of the lung 178
9.3.9 Estimating the dose-versus-exposure relationship in a population 180
9.4 Conclusion 182
Acknowledgments • 183
References 183
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chapter ten
Aerosol chemistry and physics: Indoor
perspective
Lara A. Gundel and Richard G. Sextro
Environmental Energy Technologies Division
Contents
Preface 190
10.1 Introduction 191
10.1.1 Importance of aerosol exposures 191
10.1.2 Significance of indoor environment to aerosol exposure 191
10.1.3 Outdoor particles 192
10.1.3.1 PM25 composition overview 192
10.1.3.2 PM25 source apportionment 192
10.1.4 Differences between indoor and outdoor environments 193
10.1.5 Evidence for indoor aerosol processing and generation 194
10.1.5.1 The building envelope 194
10.1.5.2 Indoor materials 195
10.1.5.3 Indoor aerosol generation 195
10.2 Composition of indoor particles and aerosol precursors 196
10.2.1 Combustion sources 196
10.2.1.1 Cooking with oils and meat 196
10.2.1.2 Fireplaces 199
10.2.1.3 Tobacco 200
10.2.1.4 Candles 201
10.2.1.5 Incense 201
10.2.1.6 Unvented kerosene heaters 202
10.2.2 Human activities and consumer products 202
10.2.2.1 Pesticides 202
10.2.2.2 Air fresheners 202
10.2.2.3 Walking 202
10.2.2.4 Cleaning 203
10.2.2.5 Cleaning products 203
10.2.2.6 Renovation 204
10.2.3 Indoor aerosol source apportionment 204
10.3 Physical properties of indoor aerosols 205
10.3.1 Size distributions 205
10.3.1.1 Number 206
10.3.1.2 Surface area 206
10.3.1.3 Volume and mass 206
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10.3.2 Particle dynamics 208
10.3.2.1 Particle motion 208
10.3.2.2 Particle formation and phase partitioning 209
10.3.2.2.1 Nucleation 209
10.3.2.2.2 Condensation 209
10.3.2.2.3 Sorption/desorption 209
10.3.3 Surface area in the indoor environment 211
10.3.3.1 Particles 211
10.3.3.2 Indoor materials 211
10.3.3.3 Adsorption indoors 211
10.4 Fate and transport 213
10.4.1 Model of indoor aerosol behavior 213
10.4.2 Airflow and aerosol transport through penetrations in building envelopes ..215
10.4.3 Indoor aerosol deposition rates 216
10.4.4 Resuspension rate of particles on carpets/floors 217
References 218
chapter eleven
Aerosols in the industrial environment
Andrew D. Maynard and Paul A. Baron
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Contents
11.1 Introduction 225
11.2 Exposure metrics 228
11.3 Size-selective sampling 229
11.4 Exposure regulations 232
11.5 Measurement technologies 232
11.5.1 Samplers 232
11.5.1.1 General aerosol samplers 233
11.5.1.2 Inhalable samplers 236
11.5.1.3 Thoracic samplers 237
11.5.1.4 Respirable samplers 241
11.5.1.5 Multifraction samplers 242
11.5.1.6 Sample analysis 246
11.5.2 Direct reading instruments 248
11.5.2.1 Personal exposure measurements 248
11.5.2.2 Light scattering instruments 248
11.5.2.2.1 Optical particle counters 249
11.5.2.2.2 Photometers 251
11.5.2.3 Tapered element oscillating microbalance 252
11.5.2.4 Condensation particle counter 253
11.5.2.5 Pressure drop sensor 253
11.5.2.6 Aerosol surface area measurement 254
11.5.2.7 Specific applications of direct-reading instruments 255
11.5.2.7.1 Sampling cassette leakage testing 255
11.5.2.7.2 Respirator testing 255
11.5.2.7.3 Sampler testing 256
11.5.2.7.4 Combined aerosol and video monitoring 257
H.6 Summary 258
Disclaimer 258
References 258
chapter twelve
Medical and pharmaceutical aerosols
Hugh B.C. Smyth, Lucila Garcia-Contreras, Daniel J. Cooney, Robert f.
Gartnise, Latarsha D. Jones, and Anthony J. Hickey
University of North Carolina
Contents
12.1 Introduction 266
12.1.1 Historical perspective 266
12.1.2 Future prospects 266
12.2 Therapeutic agents 266
12.2.1 Locally acting medical and pharmaceutical aerosols 266
12.2.1.1 /J-Adrenergic agonists 266
12.2.1.2 Corticosteroids 267
12.2.1.3 Anticholinergics 268
12.2.1.4 Antiinflammatory agents 268
12.2.1.5 Antimicrobials 268
12.2.1.6 Biotechnological agents, genes, and DNA aerosols 268
12.2.2 Systemically acting agents 269
12.3 Classification 269
12.3.1 Metered dose inhalers 269
12.3.1.1 CFC systems 270
12.3.1.2 HFC systems 270
12.3.1.3 Alternative propellants 270
12.3.2 Dry powder inhalers 272
12.3.2.1 Passive 272
12.3.2.2 Active 273
12.3.3 Nebulizers 274
12.3.3.1 Solutions 274
12.3.3.2 Suspensions 275
12.3.3.3 Macromolecules 275
12.3.4 Handheld aqueous systems 276
12.3.5 Topical drug delivery sprays 276
12.3.6 Specific measurement techniques and calibration 277
12.3.6.1 Particle size measurement 277
12.4 Specific measurement techniques and calibration 277
12.4.1 Inertial methods 277
12.4.1.1 Cascade impactor 277
12.4.1.2 Twinimpinger 279
12.4.2 Optical methods 280
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12.4.3 Other in vitro measurement techniques commonly employed for
pharmaceutical aerosols 280
12.5 Respiratory deposition, retention, and dosimetry 280
12.5.1 Deposition 280
12.5.1.1 Gamma scintigraphy, PET, and SPECT 280
12.5.2 Retention 281
12.5.3 Dosimetry 281
12.5.3.1 Bolus delivery 282
12.5.3.2 Continuous delivery 282
References 284
I
chapter thirteen
Bioaerosols
Maire S.A. Heikkinen
New York University
Mervi K. Hjelmroos-Koski
University of California at Berkeley
Max M. Haggblom
Rutgers University
Janet M. Macher
California Department of Health Services
Contents
13.1 Introduction 292
13.1.1 Health effects of bioaerosols in indoor and outdoor environments 293
13.1.1.1 Infectious diseases 293
13.1.1.2 Hypersensitivity diseases 294
13.1.1.3 Inflammatory and other diseases 295
13.1.2 Sources and transmission 304
13.1.2.1 Transmission of infectious agents 304
13.1.2.2 Bioaerosols from outdoor sources 304
13.1.2.3 Bioaerosols in manufacturing industries 305
13.2 Bioaerosol size distributions 306
13.2.1 Aerodynamic diameters of airborne biological agents 306
13.2.1.1 Allergens 307
13.2.1.2 Culturable bacteria and fungi 307
13.2.1.3 Fragments 308
13.2.2 Seasonal and diurnal variability in ambient bioaerosol concentrations 308
13.2.2.1 Time of day 313
13.2.2.2 Time of year 313
13.2.2.3 Geographic region 313
13.3 Respiratory dosimetry 314
13.3.1 Respiratory deposition and clearance 314
13.3.2 Dose-response relationships/exposure assessment 316
13.3.2.1 Infectious dose 316
13.3.2.2 Allergens 317
13.3.2.3 Glucan 318
13.3.2.4 Endotoxin 319
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13.3.2.5 Other bioaerosol exposures 320
13.3.2.6 Interactions 321
13.4 Environmental measurement and analytical techniques 321
13.4.1 Measurement of surrogates and indicators 321
13.4.2 Bioaerosol measurement 323
13.4.3 Bioaerosol samplers 324
13.4.3.1 Inertial sampling 324
13.4.3.2 Filtration 325
13.4.3.3 Electrostatic precipitation 325
13.4.3.4 Future directions in bioaerosol sampling 326
13.4.4 Sample analysis 326
13.4.4.1 Microscopy 326
13.4.4.2 Cultivation-based methods for bacteria and fungi 327
