Verfügbarkeit: An introduction to bilingualism

An introduction to bilingualism: principles and processes

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Format:	Buch
Sprache:	English
Veröffentlicht:	New York [u.a.] Taylor & Francis 2008
Schlagworte:	Bilingualism Zweisprachigkeit Lehrbuch
Online-Zugang:	Inhaltsverzeichnis
Beschreibung:	Hier auch später erschienene, unveränderte Nachdrucke
Beschreibung:	XIX, 388 S. graph. Darst., Kt.
ISBN:	9780805851342 9780805851359 9781410618856 0805851356

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adam_text	Contents Contributors ........................................................................................................................xv Preface ...............................................................................................................................xvii Acknowledgments ..............................................................................................................xix SECTION I INTRODUCTION: THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL BACKGROUND 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................3 JEANETTE ALTARRIBA AND ROBERTO R. HEREDIA Aspects of Bilingualism .....................................................................................................3 Why Study Bilingualism? ..................................................................................................5 Overview: Chapters 2-14..................................................................................................8 Summary ..........................................................................................................................10 References .........................................................................................................................10 2 Bilingual Research Methods .................................................,....................................13 VIORICA MARIAN Bilingual Research Methods: Introduction ...................................................................... 13 Designing a Research Project with Bilinguals ...................................................................14 Observational and Experimental Studies ................................................................. 15 Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research...... ....................................................... 16 Independent Variables, Dependent Variables, and Confounding Variables.............. 17 Operational Definitions, Reliability, and Validity. ...................................................18 Between-Group, Within-Group, and Mixed Designs..... ........................................ 20 How Methodology Can Drive Outcomes in Bilingual Research................. ......................21 Representation and Processing of Languages in Bilinguals...... ................................21 Cortical Organization of Languages in Bilinguals .................................................. 23 Language Development in Bilingual Children ....................................................... 24 Methodological Considerations ....................................................................................... 26 Selection of Languages ........................................................................................... 26 Selection of Participants .......................................................................................... 28 Selection of Tasks and Stimuli ................................................................................29 Running the Experiment .........................................................................................31 Summary and Conclusion: The Journey to Scientific Paper ..............................................31 List of Key Words and Concepts .......................................................................................33 Internet Sites Related to Bilingual Research ......................................................................33 Discussion Questions ........................................................................................................33 Suggested Research Projects ..............................................................................................33 Suggested Readings ......................................................................................................... 34 Author Notes ...................................................................................................................34 References ........................................................................................................................34 3 Mental Models of Bilingual Memory .........................................................................39 ROBERTO R. HEREDIA Introduction ....................................................................................................................39 Memory or Multiple Memories ........................................................................................40 Bilingual Memory: One or Two Memory Systems ............................................................41 Evidence for the Interdependence Hypothesis .........................................................42 Evidence for the Independence Hypothesis ..............................................................45 Compound versus Coordinate Bilingualism ...........................................................49 Bilingual Dual-Coding Theory ...............................................................................50 Hierarchical Models .........................................................................................................53 Word Association and Concept Mediation Models ..................................................53 The Revised Hierarchical Model ..............................................................................55 Distributed Conceptual Feature Model ...........................................................................57 Representations at the Word Type Level .................................................................57 Bilingual Interactive Model .............................................................................................60 Summary and Conclusion ................................................................................................61 List of Key Words and Concepts ......................................................................................62 Internet Sites Related to Bilingual Memory .....................................................................62 Discussion Questions .......................................................................................................62 Suggested Research Projects .............................................................................................63 Author Notes ...................................................................................................................64 References ........................................................................................................................64 SECTION II COGNITIVE AND NEUROLOGICAL MECHANISMS 4 The Psycholinguistics of Bilingualism .......................................................................71 JENNIFER L. GIANICO AND JEANETTE ALTARRIBA А В rief Introduction .......................................................................................................71 Levels of Analysis in Cross-Language Psycholinguist«: Research .....................................72 Phonology ...............................................................................................................72 Semantic Processing ...............................................................................................75 Morphology and the Study of Form .......................................................................77 Syntax ..................................................................... л .............................................79 Pragmatics and Discourse in Comparative Psycholinguistics ...................................81 Language in Context .......................................................................................................82 Constraints in Bilingual Sentence Processing ........................................................82 Lexical Ambiguity across Languages ......................................................................83 Language-Nonselective View ..................................................................................84 The Production of Language .............................................................................................85 Code-Switching and Its Implications ......................................................................86 Sign Languages across Cultures... ...........................................................................89 Language Learning ..........................................................................................................90 Learning a Second Language .................................................................................. 90 The Critical Period Hypothesis..... ...........................................................................91 Language and Culture .....................................................................................................93 The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Revisited: Linguistic Determinism and Relativity .....93 Color Terms and Categorization across Cultures .................................................... 94 Other Lexical Categories ........................................................................................ 95 Figurative Language Processing......... .....................................................................96 Summary and Conclusion ............................................................................................... 98 List of Key Words and Concepts ...................................................................................... 99 Internet Sites Related to the Psycholinguistics of Bilingualism .......................................99 Discussion Questions .......................................................................................................99 Suggested Research Projects ...........................................................................................100 Suggested Readings .......................................................................................................100 References .......................................................................................................................101 Bilingualism and Aging ...........................................................................................105 ROBERT W. SCHRAUF Explanatory Theories in Cognitive Aging .......................................................................105 Monolingual Aging ........................................................................................................106 Verbal/Auditory Deficits ........................................................................................106 Word-Level Recognition and Retrieval ..................................................................106 Syntactic Processing ...............................................................................................107 Constructing the Text Base and Situation Model ..................................................108 Discourse and Conversation ..................................................................................109 Summary: Cognitive Deficits and Monolingualism...... .........................................109 Bilingual Aging ..............................................................................................................109 Factors Specific to Bilingualism................ .............................................................110 Language Attrition ................................................................................................110 Language Environment ......................................................................................... 110 Language Proficiency... .......................................................................................... 110 Frequency of Use ................................................................................................... Ill Hypotheses...... ...................................................................................................... Ill Hypothesis One: Age-Related Patterns of Decline and Preservation Will Be Seen in Bilinguals Just as They Are Seen in Monolinguals.............. ...............................................................112 Hypothesis Two: Age-Related Patterns of Decline and/or Preservation Will Be the Same in Both Languages for Older Bilinguals .........113 Hypothesis Three: The Unique Language-Switching Ability of Bilinguals Plays a Special Role in Bilingual Aging ..................... 115 Methodological Notes on Existing Studies on Bilingual Aging ...................................... 116 Explanatory Models and Age Effects on Second Language Processing ............................117 Automatic and Controlled Processing ....................................................................117 The Activation Threshold Hypothesis (ΑΤΗ) ........................................................118 Effects of Aging on Second Languages ..................................................................119 Slowed Processing Speed .......................................................................................120 Shrinking Working Memory................................................................................120 Inhibitory Deficits ................................................................................................ 