Minski rat u Bosni i Hercegovini:
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Bosnian |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Bihać
Grafičar
2006
|
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Beschreibung: | Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Mine action war in Bosnia and Hercegovina |
| Beschreibung: | 299 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 9958781182 |
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| 500 | |a Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Mine action war in Bosnia and Hercegovina | ||
| 648 | 7 | |a Geschichte 1992-1995 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf | |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804136615862337536 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | SADRŽAJ
Riječ autora
.................................................................... 3
Predgovor
..................................................................... 5
UVOD
......................................................................... 7
Mine kao svjetski problem
..................................................... 7
POGLAVLJE
1.
Sredstva i način vođenja minskog rata
........................................ 17
1.1.
Historijski razvoj kopnenih mina
...................................... 19
1.2.
Upotreba mina u konvencionalnim ratovima
.......................... 26
1.3.
Upotreba mina u sukobima poslije
II.
svjetskog rata
................... 38
POGLAVLJE
2.
Upotreba mina u ratu
1992.-1995............................................. 43
2.1.
Vrste i način postavljanja mina u
ВІН
1992.-1995.
godine
............. 45
2.2.
Procjena broja mina i minirana područja u
ВІН
....................... 59
2.3.
Problem neeksplodiranih ubojitih sredstava u Bosni i Hercegovini
— 65
POGLAVLJE
3.
Međunarodno ratno pravo i upotreba mina
................................... 77
3.1.
Broj zaostalih mina, površina zagađenog zemljišta,
proizvodnja, skladištenje i trgovina minama
........................... 79
3.2.
Međunarodno ratno pravo i kopnene mine
............................ 83
3.3.
Međunarodna borba za zabranu protivpješadijskih mina
............. 108
3.4.
Uklanjanje i čišćenje mina
............................................ 115
POGLAVLJE
4.
Posljedice minskog rata u Bosni i Hercegovini
............................... 127
4.1.
Statistika žrtava, rizične djelatnosti i opasna mjesta
................... 129
4.2.
Broj i struktura žrtava od mina u
ВІН
................................ 135
4.3.
Posljedice upotrebe mina u Bosni i Hercegovini
...................... 145
POGLAVLJE
5.
Protivminske akcije u Bosni i Hercegovini
................................... 167
5.1.
Osnovne karakteristike i vrste protivminskih akcija u BiH
............ 169
5.2.
Strategija protivminskih akcija u Bosni i Hercegovini
................. 174
5.3.
Zakon i Standardi za provođenje protivminskih akcija u BiH
......... 187
5.4.
Organizacija
i provođenje
protivminskih
akcija u
ВІН ................
197
5.5.
Upozoravanje na mine, sastavni dio protivminskih akcija u BiH
...... 214
5.6.
Doprinos međunarodne zajednice provođenju
protivminskih akcija u BiH
........................................... 219
POGLAVLJE
6.
Upute za smanjenje rizika od mina u ugroženim zajednicama BiH
........... 221
6.1.
Kome su namijenjene upute za smanjenje rizika
od mina u ugroženim zajednicama
................................... 223
6.2.
Šta su mine i kako ih prepoznati
...................................... 224
6.3.
Neeksplodirana ubojita sredstva
...................................... 225
6.4.
Način aktiviranja mina
............................................... 226
6.5.
Posljedice aktiviranja mina
........................................... 227
6.6.
Zašto dolazi do nesreća od mina
..................................... 228
6.7.
Način ponašanja u ugroženim zajednicama
........................... 230
6.8.
Opasna područja u ugroženim zajednicama
.......................... 231
6.9.
Znaci prisutnosti mina u ugroženim zajednicama
.................... 232
6.10.
Znaci i način obilježavanja
.......................................... 233
6.11.
Način označavanja ugroženog područja
............................. 235
6.12.
Postupak ako se uđe u ugrožena područja
........................... 236
6.13.
Postupak prilikom nailaska vozilom na minu
........................ 237
6.14.
Ako dođe do aktiviranja mine, kako pomoći žrtvi
................... 238
6.15.
Pogrešna razmišljanja vezana za mine
............................... 239
6.16.
Osnovna pravila ponašanja u ugroženoj zajednici:
NE DIRAJTE, NE PRILAZITE, NE ULAZITE, ZAPAMTITE!!!
........... 241
Ima li kraja ratu poslije rata (Umjesto zaključka)
............................. 243
Mine Action War in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Summary)
.................... 253
Skraćenice
................................................................... 277
Literatura....................................................................
279
Biografija
.................................................................... 281
Izvodi iz pisama podrške tokom istraživanja
i završnog oblikovanja knjige
................................................ 283
Izvodi iz mišljenja
о
knjizi
................................................... 287
Indeks
....................................................................... 295
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
Mine Action
War in Bosnia and Herzegovina
(Summary)
Numerous local and world war conflicts in the twentieth century in almost
all continents have left millions of unidentified and unexploded landmines. In an
attempt to make them even more dangerous and malignant, contemporary man
has made them technologically perfect. Thence, they have become one of the most
serious problems of our planet, with long-term consequences, such as endangerment
of millions of human lives, environment and society.
According to the statistical assessment of the eminent world experts, number
of planted and still active landmines is estimated to
85-200
millions, which can be
found in over
70
countries in the world.
Smaller number of planted landmines originates form World War II, while
larger number originates from war conflicts waged after World War II, of which
65
millions were planted in local war conflicts waged in period
1978-1994.
It is very
important to add to this number almost exactly the same number of stockpiles of
landmines, thus presenting potential threat and further endangering our planet.
Annual global landmine production is estimated to
5-Ю
millions. In period
1970-1995,
total landmine production was
255
millions, of which
190
millions of
antipersonnel mines. Around hundred private and state companies and government
agencies form fifty countries all over the world produce approximately
700
different
types of landmines, of which
340-360
types of antipersonnel mines.
The largest antipersonnel mine producers are Russian, Chinese, and Italian
companies and agencies. In terms of number of developed types of landmines, the
lead position has USA
37,
followed by Italy
36,
former
SSSR
31,
Sweden
21,
Vietnam
18,
Germany
18,
Austria
16,
former SFRY
15,
France
14,
China
12,
and Great
Britain with
9
different types of antipersonnel mines. Landmine production very
often becomes an important export business. The biggest landmine exporters are at
the same time the biggest producers. Approximately
85%
of the landmines planted
in war conflicts are not produced in the countries that are involved in the conflict
itself. It is estimated that
35
countries are exporting antipersonnel mines.
Although they were involved in war conflicts with quite a few of these
countries, and despite the several years long embargo and isolation of their country
in International Community, Iraqis have planted landmines produced in Belgium,
Canada, China, India, Iran, Italy, Pakistan, USA, former
SSSR,
former SFRY, as well
as locally produced versions of Italian and Soviet landmines.
In the global market of landmines, annual turnover is
50-200
millions USD,
which compared to global annual turnover of all weapons equals to
0,25-1 %.
The
cause of these circumstances is low price of landmines, especially antipersonnel
253
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I
HERCEGOVII
mines, which is the consequence of their simple and cheap production technology.
The price of the simplest type of landmine in the global market is around
3
dollars,
while more complex ones can reach price up to
7-25
dollars. While supply and
planting are noticeably cheap, relatively simple and mostly safe, mine removal is
very expensive, complicated, and extremely dangerous.
Having in mind technical characteristics, the largest number of planted
landmines is still active and dangerous, thus causing tragedies for humans, their
families, and society as a whole. Due to their long-term functioning, and slow,
but constant victim accumulation they became known as the weapon for mass
destruction in slow motion .
In terms of world danger, remnant landmines are not distributed according
to geographic evenness criteria in the world regions. They can usually be found
in areas and countries that used to be war conflict arenas. This group of countries
usually consists of poor countries with the lowest national per capita income.
Four continents or six huge world regions (Africa, Middle East, Europe,
East Asia, South Asia, and Latin America) are still burdened with consequences of
remnant landmines.
Seven most endangered countries of the world are: Afghanistan, Angola,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cambodia, Iraq, Croatia, and Mozambique.
Number of mine victims after World War II has already exceeded number
of victims of nerve gases and nuclear weapons in both world wars. The latest
assessments show that landmines kill and injure every
22
minutes, which means
that
26.000
people every year are being killed or permanently disabled. Number
of mine victims is increasing every year, so that in period
1990-1994
number of
mine victims was twice as big as that in period
1980-1984.
The reasons for this
situation are: large number of mines (app.
2
millions per year) was planted in last
20
years, their uncontrolled planting, and inappropriate recording and marking of
the mined areas.
Of the total number of mine victims,
40 %
are killed and
60 %
are injured.
Comparison of civilian and military victims shows that number of civilian victims
is eight times bigger than military victims. This relation in Afghanistan adds up to
74 %,
in Mozambique
68 %,
and in Cambodia
66 %
of civilian victims.
In terms of gender and age, the most common mine victims are men
15-60
years of age. They present
69 %
of all mine victims. The second group is children up
to
15
years
(20 %),
third group are women (around
7 %),
while the smallest group
are men over
60
years of age (around
4 %).
Of the total number of planted landmines,
75 %
are hard to locate, and
present constant threat for the humanity. These remarks present terrifying statistical
facts, with which the world is losing a battle. Mine removal process is extremely
254
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
demanding, dangerous, and long, which prolongs mine danger for humanity for the
next hundred years.