13.4.4.3 Biological assays 328
13.4.4.4 Immunoassays 329
13.4.4.5 Chemical assays 329
13.4.4.6 Molecular genetic assays 330
13.5 Concluding remarks 330
References 331
chapter fourteen
Radioactive aerosols
Lev S. Ruzer
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Contents
14.1 Historical overview 345
14.2 The Aerosol Laboratory of the Ail-Union Institute of Physico-Technical
and Radiotechnical Institute (VNIIFTRI) in Moscow (former U.S.S.R.) 346
14.3 Reported uncertainties in the exposure of miners (some BEIR VI remarks) 346
14.4 Direct measurement of activity in the lungs: Problems with practical application....348
14.5 Personal experience 348
14.6 Geography and underground conditions of mine regions 350
14.7 Diversity of mining and working conditions 351
14.8 Direct method: The Tadjikistan study as an opportunity to reduce lung
dosimetric uncertainty 352
14.9 Radioactive aerosols and lung irradiation 354
14.10 Aerosol concentration measurement 358
14.10.1 Radon and its contribution to absorbed dose 358
14.10.1.1 Experimental study on animals 358
14.10.1.2 Methods and measurement techniques for air radon
concentration monitoring 361
14.10.1.3 Radon concentration distribution measurement 362
14.10.1.4 Radon and lung cancer 363
14.10.2 Measurement of the concentration of decay products of radon, thoran,
and actinon 364
14.10.2.1 Characteristics of radon progeny 364
14.10.2.2 Basic equations for radon decay product series 366
14.10.2.3 General activity methods of measuring the concentration
of radon decay products 370
14.10.2.4 Measurement of radon decay products in air by alpha- and
beta-spectrometry 373
14.10.2.4.1 Measurement procedure and experimental
results 374
14.10.2.5 Absorption of alpha-radiation in the sample 377
14.10.2.6 Measurement procedures for the determination of the
activity of RaA, RaB, RaC, and RaC on the filter
by alpha- and beta-spectrometry 381
14.10.2.6.1 218Po (RaA) activity measurement 381
14.10.2.6.2 214Po (RaC) activity measurement 382
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14.10.2.6.3 2UPb (RaC) activity measurement 382 I
14.10.2.6.4 2MBi (RaB) activity measurement 382
14.10.2.7 Other methods of determination of the radon decay
products concentration in air 383 I
14.10.2.7.1 Radon progeny concentration measurement 385
14.10.2.7.2 Equilibrium factor and unattached fraction of
radon progeny 386
14.10.2.8 Methodical errors in the RaA, RaB, and RaC concentrations i
measurement 387
14.10.2.9 Characteristics of thoron and actinon decay products 390
14.10.2.10 Basic equations for the thoron and actinon series 390
14.10.2.10.1 Actinon series 391
14.10.11 Unattached fraction measurements 395
14.10.11.1 Correlation between the unattached activity of radon
decay products and aerosol concentration 395
14.10.11.2 Measurements of other radon decay product unattached
activity concentrations 401
14.10.11.3 Effect of recoil nuclei being knocked off aerosol particle
unattached concentrations of radon-decay products 402
14.10.12 Measurement of artificial radioactive aerosol concentration 406
14.10.12.1 Measurement technique for artificial aerosol concentration
measurements 409
14.10.12.2 Artificial radioactive aerosol concentration measurement ....416
14.10.13 Aerosol particle size measurements 417
14.10.13.1 Concept of the scale of particle size of aerosols 417
14.10.13.2 Ultrafine aerosols 420
14.10.13.3 Portable instrument for measuring UFA in mines 422
14.10.13.4 Installation for generating and investigating aerosols in the
range of 2 X HT3to 1 /on 422
14.10.13.4.1 Method for investigating aerosols 427
14.10.13.4.2 Experimental results of the study of
UFA aerosol generator 428
14.10.13.4.3 Measurement errors 430
14.10.13.5 Diffusive particle deposition in the inlet segment of a tube 431
14.10.13.6 Errors in determination of the parameters of the
logarithmically normal size distribution of aerosol
particles by the diffusion method 434
14.10.13.7 Fine aerosols 436
14.10.13.7.1 Determining the composition of aerosols
by means of two mean radii 438
14.10.13.8 Standard for generating and measuring the electrical
properties of aerosols 439
14.10.13.8.1 Generators of aeroions and electroaerosols 439
14.10.13.8.2 Method and instrumentation for the
measurement of electrical parameters of
radioactive UFA 440
14.11 Dosimetry 441
14.11.1 Intake vs. exposure: Propagation of the uncertainties in dose
assessment in mining studies 441
14.11.1.1 Discussion on miner radiation dosimetry: Quantitative
approach 442
Chapter fourteen: Radioactive aerosols 345
14.11.2 Measurements of the dosimetric parameters 445
14.11.2.1 Radon measurements 445
14.11.2.2 Radon decay progeny measurements 447
14.11.2.3 Distribution of radon decay product concentration 448
14.11.2.4 Unattached fraction measurements 450
14.11.2.5 Breathing zone concentration measurements 450
14.11.2.6 Breathing volume rate and deposition coefficient
measurements for miners 453
14.11.2.7 Assessment of the deposition and the upper-bound
average breathing rates for miners 454
14.11.2.8 Assessment of the breathing rates of miners 456
14.11.2.9 Assessment of the dose (activity, intake) in the lungs of
miners 459
14.11.2.10 Results 464
14.11.3 The method of direct measurement of activity (dose) in the lungs of
miners 464
14.11.3.1 Theory of the method 465
14.11.3.2 Assessment of uncertainties in the evaluation of dose 467
14.11.3.3 Correction for the shift of equilibrium of radon progeny
in the air and in the lungs 468
14.11.3.4 Accounting for parametric variations: Variations of
concentrations, breathing rate, and deposition
coefficients in real working conditions 472
14.11.3.5 Model measurement 474
14.11.3.6 Phantom measurements and geometric corrections 475
14.11.3.7 Assessment of the errors of the direct method 476
14.11.3.8 Portable instrument for direct measurement of the activity
of radon decay products in the lungs of miners 480
14.11.3.9 Radon decay products as a radioactive marker in
studying the deposition and dosimetry of
nonradioactive aerosols 481
14.12 Radioactive aerosols epidemiology: Miners studies 483
14.12.1 Lung cancer mortality and lung sickness among nonuranium miners
in Tadjikistan 483
14.12.1.1 Lung cancer mortality data 483
14.12.1.2 Lung sickness data 487
14.12.1.3 Comparison of Tadjikistan data with data from other
epidemiological studies 490
14.12.2 Quality of dosimetry and the risk assessment for miners some
aspects of the comparison of a Joint Analysis of 11 Underground
Miners Studies and a study of nonuranium miners in Tadjikistan 490
References 493
chapter fifteen
Dosimetry and epidemiology of Russian
uranium mines
IV. Pavlov
VNIPIPT, Moscow, Russia
Contents
15.1 Individual radon decay products concentration distribution in the
1090 dwellings of the village near Krasnokamensk from 1990 to 1991.