120 Declining Sensory Function ..................................................................................121 Summary and Conclusion ..............................................................................................121 List of Key Words .......................................................................................................... 122 Internet Sites Related to Bilingualism and Aging ........................................................... 122 Discussion Questions ..................................................................................................... 123 Suggested Research Project ............................................................................................123 Suggested Readings ....................................................................................................... 123 Author Notes .............................................,...................................................................123 References ...................................................................................................................... 123 6 The Bilingual Brain: What Is Right and What Is Left? ............................................129 JYOTSNAVAID Why the Bilingual Brain? .............................................................................................. 130 Sources of Evidence ........................................................................................................131 Aphasia .................................................................................................................131 Electro-Cortical Stimulation Mapping ..................................................................132 Behavioral Laterality Measures .............................................................................134 Neurobehavioral Measures ....................................................................................135 Hemodynamic Neuroimaging Studies ..................................................................136 Toward Convergence ......................................................................................................138 Summary and Conclusion ..............................................................................................139 List of Key Words and Concepts .....................................................................................140 Internet Sites Related to the Bilingual Brain ...................................................................140 Discussion Questions ......................................................................................................140 Suggested Research Projects ............................................................................................141 Suggested Readings ........................................................................................................141 Author Notes ..................................................................................................................141 References .......................................................................................................................141 SECTION III CREATIVITY AND DEVELOPMENTAL PRINCIPLES 7 Bilingualism and Creativity ......................,..............................................................147 DEAN KEITH SIMONTON Introduction ...................................................................................................................147 Empirical Findings .........................................................................................................148 Historiometric Research ........................................................................................148 Aggregate Level ..........................................................................................148 Individual Level .........................................................................................149 Psychometric Research ..........................................................................................150 Positive Support .........................................................................................150 Ambiguous Support ...................................................................................151 Methodological Considerations ......................................................................................151 Psychometric Assessments ......................................................................................152 Conceptual Definitions .........................................................................................153 Study Participants ..................................................................................................153 Research Designs ...................................................................................................154 Confounding Variables .......................................................................................... 155 Theoretical Interpretations ..............................................................................................156 Causal Effects ........................................................................................................156 Spurious Relations .................................................................................................158 Summary and Conclusion .............................................................................................. 159 List of Key Words and Concepts.... ................................................................................. 161 Internet Sites Related to Bilingualism and Creativity. ..................................................... 161 Discussion Questions ......................................................................................................161 Suggested Research Projects ............................................................................................162 Suggested Readings ........................................................................................................163 References .......................................................................................................................163 8 Bilingualism and Language Cognitive Development ..............................................167 ELENA NICOLADIS Delay in Language Development ....................................................................................169 Acceleration in Language Development ..........................................................................171 Cross-Linguistic Transfer ................................................................................................172 Cognitive Differences .....................................................................................................173 Summary and Conclusion ..............................................................................................176 List of Key Words and Concepts .....................................................................................177 Internet Sites Related to Development and Bilingualism ................................................177 Discussion Questions ......................................................................................................178 Suggested Research Projects ............................................................................................178 Suggested Readings ........................................................................................................178 References .......................................................................................................................179 SECTION IV SOCIAL AND SOCIOCULTURAL PROCESSES 9 Social Psychological Approaches to Bilingualism .................................................... 