In Cambodia, where mine fields are the thickest in the world, in past seven
years only
3,3 %
of
6
millions planted landmines have been cleaned. It is estimated
that to remove all landmines in Cambodia it would take
212
years. After
20
years of
war operations in Angola, there are
10
millions of remnant landmines, which is the
population number of the country. This indicates that Angola has one landmine per
each man, woman, and child that live there. In Afghanistan,
530
km2 of the country
is contaminated with
10
millions of landmines. Its capital city Kabul is the most
contaminated city in the world.
Everyday mine and UXO casualties do not lead Bosnia and Herzegovina
towards standardization that European Union is demanding. It is a very disturbing
fact that, besides implementation of Demining Strategy in BH, the state and its
institutions have not yet established actual activities, ways, and access to mine and
unexploded ordnance problem, as well as financing mine danger removal with the
purpose of protecting its citizens, economy, and exploitation of natural resources.
Humanitarian demining and other mine actions present capital investment
in socio-economic development of the postwar Bosnia and Herzegovina. It at the
same time presents an effective instrument against poverty.
War in Bosnia and Herzegovina is the last one in series of war conflicts in
which a mass landmine use occurred. This country is in the fourth place among
seven most endangered countries in the world, and in the first place in Europe.
Of total territory of BH,
4,2 %
is contaminated with landmines. Specificity that
emphasizes its difference in relation to most other countries with mine problems
is presence of landmines in areas that are of vital importance for normal living:
residence, infrastructure, agriculture, and overall reconstruction of the country.
It should be noted that horrifying war dynamics comes and goes, but mine
action war continues in spite of everything, because landmines are still there to kill
and disable. Time can not harm them. For decades they are waiting for their victims
to hurt them, and very frequently take their lives.
Mine clearance is a very expensive process, so in some countries its price
very often reaches the amount of hundred millions of dollars. Besides human
casualties, there are other consequences of landmine use, i.e. destruction of
infrastructure such as power system, water supply, and communication system,
whose nonuse is causing great damage and costs. Several years long inability of
cultivation of fertile agricultural lands caused discontinuities in implementation
of repatriation process.
Unfortunately, our country is facing a similar problem in terms of mines
and unexploded ordnance. The cruelty of the three years long war in Bosnia and
255
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
Herzegovina
place
our country in the first place among twenty-eight European
countries, and among seven most contaminated countries in the world.
During the landmine planting process in war one has neglected every human,
moral, sociological, demographic, ecological, economic, and other criterion. As if
the end of the world was near, and no one has ever planned to be born, live, walk,
work, or produce in this unfortunate country of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The last estimates show that the size of suspected area in BH is
5,26 %
of
the total area. Up to now, experts defined
14.552
microlocations. Research has
determined that
1.366
communities in
128
municipalities are affected by mines and
unexploded ordnance. It is estimated that locations contaminated with mines and
unexploded ordnance directly affect the safety of about
1.375.807
citizens of Bosnia
and Herzegovina, of which
100.187
live in high impacted communities,
594.143
in
medium impacted communities, and
681.477
in low impacted communities.
Of total number of mine impacted communities in BH,
154
or
11 %
are
highly impacted,
696
or
51 %
are medium impacted, and
516
or
38 %
are low
impacted communities. World average in relation to high impacted communities is
10 %,
while
30 %
is for medium impacted communities. Having in mind number
of impacted communities and level of endangerment, Bosnia and Herzegovina is
included amongst the most endangered countries in the world.
Research results indicate that
85 %
of the members of the communities live
in rural areas, of which
50 %
are communities oriented towards agriculture and use
of natural resources, while in
40 %
of the communities, infrastructure is blocked by
contaminated water ways, power and communication infrastructure, water plant and
underground sewer systems, and other resources necessary for sustainable living.
In period
1996-2003,
area of
48
km2 was cleaned in BH. Annual clearance level
is
5,5-7
km2. Nevertheless, available resources for humanitarian demining indicate
that there are sufficient and stable capacities for larger extent of humanitarian
demining operations then in previous years. So far, only
20 %
of the total available
capacities have been used.
This kind of dangerous living in BH has a very negative influence on overall
positive factors, delays repatriation process and postpones creation of preconditions
for sustainable living. It also prevents efforts of national and international
institutions to make BH a normal country, and bring it closer to European Union
integrations, where its citizens would be able to implement their basic human
rights: to work, and live a dignified life.
Numerousness of planted landmines, the fact that their planting during the
war was implemented without supervision, enormous number of mine casualties,
as well as disturbing social, economic,
ecologie,
and other consequences have all
encouraged International Community, together with the Governments of many
256
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
foreign countries, and non-governmental and humanitarian organizations, to
initiate a fight against antipersonnel mines.
At the head of this fight are Canada, International Committee of the
Red Cross, and International Campaign to Ban Landmines (association of
non-governmental organizations). Joint efforts and actions of one country, one
international humanitarian organization, and one association of non-governmental
organizations have encouraged numerous organizations and various members of
the International Community to introduce the first comprehensive and legally
imposed international action to ban antipersonnel mines, i.e. Convention on the
Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Antipersonnel
Mines and on their Destruction, also known as the Ottawa Convention. Global
humanitarian objectives of these activities are absolute prohibition of antipersonnel
mines, additional mine victims assistance, and larger quantity of mine removal.
On Conference in Ottawa on
3
and
4
December
1997, 122
countries signed
the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer
of Antipersonnel Mines and on their Destruction.
Ottawa Convention was ratified and entered into force in the following
countries:
•
Countries that initiated the idea to ban antipersonnel mines and consistent
participants of the Ottawa Conference: Canada, Norway, Austria, Belgium,
and South African Republic;
•
Countries that are amongst the most endangered in the world: Mozambique,
Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina;
•
Countries that are significant producers and exporters of the antipersonnel
mines: France, Germany, and Great Britain.
Convention was ratified and acceded by all members of NATO Pact, except
for the United States of America and Turkey. Furthermore, all countries members of
the European Union ratified the Convention, except for Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and
Poland. The list of countries that did not sign the Convention consists of countries
that are at the same time the largest landmine producers and possess stockpiles of
antipersonnel mines. These are United Stares of America, Russia, China, India, and
Pakistan. Thus far,
141
countries signed and ratified the Ottawa Convention, with
nine more countries who signed, but not yet ratified the Convention.
Bosnia and Herzegovina signed the Ottawa Convention on
3
December
1997
and its Parliament ratified it on
8
September
1998.
On
1
March
1999,
the
Convention entered into force and became obligatory Convention for Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
By signing Ottawa Convention, Bosnia and Herzegovina committed to clear
all contaminated areas as soon as possible, not later than March
2009.
Ifit
fails to do
257
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
so, it can ask for the extension of the deadline from the other countries signatories
of the Convention.
Statistical data about overall war casualties in BH are inadequate and not
reliable. According to the results of the research,
328.000
persons were killed or
missing in period
1992-1995
in BH. Figures that emphasize high number of victims
as a war consequence are primarily a result of character and objectives of war waged
inBH.
Statistical structure of victims based on empirical methods and patterns
does not exist, which brings us to conclusion that the state is avoiding any public
statements about exact number of victims. In the early phase of the war conflict,
it became clear that the conduct of the military groups and militias, mass terror
over the citizens and implementation of genocide politics, have all predetermined
the character of the war in which the highest numbers of victims (around
85 %)
are civilians. The same statement can also be applied on exact number of mine
casualties in BH. There are numerous reasons for this: absence of central database
in Bosnia and Herzegovina, different approaches to mine problem in the two
Entities, and discrepancies of standardized documentation about mine victims and
provided medical care in health institutions to which the victims belong.
In period between
1992
until the end of the war in
1995, 3.364
mine victims
were registered in Bosnia and Herzegovina, meaning that monthly average was
80
mine victims. Of the total
3.346
mine victims,
1.508
victims were registered in
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and
1.838
in Republic of
Srpska.
In period
1996-2004,
number of victims was
1.522,
monthly average being
14
mine victims.
Of total
1.522
mine victims,
1.069
victims were registered in Federation of Bosnia
and Herzegovina, and
453
in Republic of
Srpska.
Monthly average of mine victims is constantly declining, and in
2004
it was
3,58
mine victims per month. This declining trend is partially due to positive effects
of the mine actions. Nevertheless, it would be wrong to conclude that based on
these data there would be no mine victims in the future years.
From the beginning of war up to the end of
2004, 4.868
persons have been
injured or killed by mines and unexploded ordnance in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In period
1996-2004,
there were
1.522
mine casualties, of which
428
were death
casualties.
According to the research of International Committee of the Red Cross,
42 %
of mine casualties are men of age
19
to
39, 28 %
are adults of age
40
to
60, 22 %
are
children under
18,
and the rest
8 %
are persons older than
61
years of age.
Ratio between injured and killed in
1996
was
5:1,
but it gradually became
equal in the following years. For instance, in
2004,
of total
43
mine victims,
27
were
injured, and
16
killed. Reasons for this situation are manifold. The root cause of
258
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
the largest number of death casualties that occurred in past few years is landmine
PROM-l. It caused
48 %
of total
deminers
mine accidents.
In period after the war
1996-2004,
the most injured were civilians of age
19-
39,
who consciously enter mine fields to exploit natural resources, because their
economic situation is not offering an alternative solution to their existence. They
account for
42 %
of all mine victims, and are the most endangered category of
population. Children younger than
18
account for
22 %
of total mine victims.
Seasonal variations indicate that the highest number of mine accidents
happen at the beginning of spring, in March and April. Persons that didn t leave
their residence during the war represented the most affected communities up until
2003.
The situation changed in
2003,
and number of victims among repatriates
rapidly increased. This is understandable, since
2003
was the year of intensive
repatriation in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and this population was not adequately
informed about the existing mine danger.