The maximum level of radon progeny concentration — 20,000 Bq m -1 503
15.2 Method and instrumentation for the integral volume activity of radon
progeny and long-lived nuclides for a long period of time (from 8 h to 3 months) ....504
15.2.1 A sampling device for breathing zone measurements of the integral
volume activity of radon and thoron progeny, long-lived nuclides,
and also nonradioactive aerosols 504
15.2.1.1 General thesis 504
15.2.1.2 Theoretical basis of the method 505
15.3 Epidemiological data on miners in the city of Lermontov, Russia 509
15.4 Individual dose distribution of uranium mines personnel (2500 workers)
to radon progeny, long-lived nuclides, and external gamma-radiation from
1990 to 1994 in the city of Krasnokamensk, Chita region, Siberia 513
Acknowledgment 515
References 515
chapter sixteen
Radioactive aerosols of the Chernobyl
accident
A.K. Budyka and B.I. Ogorodnikov
Karpov Physico-Chemical Institute, Moscow
Contents
16.1 Introduction 517
16.2 Dynamics of the ejection of radionuclides from the reactor 518
16.3 Global transfer of the accident products 519
16.4 Sampling devices 520
16.5 Aerosol characteristics in the first half year after the accident 520
16.6 Gaseous components I, Te, and Ru in the atmosphere 526
16.7 Characteristics of radioactive aerosols near the earth s surface 529
16.8 Forest fires in the exclusive zone 531
16.9 Aerosols of the Shelter 531
16.9.1 Types of aerosols 532
16.9.2 Aerosol concentration inside the Shelter 532
16.9.3 Aerosol transport from the Shelter into the atmosphere 534
16.9.4 Aerosol dispersity inside the Shelter 535
16.10 Radioactive aerosols close to the surface layer of the atmosphere near Shelter ....536
16.11 Conclusion 538
Acknowledgment 538
References 538
chapter seventeen
Aerosol filtration (aerosol sampling by
fibrous filters)
A.K. Budyka and B.I. Ogorodnikov
Karpov Physico-Chemical Institute, Moscow
Contents
17.1 Introduction 541
17.2 Terminology and definitions 542
17.3 Particle capture mechanisms 544
17.3.1 Diffusion 544
17.3.2 Interception 545
17.3.3 Inertia 545
17.3.4 Electrostatic 545
17.3.5 Gravitational effect 546
17.3.6 Combined actions of the filtration mechanisms 546
17.4 The most (more) penetrating size 546
17.5 Pressure drop 547
17.6 Effect of nonstationary filtration 547
17.7 Fiber filters FP (Petryanov s filters) 548
17.8 Using the fiber filters for particle size measurement 549
17.8.1 Size range 551
17.8.2 Sampling 551
17.8.3 Comparison with impactor 551
17.8.4 MMF application 552
17.9 Filters for detecting gaseous compounds 552
17.10 Correction on desorption of volatile substances 553
17.11 Filter material composition for atmospheric monitoring 553
17.12 Conclusion 554
Acknowledgment 554
References 554
chapter eighteen
Radioactive aerosol standards
L.S. Ruzer
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (USA)
Yu.V. Kuznetzov and V.L. Kustova
All-Russian Scientific Research Institute to Physico-Technical and Radiotechnical
Measurements ( VNIIFTR1 ), Moscow, Russia
D.E. Fertman and A.I. Rizin
Scientific Engineering Centre, SNIIP Moscow, Russia
Contents
18.1 U.S.S.R. special state standard for the volumetric activity of radioactive aerosols 557
18.2 Currently applicable radioactive aerosol standards 562
18.2.1 Radon and its decay products 562
18.2.2 Artificial radioactive aerosols 563
18.2.3 Developing model aerosol sources SAS in order to test aerosol
radiometers directly on the consumer place 565
References 566
chapter nineteen
Radon and thoron in the environment:
Concentrations and lung cancer risk
Naomi H. Harley
New York University School of Medicine
Contents
19.1 Introduction 569
19.2 Environmental concentrations 570
19.3 Indoor concentrations 570
19.4 Outdoor concentrations 570
19.5 Stratospheric concentrations 571
19.6 Radon in drinking water 573
19.7 Bronchial lung dose 574
19.8 Dose to the fetus from radon in drinking water 577
19.9 Confounding of 22Rn and 220Rn in the measurement of radon 577
19.10 Guidelines for indoor 222Rn 579
19.11 Lung cancer risk projections 579
19.12 Summary 581
References 582
chapter twenty
Risk from inhalation of the long-lived
radionuclides uranium, thorium, and
fallout plutonium in the atmosphere
Isabel M. Fisenne
USDHS Environmental Measurements Laboratory
Contents
20.1 Introduction 585
20.2 Similarities and differences 586
20.3 Sampling 586
20.4 Uranium in TSP 587
20.5 Thin TSP 587
20.6 PuinTSP 588
20.7 Resuspension 590
20.8 Respirable concentrations of U, Th, and Pu 591
20.9 Value of long-term monitoring 592
20.10 Exposure estimation from the inhalation of U, Th, and Pu 592
References 593
chapter twenty-one
Health physics considerations of aerosols
in radiosynthesis laboratories
Mark L. Maiello
Wyeth Research, R D Environmental Health Safety
Contents
21.1 Introduction 595
21.2 Airborne radioactivity 59h
21.2.1 Laboratory air effluents 597
21.2.2 Laboratory surface contamination 597
21.3 Control of contamination in the radiosynthesis lab 59K
References 599
chapter twenty-three
Health effects of ambient ultrafine particles
Beverly S. Cohen
New York University School of Medicine
Contents
23.1 Introduction 607
23.2 Formation 609
23.3 Composition 610
23.4 Lung deposition 612
23.5 Toxicology 612
23.6 Summary 616
References 616
chapter twenty-four
Health effects of aerosols: Mechanisms
and epidemiology
Ira B. lager
University of California at Berkeley
Contents
24.1 Introduction 619
24.2 Characteristics of outdoor (ambient) and indoor aerosol sources of
importance to human health 622
24.2.1 Outdoor aerosol (Table 24.1, Figure 24.1) 622
24.2.2 Indoor aerosol (Table 24.1 and Figure 24.3) 624
24.3 Deposition and clearance of aerosols from the human respiratory tract 626
24.3.1 Deposition and retention 626
24.3.2 Clearance 629
24.4 Mechanisms of toxicity of aerosol components 633
24.4.1 Particle aerosol induction of oxidative damage 634
24.4.2 Particle aerosol induction of inflammation 63s;
24.5 Human health effects associated with ambient PM 640
24.5.1 Health effects associated with chronic exposure to PM 649
24.5.1.1 Effects of exposure to ambient PM and birth outcomes (Table 24.9) .644
24.5.1.2 Increased mortality related to long-term exposure to PM aerosol .651
24.5.1.3 Atopic allergy and asthma 656
24.5.1.4 Cancer 659
24.5.2 Health effects associated with acute and subacute exposures to PM 660
24.5.2.1 Mortality 660
24.5.2.2 Physiological mechanisms related to the association of daily
changes in PM and daily mortality 676
24.6 Conclusions 679
References 679
|
| adam_txt |
Contents
Chapter 1 Aspects of health-related aerosols 1
James W. Gentry
Chapter 2 Aerosol properties 19
William C. Hinds
Chapter 3 Advances in monitoring methods for airborne particles 35
Philip K. Hopke
Chapter 4 Ultrafine and nanoparticle emissions: A new challenge for internal
combustion engine designers 47
D. B. Kittelson, W.F. Watts, and J.P. Johnson
Chapter 5 Breathing zone exposure assessment 61
Charles E. Rodes and Jonathan W. Thornburg
Chapter 6 Mechanisms of particle deposition 75
Kristin K. Isaacs, Jacky A. Rosati, and Ted B. Martonen
Chapter 7 Aerosol dose 101
Lev S. Ruzer, Michael G. Apte, and Richard G. Sextro
Chapter 8 Modeling deposition of inhaled particles 113
Ted B. Martonen, Jacky A. Rosati, and Kristin K. Isaacs
Chapter 9 Assessing uncertainties in the relationship between inhaled
particle concentrations, internal deposition, and health effects 157
Phillip N. Price
Chapter 10 Aerosol chemistry and physics: Indoor perspective 189
Lara A. Gundel and Richard G. Sextro
Chapter 11 Aerosols in the industrial environment 225
Andrew D. Maynard and Paul A. Baron
Chapter 12 Medical and pharmaceutical aerosols 265
Hugh D.C. Smyth, Lucila Garcia-Contreras, Daniel J. Cooney, Robert J.