185 LUIS A. VEGA The Influence of Social Context on Bilingualism............................................................ 185 Bilingualism and Social Identity: A Reciprocal Relationship ,......,.........,..,..........,.,,,..,...186 Assimilation and Acculturation Forces .................................................................187 Bilingualism and Language Shift Processes..... ......................................................188 Bilingualism and Attitudes: Stereotypes and Status........... .............................................189 Attitudes and Bilingualism ....................................................................................189 Stereotypes and Bilingualism: Not All Negative ...................................................190 Status and Enhancing/Inhibiting Factors of Bilingualism .................................... 191 Intergroup Influences on Bilingualism ............................................................................ 191 Social Expectations and Normative Influences .....................................................192 Social Power and Group Dominance .....................................................................192 Social Conflict and Group Negotiation ................................................................192 Bilingualism as Social Reality .........................................................................................193 Biology and Context Effects ..................................................................................193 The Role of Culture in Bilingualism ......................................................................194 Bilingualism: Social Independence or Dependence? ..............................................194 Summary and Conclusion ..............................................................................................194 List of Key Words and Concepts .....................................................................................196 Internet Sites Related to Social Psychology and Language ..............................................196 Discussion Questions ......................................................................................................196 Suggested Research Projects ............................................................................................196 Suggested Readings: Classic Readings in Social Psychology and Language ....................197 References .......................................................................................................................197 10 The Social and Cultural Contexts of Bilingualism ..................................................199 FLAVIA C. PERÉA AND CYNTHIA GARCÍA COLL Introduction ..................................................................................................................200 The U.S. Historical Context and the Absence of a National Language Policy ................201 U.S. Expansion, Americanization, and the Diversification of the United States .............203 Immigration, Language Diversity, and the U.S. Response .............................................207 The Post-1965 Immigration ...........................................................................................212 Population Change in the United States Today .....................................................212 Growth among Language Minorities .....................................................................213 Case Study: Latin American Immigration ......................................................................214 Concerns Regarding Bilingualism and the Social and Cultural Integration of Latinos. ..216 Latinos, Language, and Fear ...........................................................................................219 Federal Recognition and Protection of Language Minority Rights ................................220 The Bilingual Education Act .................................................................................221 Lau v.Nichols .........................................................................................................221 Bilingual Elections and the Voting Rights Act .....................................................222 The English-Only Movement and English-Only Laws ..................................................224 Language Laws and Policies at the Federal Level ...........................................................226 Hernandez v. New York .........................................................................................226 Executive Order 13166.........................................................................................227 Language Laws and Policies at the State and Local Levels .............................................227 The Education of Language Minority Students .............................................................228 Discussion: The Social and Cultural Contexts of Language Conflict ............................. 232 Summary and Conclusion .............................................................................................234 Endnotes........................................................................................................................236 List of Key Words and Concepts .................................................................................... 237 Internet Sites Related to the Social and Cultural Contexts of Bilingualism .................. 237 Discussion Questions ..................................................................................................... 237 Suggested Readings ....................................................................................................... 