All past indicators of mine victims testify that landmines do not choose their
victims according to nationality, religion, gender, or age. This evil will remain here
for the future generations.
Mine victims are persons with permanent disabilities, not capable of leading
a normal life. Their injuries will most likely remain unhealed until the rest of their
lives, which creates sense of helplessness and dependence. Physical injuries usually
carry physiological consequences, which are much harder to heal. They require
long-term and very expensive treatment.
Mine victims, especially heavily injured and disabled, present enormous
economical and social burden for society as a whole. Undeveloped and still
insufficient medical infrastructure is burdened by providing for thousands of
seriously ill persons, whose treatments are long, repetitive, and expensive.
War injuries are unique and they differ from all others, mine injuries being
the most complex and most demanding. From a medical point of view, mine
injuries are the most difficult ones, making wounds dirty and subject to infections.
The treatment is very complex and expensive. Bodies of the mine victims are often
deformed, and death is a frequent outcome.
Mine victim assistance needs to be instantaneous, because it is estimated
that around
50 %
of all mine victims succumb to wounds few minutes after the
accident. For mine victims it is necessary to provide immediate first aid on site,
urgent evacuation, and hospital treatment.
First aid is very important since it directly influences the victim. According to
the Standards, in case of accident in less than
5
minutes there should be a paramedic
to provide first aid, in
20
minutes a doctor should assess the condition of the victim
and provide more complex medical support, and in
60
minutes mine victim needs
to be evacuated to the nearest hospital for further medical treatment.
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MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
Mine victims are often isolated from others, and even when they are in the
group, there is neither a suitable level of knowledge, nor equipment necessary to
provide first aid. In these circumstances mine victim is provided with limited first
aid, which can be fatal.
Mine victim evacuation and transport to the hospital is directly dependant
upon the ability to rescue the victim. These actions in most of the mine contaminated
countries present an enormous problem, because there are no appropriate vehicles,
and in many cases the roads are not in function. On the other hand, mined areas
are very often in distant and secluded areas, from where it is impossible to organize
urgent transportation. For the most part, mine victim would be carried on the
hands to the path where horse-drawn cart would transfer the victim to the actual
road, and than to the nearest hospital.
According to the ICRC analysis,
24,6 %
of victims get to the hospital in less
that six hours,
43,8 %
in less that
24
hours,
15,7 %
in less that
72
hours,
15,9 %
after
72
hours, while almost one third of mine victims travel to hospital longer that one
full day. This illustrates that mine victims are exposed to a possibility to die during
the evacuation and transportation to the nearest hospital.
Surgical treatment of mine victims in hospital largely depends upon correctly
provided first aid, and rate of evacuation and transportation to hospital. It should be
noted that countries contaminated with mines are almost all undeveloped countries
that even in the peaceful times have the lowest level of health care. It should be added
that hospitals tend to be robbed in the war, number of hospital staff is reduced, and
there is lack of medications and basic equipment, such as X-ray machine, blood
transfusion equipment, and equipment for identification of blood type.
War in Bosnia and Herzegovina is very specific, among other irregularities,
in terms of hospitals and other medical institutions being deliberately attacked,
which is considered to be a unique case in military history. Destruction of medical
infrastructure in BH as a consequence had extreme difficulties in implementing
health care, which was demonstrated by complicated supply of medical materials,
blood, anesthetics and equipment, as well as inability of evacuation.
Examples of hospital and other medical institutions destruction were
frequent. Hospital in
Breza
was hit by a mortar shell, but no other nearest building.
Although hospital in
Bihać
is situated in a separate complex, it was hit by a several
direct shots in which
12
patients were killed. Destruction of hospitals in Sarajevo
was everyday and systematic. At the very beginning of the war in Sarajevo,
38
of
45
paramedic vehicles have been destroyed. Immediate and urgent medical help
was at the verge of collapse, so medical staff started ordering medical supplies and
equipment by the air.
Besides destroyed hospital capacities, numerous laboratories were destroyed
as well, so that blood testing for infectious diseases transferred through blood,
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especially
HIV
and hepatitis,
was disabled and impossible. This presents a high
risk for patients treated for mine injuries, since their injuries require heavy blood
transfusions. Total collapse of preventive care system in
1993
has brought to that
that only
35 %
of children was vaccinated comparing to
95 %
before the war. The
chaotic humanitarian situation has worsened the health situation to the point
that percentage of children mortality has doubled, together with some contagious
diseases that were almost forgotten. Lack of water, heating, lighting, electricity,
anesthetics, antibiotics, and even simple things such as surgical gloves, has brought
medical staff in indescribable work conditions and lowered medical standards. The
hardest work conditions in medical institutions were in enclaves, such as
Goražde,
Žepa,
Srebrenica,
Bihać
and Sarajevo.
At the beginning of war in Bosnia and Herzegovina in
1992, 42 %
of
population that did not refuge was depending upon food distribution through
humanitarian aid. Sarajevo, as a capital city, was in complete encirclement with
daily needs for
270
tones of food that was transported through one of the biggest
airlifts in history. In August
1993
UNHCR was providing
57 %
of food supplies in
Zenica
and
39 %
of food supplies in
Tuzla.
Surgical (medical) care of mine victims require more hospital resources than
any other war injury. In affected countries, mine victims present
4 %
of all surgical
patients that require
25 %
of total hospital resources. Mine victims stay in hospital
in average
22
days, while persons injured by bullets and shell fragments
15
days.
Mine amputees stay in hospital
32
days, i.e. five weeks. There is also a difference in
average number of surgeries, namely for every two surgeries for bullets and shell
fragments come four surgeries for mines. There are cases where there were more
that
15
operations performed on one mine victim.
Mine accident survivor is very often permanently disabled, and has to change
prosthesis every three to five years. Children mine victims are especially difficult
and complex patients. Medical rehabilitation of mine victims is long and expensive,
because very often, due to complications, victims must return to hospitals.
Costs of treatments and medical rehabilitation of mine victims, including
cost of psychological, professional and social rehabilitation, and costs of living,
are in
1995
estimated to be
750
millions USD. The amount of costs is different in
individual countries, and in more developed countries it is higher. It is estimated
that for one mine victim costs range between
3.000
and
5.000
USD. These funds
are almost never completely available, so that medical care and protection of mine
victim are always limited and incomplete. The entire concept of rehabilitation is
very complex, long-term and expensive, but it is the only way of assistance.
State institutions in postwar Bosnia and Herzegovina have numerous tasks
in mine victim assistance within the scope of existing systems of social welfare and
health care. Despite the fact that after the war number of mine victims is constantly
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!
HERCEGOVINI
decreasing, being
632
victims in
1996, 100
victims in
2000,
and
43
victims in
2004,
mine victim assistance should be taken in consideration in longer terms. Mine
victim assistance is a complex process that should not be treated exclusively as an
issue of medical care and rehabilitation. The final aim of mine victim assistance is
complete social
reintegration.
Mine victim assistance is based on the following:
-
First aid, medical evacuation and transport;
-
Surgical care of the victim in hospital;
-
Rehabilitation (physiotherapy, prosthetic aids, technical aid, psychological
support);
-
Social and economic
reintegration
(self-support groups, professional
training, professional rehabilitation, relaxation and recreation);
-
Laws and regulations (laws for persons with disabilities, training and public
campaigns, promotion of rights of persons with disabilities and mine
victims).
None of the abovementioned components is specific to mine victims. Entire
process of mine victim assistance is similar to providing assistance to generally
disabled person. In the same way, social welfare and health care can not be separated
from the unique system of aforesaid services. Therefore, mine victims situation can
not be considered separate from situation of other persons with disabilities, but it
should be treated with comprehensive procedure of invalidity.
According to the Dayton Peace Agreement for Bosnia and Herzegovina, both
Entities and
Brčko
District are responsible for law regulations in area of health care
and social welfare. Law regulation does not recognize mine victim as a separate
category, so these victims are considered to be part of system of protection of war
invalids or civilian war casualties, depending on whether they were civilians or
members of military groups.
Mine victims, especially civilian ones, besides physical and psychological
suffering, are exposed to constant deterioration of their economic and social
conditions, which due to general consequences of war, border with poverty.
Landmines disable everyday way of life, that is to say, various activities of
civilians that live close to contaminated areas, therefore experiencing direct and
indirect material losses. They can be fatal, especially for smaller social groups that
do not have economic possibilities to compensate the losses. Accidents usually
happen in rural areas and poor countries in which main source of income is
agriculture, and where the power of individual in battle to survive is crucial.
Costs of medical care very often become a burden on mine victim and his
family. These added costs and less work power are additionally reducing possibility
of economic maneuvers of the family. A serious economic failure due to mine
accidents presents the loss of cattle, which is sometimes the only source of living for
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a family. As with any other loss that reflects on economic and social position of a
family, the loss of cattle does not present the cause of poverty itself, but the families
are facing traumas of uncertainty.
Having in mind that the largest part of the national production and service
companies in BH ceased to function, that agriculture in state of extensive production
can not become an activity from which one can economically support oneself, that
population is mainly unemployed or poorly paid, and that large part of population
is displaced, the economic burden of supporting war victims become responsibility
of victims themselves and their families. This is especially the case with repatriated
families that are starting from the beginning. BH Government and International
Community are continuing the work on removal of health and socio-economic
obstacles, with which mine survivals are faced.