Garmise, Latarsha D. Jones, and Anthony J. Hickey
Chapter 13 Bioaerosols 291
Maire S.A. Heikkinen, Mervi K. Hjelmroos-Koski, Max M. Hdggblom, and Janet M. Macher
Chapter 14 Radioactive aerosols 343
; Lev S. Ruzer
I
j
xvi Aerosols Handbook: Measurement, Dosimetry, and Health Effects
Chapter 15 Dosimetry and epidemiology of Russian uranium mines* 503
IV. Pavlov
Chapter 16 Radioactive aerosols of the Chernobyl accident* 517
A.K. Budyka and B.I. Ogorodnikov
Chapter 17 Aerosol filtration (aerosol sampling by fibrous filters)* 541
A.K. Budyka and B.I. Ogorodnikov
Chapter 18 Radioactive aerosol standards 557
L.S. Ruzer, Yu.V. Kuznetzov, V.L. Kustova, D.E. Fertman, and A.]. Rizin
Chapter 19 Radon and thoron in the environment: Concentrations
and lung cancer risk 569
Naomi H. Harley
Chapter 20 Risk from inhalation of the long-lived radionuclides
uranium, thorium, and fallout plutonium in the atmosphere 585
Isabel M. Fisenne
Chapter 21 Health physics considerations of aerosols in radiosynthesis
laboratories 595
Mark L. Maiello
Chapter 22 Diesel exhaust 601
Jonathan M. Samet
Chapter 23 Health effects of ambient ultrafine particles 607
Beverly S. Cohen
Chapter 24 Health effects of aerosols: Mechanisms and epidemiology 619
Ira B. Tager
Index 697
*Chapter translated from original Russian WIpu c; R,17Ot.
chapter one
Aspects of health-related aerosols
James W. Gentry
University of Maryland
Contents
1.1 Overview 1
1.2 Total deposition 1
1.3 Regional deposition measurements and mucociliary clearance 4
1.4 Composition of aerosols 6
1.5 Principal laboratories 9
1.6 Journals and organizations 11
1.7 Awards 12
References 13
chapter two
Aerosol properties
William C. Hinds
UCLA School of Public Health
Contents
2.1 Introduction 19
2.1.1 Concentration 21
2.2 Basic particle properties 21
2.2.1 Particle size 21
2.2.2 Particle density 23
2.2.3 Particle shape 24
2.3 Kinetic properties of aerosols 24
2.3.1 Mechanical 24
2.3.1.1 Settling velocity 24
2.3.1.2 Inertial 26
2.3.1.3 Diffusion 26
2.3.2 Electrical 27
2.3.3 Optical 27
2.3.4 Growth processes 29
2.3.4.1 Coagulation 29
2.3.4.2 Condensation 29
2.4 Chemical properties 30
2.5 Atmospheric particle size ranges 32
Glossary 32
References 33
chapter three
Advances in monitoring methods for
airborne particles
Philip K. Hopke
Clarkson University
Contents
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Filter-based measurements 36
3.2.1 Mass 36
3.2.1.1 Fine particles 36
3.2.1.2 Coarse particles 37
3.2.2 Continuous mass measurements 38
3.2.2.1 Fine particles 38
3.2.2.2 Coarse particles 40
3.3 Particulate constituent measurements, fixed site 40
3.3.1 Filter-based integrated monitors 40
3.3.2 Continuous monitors 41
3.4 Supersites 44
3.5 Next steps 45
3.6 Conclusions 45
References 45
chapter four
Ultrafine and nanoparticle emissions:
A new challenge for internal combustion
engine designers
D. B. Kittelson, W.E Watts, and J.P. Johnson
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Minnesota
Contents
4.1 Introduction 47
4.2 Measurement of size and composition of diesel particles 49
4.2.1 Sampling issues 49
4.2.2 On-road and laboratory measurements of diesel particles 50
4.2.3 Particle structure and composition measurements 52
4.2.4 Particles from engines equipped with exhaust filters 55
4.3 Some future engine design issues 56
4.4 Discussion and conclusions 58
References 58
chapter five
Breathing zone exposure assessment
Charles E. Rodes and Jonathan W. Thornburg
RTI International
Contents
5.1 General sampling 61
5.1.1 Exposure assessment 61
5.1.2 Concentrations vs. personal exposures 62
5.1.3 Breathing zone exposures 63
5.1.3.1 Defining the breathing zone 64
5.1.3.2 Bluff body bias 67
5.1.4 BZE sampling applications 69
5.1.5 BZE sampling compliance 70
5.2 Sampling by contaminant type 70
References 71
chapter six
Mechanisms of particle deposition
Kristin K. Isaacs
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Jacky A. Rosati
U.S. EPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Ted B. Martonen
U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Laboratory and University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Contents
6.1 Introduction 76
6.2 Fundamentals of inhaled aerosols 76
6.2.1 Stokes'slaw 76
6.2.2 Terminal settling velocity and relaxation time 77
6.2.3 Aerodynamic diameter 77
6.2.4 Modifications to the aerodynamic equations 77
6.2.4.1 Correction for nonspherical particles 78
6.2.4.2 Correction for slip 78
6.2.4.3 Hygroscopicity 79
6.3 Domains of particle dynamics 81
6.3.1 Free-molecule regime 81
6.3.2 Continuum regime 81
6.3.3 Slip-flow regime 81
6.4 Fluid dynamics in airways 82
6.4.1 Fundamentals of flow 82
6.4.1.1 Steady vs. unsteady flow 82
6.4.1.2 Laminar vs. turbulent flow 82
6.4.2 Flow in idealized tubes 83
6.4.3 Flow in curved tubes 85
6.4.4 Flow in bifurcations and branching networks 85
6.5 Particle motion 86
6.5.1 Primary deposition mechanisms 86
6.5.1.1 Inertial impaction 87
6.5.1.1.1 Laminar conditions 88
6.5.1.1.2 Turbulent conditions 88
6.5.1.2 Sedimentation 88
6.5.1.2.1 Laminar conditions 88
6.5.1.2.2 Turbulent conditions 89
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6.5.1.3 Diffusion 89
6.5.1.3.1 Laminar conditions 89
6.5.1.3.2 Turbulent conditions 89
6.5.2 Secondary deposition mechanisms 90
6.5.2.1 Interception 90
6.5.2.1.1 Laminar conditions 90
6.5.2.1.2 Turbulent conditions 91
6.5.2.2 Electrostatic charge 91
6.5.2.3 Cloud motion 92
6.6 Conclusions 93
Nomenclature 93
Disclaimer 94
Acknowledgement 94
References 95
chapter seven
Aerosol dose
Lev S. Ruzer, Michael G. Apte, and Richard G. Sextro
Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory
Contents
7.1 Introduction 101
7.2 Environmental dosimetry 102
7.3 Exposure and dose definitions 104
7.4 Uncertainty in dose assessment 105
7.5 Aerosol concentration safety standards 106
7.6 Nonuniformity of deposition and ultrafine/nanometer-sized particles 106
7.7 Characteristics of nanometer particles 108
7.8 Experimental data on nanometer particles 108
7.9 Radioactive markers 109
7.10 Conclusion 109
References 110
chapter eight
Modeling deposition of inhaled particles