238 References ......................................................................................................................238 SECTION V LINGUISTIC PRINCIPLES AND APPLIED PERSPECTIVES 11 Linguistic Contributions to Bilingualism ................................................................245 VIVIAN COOK Introduction ..................................................................................................................246 Comparing Linguistics and SLA Research ...........................................................246 Views of Language and Views of Second Language Acquisition ...........................248 Competence and SLA ...........................................................................................248 Overall Views of Learning .................................................................................... 249 SLA Theories Derived from Linguistics ..........................................................................250 Contrastive Analysis ..............................................................................................250 Universal Grammar and SLA ................................................................................251 Distinctive L2 Views .......................................................................................................251 Krashens Input Hypothesis Model........ ................................................................252 European Models ...................................................................................................252 Using Different Areas of Linguistics ...............................................................................253 Phonetics and Phonology in SLA Research.......... ................................................. 254 Sociolinguistics in SLA Research..... ......................................................................255 The Methodology of SLA Research .................................................................................256 Questioning Linguistic Ideas in Second Language Acquisition Research ........................257 The Dominance of Speech .....................................................................................257 The Preeminence of the Monolingual Native Speaker ............................................259 Conclusion .....................................................................................................................260 List of Key Words and Concepts ....................................................................................260 Internet Sites Related to Linguistics and Bilingualism ...................................................260 Discussion Questions ......................................................................................................261 Suggested Research Projects ............................................................................................261 References .......................................................................................................................261 12 Second Language Acquisition and Bilingualism .....................................................265 SUSAN GASS AND MARGO GLEW Introduction: Definition of Terms .................................................................................266 Native Speaker ......................................................................................................266 Near-Native Speaker..... ........................................................................................ 267 Advanced Language Learner.... ............................................................................. 268 Heritage Language Speaker .................................................................................. 269 Second Language Learner.................... ..................................................................270 Second Language Speaker.. ....................................................................................270 Bilingual ................................................................................................................270 Multilingual ..........................................................................................................271 Conclusion ............................................................................................................271 Creating a Language System .......................................................................................... 272 The Nature of the Developing System........ ........................................................... 272 Dynamic...... ......................................................................................................... 272 Systematic. ............................................................................................................ 272 Stages of Development... ....................................................................................... 273 Prefabricated Patterns ........................................................................................... 273 U-Shaped Learning ...............................................................................................275 The Starting Point ................................................................................................275 The Role of the LI .................................................................................................276 End Point .............................................................................................................278 Input, Interaction, Output .............................................................................................280 Input .....................................................................................................................280 Interaction ............................................................................................................282 Output ..................................................................................................................285 Individual Factors ..........................................................................................................287 Summary and Conclusion .............................................................................................288 List of Key Words and Concepts ....................................................................................288 Internet Sites Related to Second Language Acquisition .................................................. 288 Discussion Questions ..................................................................................................... 288 Suggested Research Projects ........................................................................................... 290 Suggested Readings ....................................................................................................... 