Landmines affect war migrations of population, not only in terms of
movements, but also in terms of interruption of repatriation of refugees and
displaced persons in their prewar residences. Displacement of population is a
consequence of war originating in the ancient times. With the increase of number
of war conflicts in the world, the number of non-state war conflicts and number of
displaced persons is growing.
One of the hardest consequences of war in Bosnia and Herzegovina is over
a million of refugees and displaced persons. Estimate on number of refugees and
displaced persons in entire war areas of former SFRY is over
3,5
millions. In the
middle of
1995
number of refugees and displaced persons in BH was
1.327.000.
Only a small number of population abandoned their residence due to typical
war activities, while the most of the population was forced to leave in planned
and organized actions of ethnic cleansing in BH. A unique pattern of killing,
displacement and maltreatment is documented on vast area of BH that stretches
from
Foča
and
Goražde,
through valley of river
Drina
to Zvornik, then further west
to
Banja Luka, Prijedor
and
Bihać.
Towards the end of the war in
1995,
number of refugees and displaced
persons was
2,9
millions or around
70 %
of the prewar population in BH. It
clearly indicates that the ultimate goal of war was occupation of the territory and
preventing the other side to use its resources. Considering the fact that landmines,
with their known characteristics, are perfect instruments for prevention of use of
these resources, i.e. land, economic infrastructure, communication network, and
residences, it was logical to expect their mass use in war conflict.
War in BH did not demonstrate many cases of landmine use in direct
offensive against population in purpose of their intimidation and displacement, as
it was the case in Cambodia. Instead of landmines, other methods were used, such
as killing, intimidation and persecution. Nevertheless, landmines were planted so
as to unable refugees and displaced persons to return, or to prevent remaining of
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the population use of natural resources, thus impoverishing them and forcing them
to leave.
One research in BH has shown that landmines were a cause of departure and
inability to return of the
25 %
of population. Mined areas prevent repatriation even
in the case of political agreement. Six months after Dayton Peace Agreement was
signed, with which repatriation process was politically arranged, it was established
that in the meantime number of displaced persons in Bosnia and Herzegovina was
not decreasing, but increasing instead. Increase in number of displaced population
is a consequence of general decline of situation and continuation of war in political
terms. Although further mine contamination and all other war actions were stopped
by implementation of the Agreement, earlier mining was still a significant obstacle
in repatriation process.
Nevertheless, from the viewpoint of repatriation of displaced persons and
refugees landmines have unlimited duration, because they remain lethal during the
life of two-three generations. Considering the fact that a large number of landmines
were planted in BH, their removal requires substantial financial means and time,
which would largely exceed duration of psychological readiness of refugees and
displaced persons to return to their prewar residences. Mine danger was nearly
neglected in repatriation process, and it becomes serious only when somebody
is hurt, like it was the case with the death of the five members of one family that
returned in
Bosanska Posavina.
This illustrates that mine removal must precede the
repatriation program.
The next group of consequences caused by landmines is of ecological nature.
Due to priorities in mine danger removal, this issue is not being approached
seriously, nor is it defined as an ecological disaster. After war conflict is over
duration of landmines is extended into peacetime, and in this way is seriously
conditioning and determining way of life of civilians.
Considering the duration of period in which they can be activated, their
number and variety of types, landmines can be compared to great ecological
accidents and disasters. Consequences of landmine use and typical ecological
disasters can be compared in more different instances. In period between
1976-
1989,
in industrial accidents worldwide, that had enormous consequences on
environment, around
25.000
person died or were injured, while at the same time
period number of mine victims was six time bigger.
Besides direct consequences for life and health of population, and the fact
that they can cause long-term and serious changes in environment, vast areas of
agricultural land, woods, water springs, and water flows are still unexploited due
to landmines.
Mine clearance costs and reorganization of their negative influence can be
compared to costs of other ecological catastrophes. Total material damage caused
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by Chernobyl catastrophe, as well as the cost of its renovation, are estimated to
14
billions USD, which equals to mine clearance in Afghanistan, Angola and Iraq,
provided that exact topography and geometry of minefields are known, which
unfortunately is not always the case. Due to landmine activation, there comes to
strong chemical process and explosion that does not exist in nature, so it affects the
changes in atmosphere, ground and water characteristics.
Landmine barriers are significantly changing the structure of the environment,
disable movements and living, and injure and kill people and animals that try to
pursue their everyday life activities. All this indicates that, due to their consequences
on people and environment, landmines can be compared to ecological, chemical
and nuclear weapons.
Ecological weapons are all the means that change the natural processes for
the military purposes. For example, artificial precipitations, snow melting, storms,
floods, tsunamis, sea currents and other. These weapons are not developed as other
standard weapons, so they are rarely used in practice.
Chemical weapons are more frequently used than ecological, therefore
causing more ill effects. Since the end of World War II use of chemical weapons was,
with different estimates, registered in
15-20
war conflicts, while at the same time
landmines were used in all war conflict, to higher or lower extent.
Comparison of landmines and nuclear weapons would not be appropriate due
to frequency of landmine use as typical and cheap mechanism in local conflicts, in
contrast to very complicated and expensive technologies that produce instruments
for mass destruction of human beings and natural resources. Fortunately, this
weapon has been used only two times (Hiroshima and Nagasaki) and their
consequences still today present a warning of a man caused disaster.
However, duration of functioning of these two weapons, as well as their
results, give justification to their comparison and identify suitable landmine lead
in terms of decade s long duration and their slow, but continuing accumulation of
victims and incapacitation the land.
Number of mine victims after World War II has long since exceeded total
number of victims from combat nuclear and chemical weapons use in both world
wars. In terms of incapacitation of environment, landmines disabled considerable
larger areas than nuclear weapons.
Having in mind all the ill effects that landmines cause, it became evident
that they are more and more treated as an ecological problem, to which an official
terminology is adjusting to. Namely, standard military terms are increasingly
being replaced by ecological terms. As a result, mine planting is called pollution,
and demining is called clearance. The fact that all three of these weapons are
internationally legally forbidden (ecological, chemical, and landmines) is very
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MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
encouraging, and present the best solution and prospect for all weapons in the
world.
Mine actions present a group of activities directed towards solving difficulties
originated from mine and unexploded ordnance contamination. They suggest
reestablishment
of safe environment in areas contaminated with mines and
unexploded ordnance, thus ensuring normal life and economic development of
the community, without any restraint. Therefore, affected local communities and
individuals, and their needs have a central place in planning and implementation
of mine actions. Integrated mine action plans for affected local community present
new concept in solving landmine problems. It implies that through interaction
of different components of mine actions, anti-mine effects are multiplied, and
mine risk and its negative socio-economic influence is reduced, which is the main
objective of all mine actions in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The main elements of mine actions are the following:
•
Humanitarian demining operations;
•
Mine risk education;
•
Mine victim assistance;
•
Destruction of stockpiles of antipersonnel mines;
•
Advocacy.
Regardless of the fact that all elements of mine actions in Bosnia and
Herzegovina are highly developed, fast and simple solution to mine problem can not
be expected. Mine actions are one of the priorities of medium-term development
strategy in BH. Coordination between objectives and plans of mine action strategy
and other special strategies needs to be implemented through comprehensive
development strategy in BH. By connecting mine problem with other activities,
economic growth, quality of life and general prosperity is increasing, as a precondition
for efficient solution to mine problem and their socio-economic influence.
Humanitarian demining operations present a group of activities whose main
objective is mine danger removal. They include mine clearance, survey, marking,
quality assurance, and mapping.
Mine danger removal is one of the most important humanitarian principles,
which presents a precondition for reconstruction of land, natural and economic
resources, as well as return of displaced persons. The final objective is reduction of
suspected areas. This reduction is performed through: systematic survey (general
assessment of mine situation), general survey, data gathering, assessment of level of
risk, and identification of minefields.
Reduction of suspected area through systematic survey is conducted by
survey teams of Mine Action Centre in BH, as a separate activity, but also as a
supporting activity during the general survey.
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MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
Generał
survey of the suspected area is conducted by Mine Action Centre
in BH, whose objective is information gathering and data processing, minefields
identification and preparation of project documentation for humanitarian demining
operations and mine action plans.
Technical survey operations help to reduce suspected area where there is
confirmed existence of minefields or there exists high probability of minefields.
Technical survey operations are conducted by accredited demining organizations
under the supervision of Mine Action Centre in BH. Accredited demining
organizations conduct mine clearance operations under the expert supervision of
Mine Action Centre in BH.
Suspected area marking is an activity of risk reduction that includes urgent
and permanent marking of the suspected areas. Permanent marking is conducted
by accredited demining organizations and all other organizations in accordance
with the project documentation of Mine Action Centre in BH. Urgent marking is
a part of mine risk education, but also an integral part of humanitarian demining
operations. It is conducted by accredited demining organizations that perform mine
risk education and Mine Action Centre in BH.
Quality assurance of humanitarian demining operations is implemented
through expert supervision of humanitarian demining operations, evaluation
and accreditation of humanitarian organizations, training and testing, safety and
measures of protection at demining sites, internal quality control of demining
organization, and supervision by the contractor. The key role in quality assurance
has Mine Action Centre in BH. They organize systems of quality control and
manage the process in accordance with legal provisions, Standards for mine and
unexploded ordnance removal, and other regulations that are presented by the
Demining Commission.
Mine risk education is a component of mine actions whose main objective is
to reduce mine risk to which people, property and environment are exposed to, thus
enabling safe living and free socio-economic development. That is an educational
process whose aim is safety of mine-affected communities, so that people would
become aware not only of the risk, but also how to reduce the risk to which they,
their property and their environment are exposed to. Mine risk education is
usually not an independent activity. It presents an integral part of planning and
implementation of mine actions.