Ted B. Martonen
U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Laboratory and University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
facky A. Rosati
U.S. EPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Kristin K. Isaacs
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Contents
8.1 Introduction 114
8.2 Fluid dynamics in airways 115
8.2.1 Fundamental equations 115
8.2.2 Boundary conditions 116
8.2.3 Idealized velocity profiles 116
8.2.4 Computational fluid dynamics 117
8.3 Aerosol deposition models 117
8.3.1 Classes of models 117
8.3.1.1 Empirical models 118
8.3.1.2 Deterministic models 118
8.3.1.3 Stochastic models 119
8.3.1.4 Computational fluid-particle dynamics 119
8.3.2 Merits and limitations of deposition models 120
8.3.2.1 Scientific foundations 121
8.3.2.2 Biological realism 121
8.3.2.3 Hardware and software issues 121
8.3.2.4 Advantages of modeling and simulation 122
8.4 Factors influencing aerosol deposition patterns 122
8.4.1 Respiratory system morphology 122
8.4.1.1 Idealized models 122
8.4.1.2 Data-driven models 123
8.4.1.3 Surface features 123
8.4.2 Ventilatory conditions 125
8.4.2.1 Mode of respiration 125
8.4.2.1.1 Effect of oral or nasal breathing on particle delivery to
lungs 125
8.4.2.1.2 Effect of oral or nasal breathing on total particle deposition
within the respiratory tract 125
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8.4.2.2 Breathing pattern 125
8.4.2.2.1 Spontaneous breathing 126
8.4.2.2.2 Regulated breathing 126
8.4.3 Respiratory system environment 126
8.4.4 Clearance 128
8.4.4.1 Mucociliary clearance 128
8.4.4.1.1 Effect of drugs and inhaled contaminants on mucociliary
clearance 128
8.4.4.1.2 Effect of disease on mucociliary clearance 129
8.4.4.1.3 Effect of age and activity on mucociliary clearance 130
8.4.4.2 Macrophage clearance or phagocytosis 130
8.4.4.2.1 Effect of particle size/fiber length and shape on
macrophage clearance 130
8.4.4.2.2 Effect of drugs and inhaled contaminants on macrophage
clearance 130
8.4.4.3 Free particle uptake and translocation to the interstitium 131
8.4.4.4 Importance of clearance in particle deposition modeling 131
8.4.5 Disease 131
8.4.5.1 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 131
8.4.5.2 Asthma 132
8.4.5.3 Cystic fibrosis 132
8.4.5.4 Effect of obstructive disease on particle deposition and distribution 132
8.4.5.5 Modeling disease 132
8.4.6 Age 133
8.5 Theory and experiment 133
8.5.1 Predictions of particle deposition 133
8.5.2 Particle deposition measurements 134
8.5.2.1 Casts and models 134
8.5.2.2 Deposition patterns deduced from clearance studies 135
8.5.2.3 Light-scattering methods 135
8.5.2.4 Gamma scintigraphy 135
8.5.2.5 Microdosimetry 136
8.5.3 Comparison of modeling and data 139
8.5.3.1 Simulations of compartmental particle deposition 140
8.5.3.1.1 Extrathoracic 140
8.5.3.1.2 Tracheobronchial 140
8.5.3.1.3 Pulmonary 142
8.5.3.2 Simulations of particle distribution generation by generation 143
8.5.3.3 Simulations of local particle deposition 144
8.6 Summary 145
Disclaimer 145
Acknowledgment 145
References 145
chapter nine
Assessing uncertainties in the relationship
between inhaled particle concentrations,
internal deposition, and health effects
Phillip N. Price
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Contents
9.1 Introduction 158
9.1.1 Should we worry about dose or about exposure? 158
9.2 Epidemiological studies 160
9.2.1 Radon epidemiology 161
9.2.1.1 Background 161
9.2.1.2 Case-control studies of residential radon 162
9.2.1.3 Sources of error in exposure estimates in case-control studies of
residential radon 164
9.2.1.4 Ecological studies of residential radon 165
9.2.1.5 Discussion of radon risk estimates 166
9.2.1.6 Implications for other aerosol exposure problems 168
9.2.2 Epidemiological studies of the effects of fine particle inhalation 169
9.2.2.1 Time-series studies of the health effects of fine particles 169
9.2.2.2 Cohort studies of the health effects of fine particle inhalation 171
9.2.2.3 Ecological epidemiological studies of the health effects of fine
particle inhalation 171
9.3 Inhalation modeling and experiments 172
9.3.1 Motivation for experiments and modeling related to lung deposition of
aerosols 172
9.3.2 Assessing uncertainties 172
9.3.3 General approach to assessing the effects of interpersonal variability 174
9.3.4 Respiratory tract morphology and other factors such as medical condition.l75
9.3.5 Intersubject morphometric variability 175
9.3.6 Systematic morphometric variability 177
9.3.7 Breathing rate and inhalation details 178
9.3.8 Clearance of the lung 178
9.3.9 Estimating the dose-versus-exposure relationship in a population 180
9.4 Conclusion 182
Acknowledgments • 183
References 183
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chapter ten
Aerosol chemistry and physics: Indoor
perspective
Lara A. Gundel and Richard G. Sextro
Environmental Energy Technologies Division
Contents
Preface 190
10.1 Introduction 191
10.1.1 Importance of aerosol exposures 191
10.1.2 Significance of indoor environment to aerosol exposure 191
10.1.3 Outdoor particles 192
10.1.3.1 PM25 composition overview 192
10.1.3.2 PM25 source apportionment 192
10.1.4 Differences between indoor and outdoor environments 193
10.1.5 Evidence for indoor aerosol processing and generation 194
10.1.5.1 The building envelope 194
10.1.5.2 Indoor materials 195
10.1.5.3 Indoor aerosol generation 195
10.2 Composition of indoor particles and aerosol precursors 196
10.2.1 Combustion sources 196
10.2.1.1 Cooking with oils and meat 196
10.2.1.2 Fireplaces 199
10.2.1.3 Tobacco 200
10.2.1.4 Candles 201
10.2.1.5 Incense 201
10.2.1.6 Unvented kerosene heaters 202
10.2.2 Human activities and consumer products 202
10.2.2.1 Pesticides 202
10.2.2.2 Air fresheners 202
10.2.2.3 Walking 202
10.2.2.4 Cleaning 203
10.2.2.5 Cleaning products 203
10.2.2.6 Renovation 204
10.2.3 Indoor aerosol source apportionment 204
10.3 Physical properties of indoor aerosols 205
10.3.1 Size distributions 205
10.3.1.1 Number 206
10.3.1.2 Surface area 206
10.3.1.3 Volume and mass 206