290 References ......................................................................................................................290 13 Primary Language Impairments in Bilingual Children and Adults ........................295 KATHRYN KOHNERT Introduction to Language Impairments and Language Proficiency ................................295 Primary or Specific Language Impairment in Monolingual Children .........................297 SLI and Children Learning Two Languages .................................................................299 SLI and Typically Developing Bilinguals: Areas of Overlap .................................299 SLI and Typically Developing Bilinguals: Points of Divergence .............................301 Are Children with SLI Capable of Learning Two Languages? ..............................303 Acquired Aphasia in Monolingual Adults ......................................................................304 Aphasia in Bilingual Adults ..........................................................................................307 Relative Type and Severity of Cross-Linguistic Impairment .................................307 Bilingualism and Cognition in Aphasia ................................................................309 Connections between Languages in Bilingual Aphasia ..................................................311 Summary and Conclusion ..............................................................................................313 List of Key Words and Concepts .....................................................................................314 Internet Sites Related to Primary Language Impairments ..............................................314 Discussion Questions .....................................................................................................315 Suggested Research Projects ............................................................................................315 Suggested Readings ........................................................................................................316 Author Notes ..................................................................................................................316 References .......................................................................................................................317 14 Bilingual Education in the United States .................................................................321 EUGENE E. GARCIA Introduction ...................................................................................................................321 Who Are These Students? .............................................................................................. 322 Education Comes in Diverse Shapes and Forms for U.S. Bilinguals .............................. 322 Schooling Practices ........................................................................................................323 The Debate ...........................................................................................................323 Myth 1: English Is Losing Ground to Other Languages in the United States ..........................................................................................324 Myth 2: Newcomers to the United States Are Learning English More Slowly Now than in Previous Generations .................................324 Myth 3: The Best Way to Learn a Language Is through Total Immersion ................................................................................324 Myth 4: School Districts Provide Bilingual Instruction in Scores of Native Languages .......................................................................324 Myth 5: Bilingual Education Means Instruction Mainly in Students Native Languages, with Little Instruction in English... ..............325 Myth 6: Bilingual Education Is Far More Costly than English Language Instruction. ................................................................325 Myth 7: Disproportionate Dropout Rates for Hispanic Students Demonstrate the Failure of Bilingual Education ........................325 Myth 8: Language-Minority Parents Do Not Support Bilingual Education because They Feel It Is More Important for Their Children to Learn English than to Maintain the Native Language ................................................................................... 326 What Works: Optimal Instruction and Learning Features ............................................ 326 Foster English Acquisition and the Development of Mature Literacy ............327 Deliver Grade-Level Content ..........................................................................327 Organize Instruction in Innovative Ways ......................................................328 Protect and Extend Instructional Time ..........................................................328 Expand the Roles and Responsibilities of Teachers ........................................328 Address Students Social and Emotional Needs .............................................328 Involve Parents in Their Children s Education ...............................................328 Dual Language Programs ......................................................................................329 Beyond Language ..................................................................................................331 English Language Development, in a Bilingual Program ......................................332 Developing Academic English in U.S. Bilinguals ...............................................333 Policies Generated in Bilingual Education ......................................................................335 What Are the Rights of Language Minority Students? .........................................335 Summary and Conclusion ............................................................................................. 336 List of Key Words and Concepts .....................................................................................337 Internet Sites Related to Bilingual Education .................................................................337 Discussion Questions ......................................................................................................337 Suggested Research Projects ............................................................................................337 Suggested Readings ........................................................................................................338 References.......... .............................................................................................................338 Author Index....... ...........................................„.„,„„■„.,.„.„.,„„..„.,...„..,. 345 Subject Index .......................„.„„.„„,.,„„„„„„.,.„..„,„„„„..„.„„.„„„.„„„ 359