Mine risk education includes three interconnected activities: public
information dissemination, education and training, and community mine action
activity cooperation.
Public information dissemination as a part of the mine risk education is
related to activities of public information, whose main objective is mine risk
reduction through mine awareness among individuals and affected communities.
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It is primarily connected with one-way communication that is transmitted through
media by giving relevant information and advice in efficient and prompt manner.
This information can be directed towards messages about mine risk reduction on
local level, and public support for mine action program on all levels.
Education and training refer to all educational activities that aim at mine
risk reduction through mine awareness of individuals and affected communities,
so that they could behave accordingly. Education and training is a two-way process
that includes exchange of knowledge, opinion and practice through teaching
and learning. Activities of education and training can be performed in formal
and non-formal environment. For example, it can be education and training in
schools: teacher-student; family education: parents-children or children-parents;
peer education in work and recreational environment: safety training for mine
protection for humanitarian and other workers, and insertion of safety instruction
in health care and safety services.
Community mine action activity cooperation is related to system and
procedures of exchange
ofinformation
among government institutions, organizations
that deal with mine actions and affected communities about presence of mines and
their potential risk. These procedures and system enable high level
ofinformation
of
the affected community about planned demining actions, about nature and duration
of tasks and exact locations that are marked or cleaned. Affected community
informs local authorities and demining organizations about a place and size of
the contaminated area. This information can be of great assistance in eliminating
planning problems in mine actions in affected community. Involving communities
in mine action activities provide additional information for the staff employed in
program planning and designing suitable projects for mine risk reduction.
Mine victim assistance is a component of mine actions for which a separate
strategy is to be developed due to the importance of mine victims rehabilitation and
reintegration in
Bosnian and Herzegovinian society.
Priorities in mine victims tasks:
-
Improvement and coordination of law regulations relating to persons with
disabilities;
-
Strengthen rehabilitation system;
-
Increase awareness of deficiency as a way to improve quality of life;
-
Employment of persons with disabilities.
This concept directs mine victims assistance within the framework of overall
systems of social welfare and health care for persons with disabilities. Implementation
of mine victim assistance depends upon progress of future reforms in fields of
social welfare, employment and health care system. The basic preconditions for
implementation of aforesaid priorities are: development of system of coordination,
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MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
quality assurance system, and information system, improvement of planning and
information, and reliance on local capacities for mine victim assistance.
The head coordinator of mine victim assistance is Mine Action Centre in
BH. Coordination with other organizations and institutions involved in mine
victim assistance is accomplished through coordination group that bring together
all subjects active in field
ormine
victim assistance, and through the Committee for
mine victim assistance as an operational body of the coordination group.
Development of quality assurance system will focus on establishing standards
for medical rehabilitation, ortho-prosthetics services, training of staff for quality
assurance, standard operational procedures for implementation of different projects
for mine victim assistance, accreditation for work in BH, and organization and
evaluation of projects.
Destruction of stockpiles of landmines implies destruction of stockpiles and
clearance of surrounding area, i.e. destruction of landmines in contaminated areas.
For Ottawa Convention signatory country, destruction of landmine stockpiles is
determined by the Articles
4
and
5
of the Convention.
Each State Party undertakes to destroy or ensure the destruction of all
stockpiled anti-personnel mines it owns or possesses, or that are under its
jurisdiction, as soon as possible but not later than four years after signing the
Convention. Each State Party undertakes to destroy or ensure the destruction of all
anti-personnel mines in mined areas under its jurisdiction, not later than ten years
after signing the Convention.
In addition, the Convention is enabling all State Parties that believe that
they will be unable to destroy or ensure the destruction of all anti-personnel mines
within the deadline, an extension for completing the destruction of such anti¬
personnel mines, for a period of up to ten years.
Countries signatories of the Convention are oriented towards mutual
cooperation and assistance in order to perform all provisions of the Convention.
As it was earlier stated, Bosnia and Herzegovina signed Ottawa Convention on
3
December
1997.
The Convention was ratified on
8
September
1998,
and on
1
March
1999,
it entered into force and became obligatory Convention for BH.
Advocacy implies spreading knowledge about international norms
and encourages governments to work according to and implement Ottawa
Convention.
Successful organization and implementation of mine actions depend upon
three mutually balanced elements. On one side that is reduction of mine risk and its
socio-economic influence, and on the other side available capacities and financing
of mine actions.
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The main objective of mine actions is reduction of mine risk and its socio-
economic influence on the acceptable level. The character
ormine
problem requires
more efficient risk management through constant mine situation assessment,
efficient planning, coordination and joining all components of mine actions in one
integrated process. In the centre of the mine action is affected community and its
needs. Complexity of mine problem in BH is such that fast and simple solution can
not be anticipated. Using clear politics in prioritizing mine actions, attention can be
directed towards implementation of strategic and operational plans.
Immediately after the Dayton Peace Agreement was signed, International
Community started activities to establish a structure for organization, coordination
and implementation of demining activities in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In June
1996
United Nations, supported by United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) have established United Nations Mine Action Centre
(UNMAC) in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It symbolizes the time when official mine
clearance in BH started. UNMAC took over all minefield records from
SFOR,
and
began training local staff for tasks in mine action activities.
In July of
1998,
national structures took over responsibilities to implement
demining activities, with further financial, expert and technical assistance of UNDP.
In
1997,
in order to coordinate all donor activities and mobilize all capacities for
demining activities, UNDP established International Trust Fund for Demining with
head office in Slovenia. This institution started its activities in
1998
as International
Trust Fund for Demining and Mine Victim Assistance in BH, later spreading its
activities on other endangered countries in the region. Upon issuing the Demining
Law in Bosnia and Herzegovina in February
2002,
a legal framework was made for
the conduct of humanitarian demining operations and other mine actions in Bosnia
and Herzegovina.
Mine Action Strategy in Bosnia and Herzegovina is a basic document
for execution of humanitarian demining operations and other mine actions.
Development of the integral strategy of mine actions in Bosnia and Herzegovina
is a product of number of factors that influence humanitarian demining process.
Among them, the most important ones are:
-
Expectations of the citizens of BH: awareness of ever-growing long-term
mine danger, that has created broad public opinion on this matter;
-
Mine actions as a precondition for reconstruction of the country: numerous
economic and natural resources can not be re-established and used due to
mine contamination;
-
Obtain level of capacity: expertise of the staff and identification of mine
situation enables long-term definition of objectives and the most important
projects;
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MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
-
Countries donors and donor organizations expect firm politics for mine
actions. This politics is to be defined and implemented by the state bodies
inBH.
First Demining Strategy in BH at the beginning of
2002
related significantly
on total structure of mine actions and attitude of interested parties towards mine
problem in BH. New gained experiences on strategic planning on state level pointed
at discrepancy between real needs for mine risk reduction in BH and material and
other opportunities for realization of annual plans. This was a starting point in
revision of existing Demining Strategy in BH in
2003.
Process of revision is based upon harmonization of mine actions and
international conventions and standards, connection with BH mid-term development
strategy, the nature of mine actions, coordination and partnership, humanitarian
significance and integrated approach to mine actions in local community.
Existing Mine Action Strategy in BH for period
2002-2010
was ratified by
BH Council of Ministers on
15
April
2004.
A starting point for the Strategy were
UN Mine Action Strategy for period
2001-2005,
Demining Law in BH, provisions
adopted from Ottawa Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling,
Production and Transport of Antipersonnel Mines and on their Destruction
and other International Conventions, International Standards for Mine Actions,
available data about mine situation in BH, available facilities for mine actions, and
previous practice.
Concept that was offered in existing Strategy predicts total clearance of
contaminated areas of first category of priority, partial reduction and complete
marking of area of second category of priority, and permanent marking of entrance
into areas of third category of priority. As a result, a significant contaminated
area would be cleaned, which would reduce mine risk and create conditions for
normal life.
These tasks would be followed by important activities of mine risk education
and activities of destruction of unexploded ordnance and other explosive ordnances
that people still possess. The vision of the Strategy predicts BH that is not
contaminated with mines and unexploded ordnance, where individuals and
communities can live safe, peaceful and normal life, and where mine victims are
completely integrated into society.
BH Mine Action Strategy adopted in
2003,
with a clear vision and objectives
connected to normalization of life, development, and safe return, establishes general
opinion that demining and other mine actions are one of the basic preconditions
for country s reconstruction. This Strategy is accepted by international and national
subjects engaged in this field of work, and it supports interest of the International
Community for different projects that could not be realized without previous
demining of the concrete area.
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Realization of the demining process in
BH
requires legislative that would
enable full control of this process by the government authorities. The Law was
enacted on
12
February
2002.
It defines authorizations and duties of the Council of
Ministers, Demining Commission, BH MAC, and regulations related to demining
organizations,
deminers,
etc. The structure of the demining organization in Bosnia
and Herzegovina consists of state level bodies, entity level bodies, and international
level bodies.
State level bodies are the following:
BH Demining Commission is a part of Ministry of Civil Affairs and
Communication and for its work is responsible directly to this Ministry. Main
objectives of the Commission are the following:
-
The Commission represents Bosnia and Herzegovina at all the conferences,
both national and international, related to the mine action, particularly in
the campaign to ban landmines, as well as at the professional conferences;
-
The Commission approves Standards for mine clearance and unexploded
ordnance operations in BH;
-
The Commission recommends qualified and competent candidates for the
positions of BH MAC director, director s assistants and the chief of finance,
to be nominated by the Council of Ministers;
-
At the proposal of the director, approves internal regulations for work in
Mine Action Centre in BH;
-
Facilitates cooperation between the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
and the Republic of
Srpska;
-
Submits report to BH Council of Ministers and regularly informs the Board
of Donors about Commission s activities, as well as about the progress in
demining, in accordance with reports provided by BH MAC;
-
Conducts other tasks in accordance with the Decision of Establishment.