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190 Aerosols Handbook: Measurement, Dosimetry, and Health Effects
10.3.2 Particle dynamics 208
10.3.2.1 Particle motion 208
10.3.2.2 Particle formation and phase partitioning 209
10.3.2.2.1 Nucleation 209
10.3.2.2.2 Condensation 209
10.3.2.2.3 Sorption/desorption 209
10.3.3 Surface area in the indoor environment 211
10.3.3.1 Particles 211
10.3.3.2 Indoor materials 211
10.3.3.3 Adsorption indoors 211
10.4 Fate and transport 213
10.4.1 Model of indoor aerosol behavior 213
10.4.2 Airflow and aerosol transport through penetrations in building envelopes .215
10.4.3 Indoor aerosol deposition rates 216
10.4.4 Resuspension rate of particles on carpets/floors 217
References 218
chapter eleven
Aerosols in the industrial environment
Andrew D. Maynard and Paul A. Baron
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Contents
11.1 Introduction 225
11.2 Exposure metrics 228
11.3 Size-selective sampling 229
11.4 Exposure regulations 232
11.5 Measurement technologies 232
11.5.1 Samplers 232
11.5.1.1 General aerosol samplers 233
11.5.1.2 Inhalable samplers 236
11.5.1.3 Thoracic samplers 237
11.5.1.4 Respirable samplers 241
11.5.1.5 Multifraction samplers 242
11.5.1.6 Sample analysis 246
11.5.2 Direct reading instruments 248
11.5.2.1 Personal exposure measurements 248
11.5.2.2 Light scattering instruments 248
11.5.2.2.1 Optical particle counters 249
11.5.2.2.2 Photometers 251
11.5.2.3 Tapered element oscillating microbalance 252
11.5.2.4 Condensation particle counter 253
11.5.2.5 Pressure drop sensor 253
11.5.2.6 Aerosol surface area measurement 254
11.5.2.7 Specific applications of direct-reading instruments 255
11.5.2.7.1 Sampling cassette leakage testing 255
11.5.2.7.2 Respirator testing 255
11.5.2.7.3 Sampler testing 256
11.5.2.7.4 Combined aerosol and video monitoring 257
H.6 Summary 258
Disclaimer 258
References 258
chapter twelve
Medical and pharmaceutical aerosols
Hugh B.C. Smyth, Lucila Garcia-Contreras, Daniel J. Cooney, Robert f.
Gartnise, Latarsha D. Jones, and Anthony J. Hickey
University of North Carolina
Contents
12.1 Introduction 266
12.1.1 Historical perspective 266
12.1.2 Future prospects 266
12.2 Therapeutic agents 266
12.2.1 Locally acting medical and pharmaceutical aerosols 266
12.2.1.1 /J-Adrenergic agonists 266
12.2.1.2 Corticosteroids 267
12.2.1.3 Anticholinergics 268
12.2.1.4 Antiinflammatory agents 268
12.2.1.5 Antimicrobials 268
12.2.1.6 Biotechnological agents, genes, and DNA aerosols 268
12.2.2 Systemically acting agents 269
12.3 Classification 269
12.3.1 Metered dose inhalers 269
12.3.1.1 CFC systems 270
12.3.1.2 HFC systems 270
12.3.1.3 Alternative propellants 270
12.3.2 Dry powder inhalers 272
12.3.2.1 Passive 272
12.3.2.2 Active 273
12.3.3 Nebulizers 274
12.3.3.1 Solutions 274
12.3.3.2 Suspensions 275
12.3.3.3 Macromolecules 275
12.3.4 Handheld aqueous systems 276
12.3.5 Topical drug delivery sprays 276
12.3.6 Specific measurement techniques and calibration 277
12.3.6.1 Particle size measurement 277
12.4 Specific measurement techniques and calibration 277
12.4.1 Inertial methods 277
12.4.1.1 Cascade impactor 277
12.4.1.2 Twinimpinger 279
12.4.2 Optical methods 280
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266 Aerosols Handbook: Measurement, Dosimetry, and Health Effects
12.4.3 Other in vitro measurement techniques commonly employed for
pharmaceutical aerosols 280
12.5 Respiratory deposition, retention, and dosimetry 280
12.5.1 Deposition 280
12.5.1.1 Gamma scintigraphy, PET, and SPECT 280
12.5.2 Retention 281
12.5.3 Dosimetry 281
12.5.3.1 Bolus delivery 282
12.5.3.2 Continuous delivery 282
References 284
I
chapter thirteen
Bioaerosols
Maire S.A. Heikkinen
New York University
Mervi K. Hjelmroos-Koski
University of California at Berkeley
Max M. Haggblom
Rutgers University
Janet M. Macher
California Department of Health Services
Contents
13.1 Introduction 292
13.1.1 Health effects of bioaerosols in indoor and outdoor environments 293
13.1.1.1 Infectious diseases 293
13.1.1.2 Hypersensitivity diseases 294
13.1.1.3 Inflammatory and other diseases 295
13.1.2 Sources and transmission 304
13.1.2.1 Transmission of infectious agents 304
13.1.2.2 Bioaerosols from outdoor sources 304
13.1.2.3 Bioaerosols in manufacturing industries 305
13.2 Bioaerosol size distributions 306
13.2.1 Aerodynamic diameters of airborne biological agents 306
13.2.1.1 Allergens 307
13.2.1.2 Culturable bacteria and fungi 307
13.2.1.3 Fragments 308
13.2.2 Seasonal and diurnal variability in ambient bioaerosol concentrations 308
13.2.2.1 Time of day 313
13.2.2.2 Time of year 313
13.2.2.3 Geographic region 313
13.3 Respiratory dosimetry 314
13.3.1 Respiratory deposition and clearance 314
13.3.2 Dose-response relationships/exposure assessment 316
13.3.2.1 Infectious dose 316
13.3.2.2 Allergens 317
13.3.2.3 Glucan 318
13.3.2.4 Endotoxin 319
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13.3.2.5 Other bioaerosol exposures 320
13.3.2.6 Interactions 321
13.4 Environmental measurement and analytical techniques 321
13.4.1 Measurement of surrogates and indicators 321
13.4.2 Bioaerosol measurement 323
13.4.3 Bioaerosol samplers 324
13.4.3.1 Inertial sampling 324
13.4.3.2 Filtration 325
13.4.3.3 Electrostatic precipitation 325
13.4.3.4 Future directions in bioaerosol sampling 326
13.4.4 Sample analysis 326
13.4.4.1 Microscopy 326
13.4.4.2 Cultivation-based methods for bacteria and fungi 327
13.4.4.3 Biological assays 328
13.4.4.4 Immunoassays 329
13.4.4.5 Chemical assays 329
13.4.4.6 Molecular genetic assays 330
13.5 Concluding remarks 330
References 331
chapter fourteen
Radioactive aerosols
Lev S. Ruzer
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Contents
14.1 Historical overview 345
14.2 The Aerosol Laboratory of the Ail-Union Institute of Physico-Technical
and Radiotechnical Institute (VNIIFTRI) in Moscow (former U.S.S.R.) 346
14.3 Reported uncertainties in the exposure of miners (some BEIR VI remarks) 346
14.4 Direct measurement of activity in the lungs: Problems with practical application.348
14.5 Personal experience 348
14.6 Geography and underground conditions of mine regions 350