adam_txt	Contents Contributors .xv Preface .xvii Acknowledgments .xix SECTION I INTRODUCTION: THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL BACKGROUND 1 Introduction .3 JEANETTE ALTARRIBA AND ROBERTO R. HEREDIA Aspects of Bilingualism .3 Why Study Bilingualism? .5 Overview: Chapters 2-14.8 Summary .10 References .10 2 Bilingual Research Methods .,.13 VIORICA MARIAN Bilingual Research Methods: Introduction . 13 Designing a Research Project with Bilinguals .14 Observational and Experimental Studies . 15 Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research. . 16 Independent Variables, Dependent Variables, and Confounding Variables. 17 Operational Definitions, Reliability, and Validity. .18 Between-Group, Within-Group, and Mixed Designs. . 20 How Methodology Can Drive Outcomes in Bilingual Research. .21 Representation and Processing of Languages in Bilinguals. .21 Cortical Organization of Languages in Bilinguals . 23 Language Development in Bilingual Children . 24 Methodological Considerations . 26 Selection of Languages . 26 Selection of Participants . 28 Selection of Tasks and Stimuli .29 Running the Experiment .31 Summary and Conclusion: The Journey to Scientific Paper .31 List of Key Words and Concepts .33 Internet Sites Related to Bilingual Research .33 Discussion Questions .33 Suggested Research Projects .33 Suggested Readings . 34 Author Notes .34 References .34 3 Mental Models of Bilingual Memory .39 ROBERTO R. HEREDIA Introduction .39 Memory or Multiple Memories .40 Bilingual Memory: One or Two Memory Systems .41 Evidence for the Interdependence Hypothesis .42 Evidence for the Independence Hypothesis .45 Compound versus Coordinate Bilingualism .49 Bilingual Dual-Coding Theory .50 Hierarchical Models .53 Word Association and Concept Mediation Models .53 The Revised Hierarchical Model .55 Distributed Conceptual Feature Model .57 Representations at the Word Type Level .57 Bilingual Interactive Model .60 Summary and Conclusion .61 List of Key Words and Concepts .62 Internet Sites Related to Bilingual Memory .62 Discussion Questions .62 Suggested Research Projects .63 Author Notes .64 References .64 SECTION II COGNITIVE AND NEUROLOGICAL MECHANISMS 4 The Psycholinguistics of Bilingualism .71 JENNIFER L. GIANICO AND JEANETTE ALTARRIBA А В rief Introduction .71 Levels of Analysis in Cross-Language Psycholinguist«: Research .72 Phonology .72 Semantic Processing .75 Morphology and the Study of Form .77 Syntax . л .79 Pragmatics and Discourse in Comparative Psycholinguistics .81 Language in Context .82 Constraints in Bilingual Sentence Processing .82 Lexical Ambiguity across Languages .83 Language-Nonselective View .84 The Production of Language .85 Code-Switching and Its Implications .86 Sign Languages across Cultures. .89 Language Learning .90 Learning a Second Language . 90 The Critical Period Hypothesis. .91 Language and Culture .93 The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Revisited: Linguistic Determinism and Relativity .93 Color Terms and Categorization across Cultures . 94 Other Lexical Categories . 95 Figurative Language Processing. .96 Summary and Conclusion . 98 List of Key Words and Concepts . 99 Internet Sites Related to the Psycholinguistics of Bilingualism .99 Discussion Questions .99 Suggested Research Projects .100 Suggested Readings .100 References .101 Bilingualism and Aging .105 ROBERT W. SCHRAUF Explanatory Theories in Cognitive Aging .105 Monolingual Aging .106 Verbal/Auditory Deficits .106 Word-Level Recognition and Retrieval .106 Syntactic Processing .107 Constructing the Text Base and Situation Model .108 Discourse and Conversation .109 Summary: Cognitive Deficits and Monolingualism. .109 Bilingual Aging .109 Factors Specific to Bilingualism. .110 Language Attrition .110 Language Environment . 110 Language Proficiency. . 110 Frequency of Use . Ill Hypotheses. . Ill Hypothesis One: Age-Related Patterns of Decline and Preservation Will Be Seen in Bilinguals Just as They Are Seen in Monolinguals. .112 Hypothesis Two: Age-Related Patterns of Decline and/or Preservation Will Be the Same in Both Languages for Older Bilinguals .113 Hypothesis Three: The Unique Language-Switching Ability of Bilinguals Plays a Special Role in Bilingual Aging . 115 Methodological Notes on Existing Studies on Bilingual Aging . 116 Explanatory Models and Age Effects on Second Language Processing .117 Automatic and Controlled Processing .117 The Activation Threshold Hypothesis (ΑΤΗ) .118 Effects of Aging on Second Languages .119 Slowed Processing Speed .120 Shrinking Working Memory.120 Inhibitory Deficits . 120 Declining Sensory Function .121 Summary and Conclusion .121 List of Key Words . 122 Internet Sites Related to Bilingualism and Aging . 122 Discussion Questions . 123 Suggested Research Project .123 Suggested Readings . 123 Author Notes .,.123 References . 123 6 The Bilingual Brain: What Is Right and What Is Left? .129 JYOTSNAVAID Why the Bilingual Brain? . 130 Sources of Evidence .131 Aphasia .131 Electro-Cortical Stimulation Mapping .132 Behavioral Laterality Measures .134 Neurobehavioral Measures .135 Hemodynamic Neuroimaging Studies .136 Toward Convergence .138 Summary and Conclusion .139 List of Key Words and Concepts .140 Internet Sites Related to the Bilingual Brain .140 Discussion Questions .140 Suggested Research Projects .141 Suggested Readings .141 Author Notes .141 References .141 SECTION III CREATIVITY AND DEVELOPMENTAL PRINCIPLES 7 Bilingualism and Creativity .,.147 DEAN KEITH SIMONTON Introduction .147 Empirical Findings .148 Historiometric Research .148 Aggregate Level .148 Individual Level .149 Psychometric Research .150 Positive Support .150 Ambiguous Support .151 Methodological Considerations .151 Psychometric Assessments .152 Conceptual Definitions .153 Study Participants .153 Research Designs .154 Confounding Variables . 155 Theoretical Interpretations .156 Causal Effects .156 Spurious Relations .158 Summary and Conclusion . 159 List of Key Words and Concepts. . 161 Internet Sites Related to Bilingualism and Creativity. . 161 Discussion Questions .161 Suggested Research Projects .162 Suggested Readings .163 References .163 8 Bilingualism and Language Cognitive Development .167 ELENA NICOLADIS Delay in Language Development .169 Acceleration in Language Development .171 Cross-Linguistic Transfer .172 Cognitive Differences .173 Summary and Conclusion .176 List of Key Words and Concepts .177 Internet Sites Related to Development and Bilingualism .177 Discussion Questions .178 Suggested Research Projects .178 Suggested Readings .178 References .179 SECTION IV SOCIAL AND SOCIOCULTURAL PROCESSES 9 Social Psychological Approaches to Bilingualism . 185 LUIS A. VEGA The Influence of Social Context on Bilingualism. 185 Bilingualism and Social Identity: A Reciprocal Relationship ,.,.,.,.,.,,,.,.186 Assimilation and Acculturation Forces .187 Bilingualism and Language Shift Processes. .188 Bilingualism and Attitudes: Stereotypes and Status. .189 Attitudes and Bilingualism .189 Stereotypes and Bilingualism: Not All Negative .190 Status and Enhancing/Inhibiting Factors of Bilingualism . 191 Intergroup Influences on Bilingualism . 