Mine Action Centre in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BH MAC) is a technical
office of the Demining Commission. It was established by the decision of BH
Council of Ministers. The law specifies offices in
Banja Luka
and Sarajevo that
report directly to BH MAC. BH MAC can temporarily establish regional offices, if
needed. BH MAC objectives are the following:
-
Central database of mine actions;
-
Projects proposal and preparation;
-
General survey;
-
Establish priorities for mine actions;
-
Technical supervision of mine actions;
-
Propose standards for mine actions;
-
Issue certificates for conducted demining and technical survey operations;
-
Testing and accreditation of demining organizations for mine actions;
272
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I
HERCEGOVIN!
-
Prepare work plans and reports of mine actions for the Demining
Commission and the Board of Donors;
-
Coordination and supervision of implementation of Mine Action Strategy;
-
Perform other tasks in accordance with the Decision of Establishment.
The work of BH MAC is supervised by the Demining Commission. Demining
Law entitled Mine Action Centre in BH to conduct mine actions on entire territory
of BH. Law also regulates implementation of demining operations in accordance
with the BH Mine Action Strategy that was adopted in April
2003.
It confirms the
objective to conduct clearance of the areas of first category of priority by
2010.
Implementation of mine clearance operations officially started in
1996,
and by the
end of
2003
only
45
km2 of the area was cleaned.
The Entity bodies are established to facilitate contact with the Board of
Donors and determine responsibilities of Civil Protection and armed forces in the
demining process.
One of very important international bodies in BH is the Board of Donors that
supports the work of the Demining Commission and BH MAC, whose president is
appointed by High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina. The members of
the Board are representatives of international organizations and governments that
support implementation of mine actions in BH.
The demining process in BH is implemented based on the Demining Plan
for Bosnia and Herzegovina, proposed by BH MAC. The Plan is approved by the
Demining Commission in cooperation with the Board of Donors and adopted by
the Council of Ministers. The resources for implementation of Demining Plan come
from donors, budgets of the institutions in BH and both Entities, as well as other
sources.
Demining works in BH are conducted by qualified international and national
demining organizations accredited by BH MAC. Demining organizations are obliged
to conduct demining activities in accordance with the Regulations and Standards
for mine and unexploded ordnance clearance in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
According to the regulations of the BH Demining Law,
deminer
can be
person older than
18
years of age, with minimum secondary education.
Deminer
can not be a person convicted of criminal activity against BH, against life, body
and property, and other criminal activities with elements of violent behavior, self-
interest and ulterior motives.
Deminer
has to be mentally and physically competent,
which is proved by certificate of the authorized health institution. The mandatory
requirement is appropriate technical exam according to BH Standards.
Demining organization is obliged to make a contract with an insurance
company on the life insurance of its
deminers in
case of death or injury caused by
demining activities. Supervision over demining activities is performed by quality
assurance inspectors of BH MAC.
273
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
Standards for mine and unexploded ordnance removal in Bosnia and
Herzegovina present a basic document for humanitarian demining operations on
territory of BH. BH Standards are written based on International Mine Action
Standards
(IMAS),
UN MAC Technical and Safety Guidelines for Humanitarian
Demining Operations in BH, regulations of BH Demining Law, and theory and
practice in BH and internationally. Standards describe minimum of technical and
safety measures that demining organizations need to include in their Standard
Operational Procedures for humanitarian demining operations in Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
Each organization formulates their own Standard Operational Procedures
in which they include conditions of Standards and other more experienced
technical and safety measures for the purpose of safety of men who are conducting
humanitarian demining operations and quality control of the cleaned area for users/
inhabitants in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Regulations of the BH Standards and technical and safety measures included
in demining organizations Standard Operational Procedures are inspected by
BH MAC inspectors. Standards enable the staff to realize mine and unexploded
ordnance removal in BH and make a foundation for interpretation of any similar
activity. The importance of Standards requires that they are constantly revised and
improved. Standardization process is not yet finished and certain elements of mine
actions need to be processed more thoroughly.
Current Standards were adopted on
5
June
2003,
and they consist of
15
chapters:
-
Training;
-
Marking of the mined areas and demining sites;
-
Demining site layout and manual operations;
-
Destruction of mines and UXOs;
-
Mine survey;
-
Explosive ordnance removal;
-
System of communication, registering data, and reporting;
-
Takeover of demined area or building;
-
Safety;
-
Medical support and casualty evacuation;
-
Quality assurance;
-
EDD
teams;
-
Demining accident investigation;
-
Mechanical ground preparation;
-
House clearance.
International activities regarding mine actions can be observed through
contacts with Governments of foreign countries through their Embassies in BH,
274
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
through BH Embassies abroad, and various non-governmental organizations, with
the purpose of ensuring continuous financing of mine actions in BH.
Bosnia and Herzegovina as an independent country, the Demining
Commission and BH MAC established a continuous cooperation with all European
countries, Japan, China and Islamic countries. The special form of cooperation
was established with the Government of the United States of America that is
based on principle dollar for dollar , through which they are participating in the
implementation of the large number of demining projects and other mine actions
in BH. Important segment in implementation of mine actions in BH is European
Union that is supporting these activities, especially by financially assisting demining
teams of the Civil Protection.
Stabilization forces
(SFOR)
are in many ways involved in implementation
of mine actions in BH as well.
SFOR
responsibilities regarding mine problem are:
inspections of storage depots of ammunition and weapons, gathering weapons and
explosive ordnance in operation Harvest , and technical support to entity armies
in execution of humanitarian demining operations.
SFOR
supervisors monitor
employment of all International Mine Actions Standards in BH.
One of the important parts of the implementation of mine actions in BH
is participation of foreign non-governmental commercial organizations that are
actively involved in humanitarian demining and other mine actions in BH. This
contributes to participation of Governments of foreign countries in terms of
financing various projects, especially projects on which they are engaged.
In
2004
UNDP started new five years integrated mine action program in BH
worth
11,8
millions USD. It aims at establishing connection between mine removal
priorities and long-term economic development program, by preventing the trend
of mine removal process decline which is the result of lack of donations.
The program has three components. The first one is building capacities that
would enable BH Government to take over a full ownership over implementation
of mine actions in time of
18
months; the second one is clearance of
4
km2 of the
mined area selected due to its economic value and repatriation process; the third
one is transformation of BH armed forces in long-term national capacity that would
be able to undertake the implementation of mine actions in BH.
In Southeastern Europe there exists an initiative for cooperation between
countries in region, especially in terms of technical cooperation, education and
development of regional capacities. For that purpose, Southeastern Europe Mine
Action Coordination Committee was founded in
2000
under patronage of
ITE
The
result of the development of regional capacities is the opening of the Centre for
EOD Training in
2003
in
Konjic, BH.
Funding of the first three years was provided
by Government of the United States of America, after which the responsibilities
come within the authority of BH Council of Ministers.
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MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
International Community
has thus far invested significant financial means in
demining process, provided expert help and personnel, imposed standards, made a
contribution in sophisticated equipment, and other tools necessary for mine danger
removal process. Assessments of the future financial situation of mine actions in
Bosnia and Herzegovina are becoming increasingly uncertain. It is necessary to
create national capacities for mine action fund raising, but also to initiate specific
funds within budgets on all levels of government in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
276
|
| adam_txt |
SADRŽAJ
Riječ autora
. 3
Predgovor
. 5
UVOD
. 7
Mine kao svjetski problem
. 7
POGLAVLJE
1.
Sredstva i način vođenja minskog rata
. 17
1.1.
Historijski razvoj kopnenih mina
. 19
1.2.
Upotreba mina u konvencionalnim ratovima
. 26
1.3.
Upotreba mina u sukobima poslije
II.
svjetskog rata
. 38
POGLAVLJE
2.
Upotreba mina u ratu
1992.-1995. 43
2.1.
Vrste i način postavljanja mina u
ВІН
1992.-1995.
godine
. 45
2.2.
Procjena broja mina i minirana područja u
ВІН
. 59
2.3.
Problem neeksplodiranih ubojitih sredstava u Bosni i Hercegovini
— 65
POGLAVLJE
3.
Međunarodno ratno pravo i upotreba mina
. 77
3.1.
Broj zaostalih mina, površina zagađenog zemljišta,
proizvodnja, skladištenje i trgovina minama
. 79
3.2.
Međunarodno ratno pravo i kopnene mine
. 83
3.3.
Međunarodna borba za zabranu protivpješadijskih mina
. 108
3.4.
Uklanjanje i čišćenje mina
. 115
POGLAVLJE
4.
Posljedice minskog rata u Bosni i Hercegovini
. 127
4.1.
Statistika žrtava, rizične djelatnosti i opasna mjesta
. 129
4.2.
Broj i struktura žrtava od mina u
ВІН
. 135
4.3.
Posljedice upotrebe mina u Bosni i Hercegovini
. 145
POGLAVLJE
5.
Protivminske akcije u Bosni i Hercegovini
. 167
5.1.
Osnovne karakteristike i vrste protivminskih akcija u BiH
. 169
5.2.
Strategija protivminskih akcija u Bosni i Hercegovini
. 174
5.3.