14.7 Diversity of mining and working conditions 351
14.8 Direct method: The Tadjikistan study as an opportunity to reduce lung
dosimetric uncertainty 352
14.9 Radioactive aerosols and lung irradiation 354
14.10 Aerosol concentration measurement 358
14.10.1 Radon and its contribution to absorbed dose 358
14.10.1.1 Experimental study on animals 358
14.10.1.2 Methods and measurement techniques for air radon
concentration monitoring 361
14.10.1.3 Radon concentration distribution measurement 362
14.10.1.4 Radon and lung cancer 363
14.10.2 Measurement of the concentration of decay products of radon, thoran,
and actinon 364
14.10.2.1 Characteristics of radon progeny 364
14.10.2.2 Basic equations for radon decay product series 366
14.10.2.3 General activity methods of measuring the concentration
of radon decay products 370
14.10.2.4 Measurement of radon decay products in air by alpha- and
beta-spectrometry 373
14.10.2.4.1 Measurement procedure and experimental
results 374
14.10.2.5 Absorption of alpha-radiation in the sample 377
14.10.2.6 Measurement procedures for the determination of the
activity of RaA, RaB, RaC, and RaC on the filter
by alpha- and beta-spectrometry 381
14.10.2.6.1 218Po (RaA) activity measurement 381
14.10.2.6.2 214Po (RaC) activity measurement 382
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14.10.2.6.3 2UPb (RaC) activity measurement 382 I
14.10.2.6.4 2MBi (RaB) activity measurement 382
14.10.2.7 Other methods of determination of the radon decay
products concentration in air 383 I
14.10.2.7.1 Radon progeny concentration measurement 385
14.10.2.7.2 Equilibrium factor and unattached fraction of
radon progeny 386
14.10.2.8 Methodical errors in the RaA, RaB, and RaC concentrations i
measurement 387
14.10.2.9 Characteristics of thoron and actinon decay products 390
14.10.2.10 Basic equations for the thoron and actinon series 390
14.10.2.10.1 Actinon series 391
14.10.11 Unattached fraction measurements 395
14.10.11.1 Correlation between the unattached activity of radon
decay products and aerosol concentration 395
14.10.11.2 Measurements of other radon decay product unattached
activity concentrations 401
14.10.11.3 Effect of recoil nuclei being knocked off aerosol particle
unattached concentrations of radon-decay products 402
14.10.12 Measurement of artificial radioactive aerosol concentration 406
14.10.12.1 Measurement technique for artificial aerosol concentration
measurements 409
14.10.12.2 Artificial radioactive aerosol concentration measurement .416
14.10.13 Aerosol particle size measurements 417
14.10.13.1 Concept of the scale of particle size of aerosols 417
14.10.13.2 Ultrafine aerosols 420
14.10.13.3 Portable instrument for measuring UFA in mines 422
14.10.13.4 Installation for generating and investigating aerosols in the
range of 2 X HT3to 1 /on 422
14.10.13.4.1 Method for investigating aerosols 427
14.10.13.4.2 Experimental results of the study of
UFA aerosol generator 428
14.10.13.4.3 Measurement errors 430
14.10.13.5 Diffusive particle deposition in the inlet segment of a tube 431
14.10.13.6 Errors in determination of the parameters of the
logarithmically normal size distribution of aerosol
particles by the diffusion method 434
14.10.13.7 Fine aerosols 436
14.10.13.7.1 Determining the composition of aerosols
by means of two mean radii 438
14.10.13.8 Standard for generating and measuring the electrical
properties of aerosols 439
14.10.13.8.1 Generators of aeroions and electroaerosols 439
14.10.13.8.2 Method and instrumentation for the
measurement of electrical parameters of
radioactive UFA 440
14.11 Dosimetry 441
14.11.1 Intake vs. exposure: Propagation of the uncertainties in dose
assessment in mining studies 441
14.11.1.1 Discussion on miner radiation dosimetry: Quantitative
approach 442
Chapter fourteen: Radioactive aerosols 345
14.11.2 Measurements of the dosimetric parameters 445
14.11.2.1 Radon measurements 445
14.11.2.2 Radon decay progeny measurements 447
14.11.2.3 Distribution of radon decay product concentration 448
14.11.2.4 Unattached fraction measurements 450
14.11.2.5 Breathing zone concentration measurements 450
14.11.2.6 Breathing volume rate and deposition coefficient
measurements for miners 453
14.11.2.7 Assessment of the deposition and the upper-bound
average breathing rates for miners 454
14.11.2.8 Assessment of the breathing rates of miners 456
14.11.2.9 Assessment of the dose (activity, intake) in the lungs of
miners 459
14.11.2.10 Results 464
14.11.3 The method of direct measurement of activity (dose) in the lungs of
miners 464
14.11.3.1 Theory of the method 465
14.11.3.2 Assessment of uncertainties in the evaluation of dose 467
14.11.3.3 Correction for the shift of equilibrium of radon progeny
in the air and in the lungs 468
14.11.3.4 Accounting for parametric variations: Variations of
concentrations, breathing rate, and deposition
coefficients in real working conditions 472
14.11.3.5 Model measurement 474
14.11.3.6 Phantom measurements and geometric corrections 475
14.11.3.7 Assessment of the errors of the direct method 476
14.11.3.8 Portable instrument for direct measurement of the activity
of radon decay products in the lungs of miners 480
14.11.3.9 Radon decay products as a radioactive marker in
studying the deposition and dosimetry of
nonradioactive aerosols 481
14.12 Radioactive aerosols epidemiology: Miners studies 483
14.12.1 Lung cancer mortality and lung sickness among nonuranium miners
in Tadjikistan 483
14.12.1.1 Lung cancer mortality data 483
14.12.1.2 Lung sickness data 487
14.12.1.3 Comparison of Tadjikistan data with data from other
epidemiological studies 490
14.12.2 Quality of dosimetry and the risk assessment for miners some
aspects of the comparison of a "Joint Analysis of 11 Underground
Miners Studies" and a study of nonuranium miners in Tadjikistan 490
References 493
chapter fifteen
Dosimetry and epidemiology of Russian
uranium mines
IV. Pavlov
VNIPIPT, Moscow, Russia
Contents
15.1 Individual radon decay products concentration distribution in the
1090 dwellings of the village near Krasnokamensk from 1990 to 1991.