191 Social Expectations and Normative Influences .192 Social Power and Group Dominance .192 Social Conflict and Group Negotiation .192 Bilingualism as Social Reality .193 Biology and Context Effects .193 The Role of Culture in Bilingualism .194 Bilingualism: Social Independence or Dependence? .194 Summary and Conclusion .194 List of Key Words and Concepts .196 Internet Sites Related to Social Psychology and Language .196 Discussion Questions .196 Suggested Research Projects .196 Suggested Readings: Classic Readings in Social Psychology and Language .197 References .197 10 The Social and Cultural Contexts of Bilingualism .199 FLAVIA C. PERÉA AND CYNTHIA GARCÍA COLL Introduction .200 The U.S. Historical Context and the Absence of a National Language Policy .201 U.S. Expansion, Americanization, and the Diversification of the United States .203 Immigration, Language Diversity, and the U.S. Response .207 The Post-1965 Immigration .212 Population Change in the United States Today .212 Growth among Language Minorities .213 Case Study: Latin American Immigration .214 Concerns Regarding Bilingualism and the Social and Cultural Integration of Latinos. .216 Latinos, Language, and Fear .219 Federal Recognition and Protection of Language Minority Rights .220 The Bilingual Education Act .221 Lau v.Nichols .221 Bilingual Elections and the Voting Rights Act .222 The English-Only Movement and English-Only Laws .224 Language Laws and Policies at the Federal Level .226 Hernandez v. New York .226 Executive Order 13166.227 Language Laws and Policies at the State and Local Levels .227 The Education of Language Minority Students .228 Discussion: The Social and Cultural Contexts of Language Conflict . 232 Summary and Conclusion .234 Endnotes.236 List of Key Words and Concepts . 237 Internet Sites Related to the Social and Cultural Contexts of Bilingualism . 237 Discussion Questions . 237 Suggested Readings . 238 References .238 SECTION V LINGUISTIC PRINCIPLES AND APPLIED PERSPECTIVES 11 Linguistic Contributions to Bilingualism .245 VIVIAN COOK Introduction .246 Comparing Linguistics and SLA Research .246 Views of Language and Views of Second Language Acquisition .248 Competence and SLA .248 Overall Views of Learning . 249 SLA Theories Derived from Linguistics .250 Contrastive Analysis .250 Universal Grammar and SLA .251 Distinctive L2 Views .251 Krashens Input Hypothesis Model. .252 European Models .252 Using Different Areas of Linguistics .253 Phonetics and Phonology in SLA Research. . 254 Sociolinguistics in SLA Research. .255 The Methodology of SLA Research .256 Questioning Linguistic Ideas in Second Language Acquisition Research .257 The Dominance of Speech .257 The Preeminence of the Monolingual Native Speaker .259 Conclusion .260 List of Key Words and Concepts .260 Internet Sites Related to Linguistics and Bilingualism .260 Discussion Questions .261 Suggested Research Projects .261 References .261 12 Second Language Acquisition and Bilingualism .265 SUSAN GASS AND MARGO GLEW Introduction: Definition of Terms .266 Native Speaker .266 Near-Native Speaker. . 267 Advanced Language Learner. . 268 Heritage Language Speaker . 269 Second Language Learner. .270 Second Language Speaker. .270 Bilingual .270 Multilingual .271 Conclusion .271 Creating a Language System . 272 The Nature of the Developing System. . 272 Dynamic. . 272 Systematic. . 272 Stages of Development. . 273 Prefabricated Patterns . 273 U-Shaped Learning .275 The Starting Point .275 The Role of the LI .276 End Point .278 Input, Interaction, Output .280 Input .280 Interaction .282 Output .285 Individual Factors .287 Summary and Conclusion .288 List of Key Words and Concepts .288 Internet Sites Related to Second Language Acquisition . 288 Discussion Questions . 288 Suggested Research Projects . 290 Suggested Readings . 290 References .290 13 Primary Language Impairments in Bilingual Children and Adults .295 KATHRYN KOHNERT Introduction to Language Impairments and Language Proficiency .295 Primary or "Specific" Language Impairment in Monolingual Children .297 SLI and Children Learning Two Languages .299 SLI and Typically Developing Bilinguals: Areas of Overlap .299 SLI and Typically Developing Bilinguals: Points of Divergence .301 Are Children with SLI Capable of Learning Two Languages? .303 Acquired Aphasia in Monolingual Adults .304 Aphasia in Bilingual Adults .307 Relative Type and Severity of Cross-Linguistic Impairment .307 Bilingualism and Cognition in Aphasia .309 Connections between Languages in Bilingual Aphasia .311 Summary and Conclusion .313 List of Key Words and Concepts .314 Internet Sites Related to Primary Language Impairments .314 Discussion Questions .315 Suggested Research Projects .315 Suggested Readings .316 Author Notes .316 References .317 14 Bilingual Education in the United States .321 EUGENE E. GARCIA Introduction .321 Who Are These Students? . 322 Education Comes in Diverse Shapes and Forms for U.S. Bilinguals . 322 Schooling Practices .323 The Debate .323 Myth 1: English Is Losing Ground to Other Languages in the United States .324 Myth 2: Newcomers to the United States Are Learning English More Slowly Now than in Previous Generations .324 Myth 3: The Best Way to Learn a Language Is through "Total Immersion" .324 Myth 4: School Districts Provide Bilingual Instruction in Scores of Native Languages .324 Myth 5: Bilingual Education Means Instruction Mainly in Students' Native Languages, with Little Instruction in English. .325 Myth 6: Bilingual Education Is Far More Costly than English Language Instruction. .325 Myth 7: Disproportionate Dropout Rates for Hispanic Students Demonstrate the Failure of Bilingual Education .325 Myth 8: Language-Minority Parents Do Not Support Bilingual Education because They Feel It Is More Important for Their Children to Learn English than to Maintain the Native Language . 326 What Works: Optimal Instruction and Learning Features . 326 Foster English Acquisition and the Development of Mature Literacy .327 Deliver Grade-Level Content .327 Organize Instruction in Innovative Ways .328 Protect and Extend Instructional Time .328 Expand the Roles and Responsibilities of Teachers .328 Address Students' Social and Emotional Needs .328 Involve Parents in Their Children's Education .328 Dual Language Programs .329 Beyond Language .331 English Language Development, in a Bilingual Program .332 Developing "Academic" English in U.S. Bilinguals .333 Policies Generated in Bilingual Education .335 What Are the Rights of Language Minority Students? .335 Summary and Conclusion . 336 List of Key Words and Concepts .337 Internet Sites Related to Bilingual Education .337 Discussion Questions .337 Suggested Research Projects .337 Suggested Readings .338 References. .338 Author Index. .„.„,„„■„.,.„.„.,„„.„.,.„.,. 345 Subject Index .„.„„.„„,.,„„„„„„.,.„.„,„„„„.„.„„.„„„.„„„ 359
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title	An introduction to bilingualism principles and processes
title_alt	Bilingualism
title_auth	An introduction to bilingualism principles and processes
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title_short	An introduction to bilingualism
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