Zakon i Standardi za provođenje protivminskih akcija u BiH
. 187
5.4.
Organizacija
i provođenje
protivminskih
akcija u
ВІН .
197
5.5.
Upozoravanje na mine, sastavni dio protivminskih akcija u BiH
. 214
5.6.
Doprinos međunarodne zajednice provođenju
protivminskih akcija u BiH
. 219
POGLAVLJE
6.
Upute za smanjenje rizika od mina u ugroženim zajednicama BiH
. 221
6.1.
Kome su namijenjene upute za smanjenje rizika
od mina u ugroženim zajednicama
. 223
6.2.
Šta su mine i kako ih prepoznati
. 224
6.3.
Neeksplodirana ubojita sredstva
. 225
6.4.
Način aktiviranja mina
. 226
6.5.
Posljedice aktiviranja mina
. 227
6.6.
Zašto dolazi do nesreća od mina
. 228
6.7.
Način ponašanja u ugroženim zajednicama
. 230
6.8.
Opasna područja u ugroženim zajednicama
. 231
6.9.
Znaci prisutnosti mina u ugroženim zajednicama
. 232
6.10.
Znaci i način obilježavanja
. 233
6.11.
Način označavanja ugroženog područja
. 235
6.12.
Postupak ako se uđe u ugrožena područja
. 236
6.13.
Postupak prilikom nailaska vozilom na minu
. 237
6.14.
Ako dođe do aktiviranja mine, kako pomoći žrtvi
. 238
6.15.
Pogrešna razmišljanja vezana za mine
. 239
6.16.
Osnovna pravila ponašanja u ugroženoj zajednici:
NE DIRAJTE, NE PRILAZITE, NE ULAZITE, ZAPAMTITE!!!
. 241
Ima li kraja ratu poslije rata (Umjesto zaključka)
. 243
Mine Action War in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Summary)
. 253
Skraćenice
. 277
Literatura.
279
Biografija
. 281
Izvodi iz pisama podrške tokom istraživanja
i završnog oblikovanja knjige
. 283
Izvodi iz mišljenja
о
knjizi
. 287
Indeks
. 295
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
Mine Action
War in Bosnia and Herzegovina
(Summary)
Numerous local and world war conflicts in the twentieth century in almost
all continents have left millions of unidentified and unexploded landmines. In an
attempt to make them even more dangerous and malignant, contemporary man
has made them technologically perfect. Thence, they have become one of the most
serious problems of our planet, with long-term consequences, such as endangerment
of millions of human lives, environment and society.
According to the statistical assessment of the eminent world experts, number
of planted and still active landmines is estimated to
85-200
millions, which can be
found in over
70
countries in the world.
Smaller number of planted landmines originates form World War II, while
larger number originates from war conflicts waged after World War II, of which
65
millions were planted in local war conflicts waged in period
1978-1994.
It is very
important to add to this number almost exactly the same number of stockpiles of
landmines, thus presenting potential threat and further endangering our planet.
Annual global landmine production is estimated to
5-Ю
millions. In period
1970-1995,
total landmine production was
255
millions, of which
190
millions of
antipersonnel mines. Around hundred private and state companies and government
agencies form fifty countries all over the world produce approximately
700
different
types of landmines, of which
340-360
types of antipersonnel mines.
The largest antipersonnel mine producers are Russian, Chinese, and Italian
companies and agencies. In terms of number of developed types of landmines, the
lead position has USA
37,
followed by Italy
36,
former
SSSR
31,
Sweden
21,
Vietnam
18,
Germany
18,
Austria
16,
former SFRY
15,
France
14,
China
12,
and Great
Britain with
9
different types of antipersonnel mines. Landmine production very
often becomes an important export business. The biggest landmine exporters are at
the same time the biggest producers. Approximately
85%
of the landmines planted
in war conflicts are not produced in the countries that are involved in the conflict
itself. It is estimated that
35
countries are exporting antipersonnel mines.
Although they were involved in war conflicts with quite a few of these
countries, and despite the several years long embargo and isolation of their country
in International Community, Iraqis have planted landmines produced in Belgium,
Canada, China, India, Iran, Italy, Pakistan, USA, former
SSSR,
former SFRY, as well
as locally produced versions of Italian and Soviet landmines.
In the global market of landmines, annual turnover is
50-200
millions USD,
which compared to global annual turnover of all weapons equals to
0,25-1 %.
The
cause of these circumstances is low price of landmines, especially antipersonnel
253
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I
HERCEGOVII
mines, which is the consequence of their simple and cheap production technology.
The price of the simplest type of landmine in the global market is around
3
dollars,
while more complex ones can reach price up to
7-25
dollars. While supply and
planting are noticeably cheap, relatively simple and mostly safe, mine removal is
very expensive, complicated, and extremely dangerous.
Having in mind technical characteristics, the largest number of planted
landmines is still active and dangerous, thus causing tragedies for humans, their
families, and society as a whole. Due to their long-term functioning, and slow,
but constant victim accumulation they became known as "the weapon for mass
destruction in slow motion".
In terms of world danger, remnant landmines are not distributed according
to geographic evenness criteria in the world regions. They can usually be found
in areas and countries that used to be war conflict arenas. This group of countries
usually consists of poor countries with the lowest national per capita income.
Four continents or six huge world regions (Africa, Middle East, Europe,
East Asia, South Asia, and Latin America) are still burdened with consequences of
remnant landmines.
Seven most endangered countries of the world are: Afghanistan, Angola,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cambodia, Iraq, Croatia, and Mozambique.
Number of mine victims after World War II has already exceeded number
of victims of nerve gases and nuclear weapons in both world wars. The latest
assessments show that landmines kill and injure every
22
minutes, which means
that
26.000
people every year are being killed or permanently disabled. Number
of mine victims is increasing every year, so that in period
1990-1994
number of
mine victims was twice as big as that in period
1980-1984.
The reasons for this
situation are: large number of mines (app.
2
millions per year) was planted in last
20
years, their uncontrolled planting, and inappropriate recording and marking of
the mined areas.
Of the total number of mine victims,
40 %
are killed and
60 %
are injured.
Comparison of civilian and military victims shows that number of civilian victims
is eight times bigger than military victims. This relation in Afghanistan adds up to
74 %,
in Mozambique
68 %,
and in Cambodia
66 %
of civilian victims.
In terms of gender and age, the most common mine victims are men
15-60
years of age. They present
69 %
of all mine victims. The second group is children up
to
15
years
(20 %),
third group are women (around
7 %),
while the smallest group
are men over
60
years of age (around
4 %).
Of the total number of planted landmines,
75 %
are hard to locate, and
present constant threat for the humanity. These remarks present terrifying statistical
facts, with which the world is losing a battle. Mine removal process is extremely
254
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
demanding, dangerous, and long, which prolongs mine danger for humanity for the
next hundred years.
In Cambodia, where mine fields are the thickest in the world, in past seven
years only
3,3 %
of
6
millions planted landmines have been cleaned. It is estimated
that to remove all landmines in Cambodia it would take
212
years. After
20
years of
war operations in Angola, there are
10
millions of remnant landmines, which is the
population number of the country. This indicates that Angola has one landmine per
each man, woman, and child that live there. In Afghanistan,
530
km2 of the country
is contaminated with
10
millions of landmines. Its capital city Kabul is the most
contaminated city in the world.
Everyday mine and UXO casualties do not lead Bosnia and Herzegovina
towards standardization that European Union is demanding. It is a very disturbing
fact that, besides implementation of Demining Strategy in BH, the state and its
institutions have not yet established actual activities, ways, and access to mine and
unexploded ordnance problem, as well as financing mine danger removal with the
purpose of protecting its citizens, economy, and exploitation of natural resources.
Humanitarian demining and other mine actions present capital investment
in socio-economic development of the postwar Bosnia and Herzegovina. It at the
same time presents an effective instrument against poverty.
War in Bosnia and Herzegovina is the last one in series of war conflicts in
which a mass landmine use occurred. This country is in the fourth place among
seven most endangered countries in the world, and in the first place in Europe.
Of total territory of BH,
4,2 %
is contaminated with landmines. Specificity that
emphasizes its difference in relation to most other countries with mine problems
is presence of landmines in areas that are of vital importance for normal living:
residence, infrastructure, agriculture, and overall reconstruction of the country.
It should be noted that horrifying war dynamics comes and goes, but mine
action war continues in spite of everything, because landmines are still there to kill
and disable. Time can not harm them. For decades they are waiting for their victims
to hurt them, and very frequently take their lives.
Mine clearance is a very expensive process, so in some countries its price
very often reaches the amount of hundred millions of dollars. Besides human
casualties, there are other consequences of landmine use, i.e. destruction of
infrastructure such as power system, water supply, and communication system,
whose nonuse is causing great damage and costs. Several years long inability of
cultivation of fertile agricultural lands caused discontinuities in implementation
of repatriation process.
Unfortunately, our country is facing a similar problem in terms of mines
and unexploded ordnance. The cruelty of the three years long war in Bosnia and
255
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
Herzegovina
place
our country in the first place among twenty-eight European
countries, and among seven most contaminated countries in the world.
During the landmine planting process in war one has neglected every human,
moral, sociological, demographic, ecological, economic, and other criterion. As if
the end of the world was near, and no one has ever planned to be born, live, walk,
work, or produce in this unfortunate country of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The last estimates show that the size of suspected area in BH is
5,26 %
of
the total area. Up to now, experts defined
14.552
microlocations. Research has
determined that
1.366
communities in
128
municipalities are affected by mines and
unexploded ordnance. It is estimated that locations contaminated with mines and
unexploded ordnance directly affect the safety of about
1.375.807
citizens of Bosnia
and Herzegovina, of which
100.187
live in high impacted communities,
594.143
in
medium impacted communities, and
681.477
in low impacted communities.