The maximum level of radon progeny concentration — 20,000 Bq m -1 503
15.2 Method and instrumentation for the integral volume activity of radon
progeny and long-lived nuclides for a long period of time (from 8 h to 3 months) .504
15.2.1 A sampling device for breathing zone measurements of the integral
volume activity of radon and thoron progeny, long-lived nuclides,
and also nonradioactive aerosols 504
15.2.1.1 General thesis 504
15.2.1.2 Theoretical basis of the method 505
15.3 Epidemiological data on miners in the city of Lermontov, Russia 509
15.4 Individual dose distribution of uranium mines personnel (2500 workers)
to radon progeny, long-lived nuclides, and external gamma-radiation from
1990 to 1994 in the city of Krasnokamensk, Chita region, Siberia 513
Acknowledgment 515
References 515
chapter sixteen
Radioactive aerosols of the Chernobyl
accident
A.K. Budyka and B.I. Ogorodnikov
Karpov Physico-Chemical Institute, Moscow
Contents
16.1 Introduction 517
16.2 Dynamics of the ejection of radionuclides from the reactor 518
16.3 Global transfer of the accident products 519
16.4 Sampling devices 520
16.5 Aerosol characteristics in the first half year after the accident 520
16.6 Gaseous components I, Te, and Ru in the atmosphere 526
16.7 Characteristics of radioactive aerosols near the earth's surface 529
16.8 Forest fires in the exclusive zone 531
16.9 Aerosols of the "Shelter" 531
16.9.1 Types of aerosols 532
16.9.2 Aerosol concentration inside the "Shelter" 532
16.9.3 Aerosol transport from the "Shelter" into the atmosphere 534
16.9.4 Aerosol dispersity inside the "Shelter" 535
16.10 Radioactive aerosols close to the surface layer of the atmosphere near "Shelter" .536
16.11 Conclusion 538
Acknowledgment 538
References 538
chapter seventeen
Aerosol filtration (aerosol sampling by
fibrous filters)
A.K. Budyka and B.I. Ogorodnikov
Karpov Physico-Chemical Institute, Moscow
Contents
17.1 Introduction 541
17.2 Terminology and definitions 542
17.3 Particle capture mechanisms 544
17.3.1 Diffusion 544
17.3.2 Interception 545
17.3.3 Inertia 545
17.3.4 Electrostatic 545
17.3.5 Gravitational effect 546
17.3.6 Combined actions of the filtration mechanisms 546
17.4 The most (more) penetrating size 546
17.5 Pressure drop 547
17.6 Effect of nonstationary filtration 547
17.7 Fiber filters FP (Petryanov's filters) 548
17.8 Using the fiber filters for particle size measurement 549
17.8.1 Size range 551
17.8.2 Sampling 551
17.8.3 Comparison with impactor 551
17.8.4 MMF application 552
17.9 Filters for detecting gaseous compounds 552
17.10 Correction on desorption of volatile substances 553
17.11 Filter material composition for atmospheric monitoring 553
17.12 Conclusion 554
Acknowledgment 554
References 554
chapter eighteen
Radioactive aerosol standards
L.S. Ruzer
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (USA)
Yu.V. Kuznetzov and V.L. Kustova
All-Russian Scientific Research Institute to Physico-Technical and Radiotechnical
Measurements ("VNIIFTR1"), Moscow, Russia
D.E. Fertman and A.I. Rizin
Scientific Engineering Centre, "SNIIP" Moscow, Russia
Contents
18.1 U.S.S.R. special state standard for the volumetric activity of radioactive aerosols 557
18.2 Currently applicable radioactive aerosol standards 562
18.2.1 Radon and its decay products 562
18.2.2 Artificial radioactive aerosols 563
18.2.3 Developing model aerosol sources SAS in order to test aerosol
radiometers directly on the consumer place 565
References 566
chapter nineteen
Radon and thoron in the environment:
Concentrations and lung cancer risk
Naomi H. Harley
New York University School of Medicine
Contents
19.1 Introduction 569
19.2 Environmental concentrations 570
19.3 Indoor concentrations 570
19.4 Outdoor concentrations 570
19.5 Stratospheric concentrations 571
19.6 Radon in drinking water 573
19.7 Bronchial lung dose 574
19.8 Dose to the fetus from radon in drinking water 577
19.9 Confounding of 22Rn and 220Rn in the measurement of "radon" 577
19.10 Guidelines for indoor 222Rn 579
19.11 Lung cancer risk projections 579
19.12 Summary 581
References 582
chapter twenty
Risk from inhalation of the long-lived
radionuclides uranium, thorium, and
fallout plutonium in the atmosphere
Isabel M. Fisenne
USDHS Environmental Measurements Laboratory
Contents
20.1 Introduction 585
20.2 Similarities and differences 586
20.3 Sampling 586
20.4 Uranium in TSP 587
20.5 Thin TSP 587
20.6 PuinTSP 588
20.7 Resuspension 590
20.8 Respirable concentrations of U, Th, and Pu 591
20.9 Value of long-term monitoring 592
20.10 Exposure estimation from the inhalation of U, Th, and Pu 592
References 593
chapter twenty-one
Health physics considerations of aerosols
in radiosynthesis laboratories
Mark L. Maiello
Wyeth Research, R D Environmental Health Safety
Contents
21.1 Introduction 595
21.2 Airborne radioactivity 59h
21.2.1 Laboratory air effluents 597
21.2.2 Laboratory surface contamination 597
21.3 Control of contamination in the radiosynthesis lab 59K
References 599
chapter twenty-three
Health effects of ambient ultrafine particles
Beverly S. Cohen
New York University School of Medicine
Contents
23.1 Introduction 607
23.2 Formation 609
23.3 Composition 610
23.4 Lung deposition 612
23.5 Toxicology 612
23.6 Summary 616
References 616
chapter twenty-four
Health effects of aerosols: Mechanisms
and epidemiology
Ira B. lager
University of California at Berkeley
Contents
24.1 Introduction 619
24.2 Characteristics of outdoor (ambient) and indoor aerosol sources of
importance to human health 622
24.2.1 Outdoor aerosol (Table 24.1, Figure 24.1) 622
24.2.2 Indoor aerosol (Table 24.1 and Figure 24.3) 624
24.3 Deposition and clearance of aerosols from the human respiratory tract 626
24.3.1 Deposition and retention 626
24.3.2 Clearance 629
24.4 Mechanisms of toxicity of aerosol components 633
24.4.1 Particle aerosol induction of oxidative damage 634
24.4.2 Particle aerosol induction of inflammation 63s;
24.5 Human health effects associated with ambient PM 640
24.5.1 Health effects associated with chronic exposure to PM 649
24.5.1.1 Effects of exposure to ambient PM and birth outcomes (Table 24.9) .644
24.5.1.2 Increased mortality related to long-term exposure to PM aerosol .651
24.5.1.3 Atopic allergy and asthma 656
24.5.1.4 Cancer 659
24.5.2 Health effects associated with acute and subacute exposures to PM 660
24.5.2.1 Mortality 660
24.5.2.2 Physiological mechanisms related to the association of daily
changes in PM and daily mortality 676
24.6 Conclusions 679
References 679 |
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| title_sort | aerosols handbook measurement dosimetry and health effects |
| title_sub | measurement, dosimetry, and health effects |
| topic | Aerosols adverse effects Aerosols administration & dosage Air Pollution adverse effects Environmental Exposure adverse effects Radiation Effects Aerosols Aerosols Health aspects Aerosols Measurement Aerosol (DE-588)4000595-1 gnd |
| topic_facet | Aerosols adverse effects Aerosols administration & dosage Air Pollution adverse effects Environmental Exposure adverse effects Radiation Effects Aerosols Aerosols Health aspects Aerosols Measurement Aerosol |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016270190&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT ruzerlevs aerosolshandbookmeasurementdosimetryandhealtheffects |