Of total number of mine impacted communities in BH,
154
or
11 %
are
highly impacted,
696
or
51 %
are medium impacted, and
516
or
38 %
are low
impacted communities. World average in relation to high impacted communities is
10 %,
while
30 %
is for medium impacted communities. Having in mind number
of impacted communities and level of endangerment, Bosnia and Herzegovina is
included amongst the most endangered countries in the world.
Research results indicate that
85 %
of the members of the communities live
in rural areas, of which
50 %
are communities oriented towards agriculture and use
of natural resources, while in
40 %
of the communities, infrastructure is blocked by
contaminated water ways, power and communication infrastructure, water plant and
underground sewer systems, and other resources necessary for sustainable living.
In period
1996-2003,
area of
48
km2 was cleaned in BH. Annual clearance level
is
5,5-7
km2. Nevertheless, available resources for humanitarian demining indicate
that there are sufficient and stable capacities for larger extent of humanitarian
demining operations then in previous years. So far, only
20 %
of the total available
capacities have been used.
This kind of dangerous living in BH has a very negative influence on overall
positive factors, delays repatriation process and postpones creation of preconditions
for sustainable living. It also prevents efforts of national and international
institutions to make BH a "normal" country, and bring it closer to European Union
integrations, where its citizens would be able to implement their basic human
rights: to work, and live a dignified life.
Numerousness of planted landmines, the fact that their planting during the
war was implemented without supervision, enormous number of mine casualties,
as well as disturbing social, economic,
ecologie,
and other consequences have all
encouraged International Community, together with the Governments of many
256
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
foreign countries, and non-governmental and humanitarian organizations, to
initiate a fight against antipersonnel mines.
At the head of this fight are Canada, International Committee of the
Red Cross, and International Campaign to Ban Landmines (association of
non-governmental organizations). Joint efforts and actions of one country, one
international humanitarian organization, and one association of non-governmental
organizations have encouraged numerous organizations and various members of
the International Community to introduce the first comprehensive and legally
imposed international action to ban antipersonnel mines, i.e. Convention on the
Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Antipersonnel
Mines and on their Destruction, also known as the Ottawa Convention. Global
humanitarian objectives of these activities are absolute prohibition of antipersonnel
mines, additional mine victims assistance, and larger quantity of mine removal.
On Conference in Ottawa on
3
and
4
December
1997, 122
countries signed
the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer
of Antipersonnel Mines and on their Destruction.
Ottawa Convention was ratified and entered into force in the following
countries:
•
Countries that initiated the idea to ban antipersonnel mines and consistent
participants of the Ottawa Conference: Canada, Norway, Austria, Belgium,
and South African Republic;
•
Countries that are amongst the most endangered in the world: Mozambique,
Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina;
•
Countries that are significant producers and exporters of the antipersonnel
mines: France, Germany, and Great Britain.
Convention was ratified and acceded by all members of NATO Pact, except
for the United States of America and Turkey. Furthermore, all countries members of
the European Union ratified the Convention, except for Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and
Poland. The list of countries that did not sign the Convention consists of countries
that are at the same time the largest landmine producers and possess stockpiles of
antipersonnel mines. These are United Stares of America, Russia, China, India, and
Pakistan. Thus far,
141
countries signed and ratified the Ottawa Convention, with
nine more countries who signed, but not yet ratified the Convention.
Bosnia and Herzegovina signed the Ottawa Convention on
3
December
1997
and its Parliament ratified it on
8
September
1998.
On
1
March
1999,
the
Convention entered into force and became obligatory Convention for Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
By signing Ottawa Convention, Bosnia and Herzegovina committed to clear
all contaminated areas as soon as possible, not later than March
2009.
Ifit
fails to do
257
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
so, it can ask for the extension of the deadline from the other countries signatories
of the Convention.
Statistical data about overall war casualties in BH are inadequate and not
reliable. According to the results of the research,
328.000
persons were killed or
missing in period
1992-1995
in BH. Figures that emphasize high number of victims
as a war consequence are primarily a result of character and objectives of war waged
inBH.
Statistical structure of victims based on empirical methods and patterns
does not exist, which brings us to conclusion that the state is avoiding any public
statements about exact number of victims. In the early phase of the war conflict,
it became clear that the conduct of the military groups and militias, mass terror
over the citizens and implementation of genocide politics, have all predetermined
the character of the war in which the highest numbers of victims (around
85 %)
are civilians. The same statement can also be applied on exact number of mine
casualties in BH. There are numerous reasons for this: absence of central database
in Bosnia and Herzegovina, different approaches to mine problem in the two
Entities, and discrepancies of standardized documentation about mine victims and
provided medical care in health institutions to which the victims belong.
In period between
1992
until the end of the war in
1995, 3.364
mine victims
were registered in Bosnia and Herzegovina, meaning that monthly average was
80
mine victims. Of the total
3.346
mine victims,
1.508
victims were registered in
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and
1.838
in Republic of
Srpska.
In period
1996-2004,
number of victims was
1.522,
monthly average being
14
mine victims.
Of total
1.522
mine victims,
1.069
victims were registered in Federation of Bosnia
and Herzegovina, and
453
in Republic of
Srpska.
Monthly average of mine victims is constantly declining, and in
2004
it was
3,58
mine victims per month. This declining trend is partially due to positive effects
of the mine actions. Nevertheless, it would be wrong to conclude that based on
these data there would be no mine victims in the future years.
From the beginning of war up to the end of
2004, 4.868
persons have been
injured or killed by mines and unexploded ordnance in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In period
1996-2004,
there were
1.522
mine casualties, of which
428
were death
casualties.
According to the research of International Committee of the Red Cross,
42 %
of mine casualties are men of age
19
to
39, 28 %
are adults of age
40
to
60, 22 %
are
children under
18,
and the rest
8 %
are persons older than
61
years of age.
Ratio between injured and killed in
1996
was
5:1,
but it gradually became
equal in the following years. For instance, in
2004,
of total
43
mine victims,
27
were
injured, and
16
killed. Reasons for this situation are manifold. The root cause of
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the largest number of death casualties that occurred in past few years is landmine
PROM-l. It caused
48 %
of total
deminers'
mine accidents.
In period after the war
1996-2004,
the most injured were civilians of age
19-
39,
who consciously enter mine fields to exploit natural resources, because their
economic situation is not offering an alternative solution to their existence. They
account for
42 %
of all mine victims, and are the most endangered category of
population. Children younger than
18
account for
22 %
of total mine victims.
Seasonal variations indicate that the highest number of mine accidents
happen at the beginning of spring, in March and April. Persons that didn't leave
their residence during the war represented the most affected communities up until
2003.
The situation changed in
2003,
and number of victims among repatriates
rapidly increased. This is understandable, since
2003
was the year of intensive
repatriation in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and this population was not adequately
informed about the existing mine danger.
All past indicators of mine victims testify that landmines do not choose their
victims according to nationality, religion, gender, or age. This evil will remain here
for the future generations.
Mine victims are persons with permanent disabilities, not capable of leading
a normal life. Their injuries will most likely remain unhealed until the rest of their
lives, which creates sense of helplessness and dependence. Physical injuries usually
carry physiological consequences, which are much harder to heal. They require
long-term and very expensive treatment.
Mine victims, especially heavily injured and disabled, present enormous
economical and social burden for society as a whole. Undeveloped and still
insufficient medical infrastructure is burdened by providing for thousands of
seriously ill persons, whose treatments are long, repetitive, and expensive.
War injuries are unique and they differ from all others, mine injuries being
the most complex and most demanding. From a medical point of view, mine
injuries are the most difficult ones, making wounds dirty and subject to infections.
The treatment is very complex and expensive. Bodies of the mine victims are often
deformed, and death is a frequent outcome.
Mine victim assistance needs to be instantaneous, because it is estimated
that around
50 %
of all mine victims succumb to wounds few minutes after the
accident. For mine victims it is necessary to provide immediate first aid on site,
urgent evacuation, and hospital treatment.
First aid is very important since it directly influences the victim. According to
the Standards, in case of accident in less than
5
minutes there should be a paramedic
to provide first aid, in
20
minutes a doctor should assess the condition of the victim
and provide more complex medical support, and in
60
minutes mine victim needs
to be evacuated to the nearest hospital for further medical treatment.
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MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
Mine victims are often isolated from others, and even when they are in the
group, there is neither a suitable level of knowledge, nor equipment necessary to
provide first aid. In these circumstances mine victim is provided with limited first
aid, which can be fatal.
Mine victim evacuation and transport to the hospital is directly dependant
upon the ability to rescue the victim. These actions in most of the mine contaminated
countries present an enormous problem, because there are no appropriate vehicles,
and in many cases the roads are not in function. On the other hand, mined areas
are very often in distant and secluded areas, from where it is impossible to organize
urgent transportation. For the most part, mine victim would be carried on the
hands to the path where horse-drawn cart would transfer the victim to the actual
road, and than to the nearest hospital.
According to the ICRC analysis,
24,6 %
of victims get to the hospital in less
that six hours,
43,8 %
in less that
24
hours,
15,7 %
in less that
72
hours,
15,9 %
after
72
hours, while almost one third of mine victims travel to hospital longer that one
full day. This illustrates that mine victims are exposed to a possibility to die during
the evacuation and transportation to the nearest hospital.
Surgical treatment of mine victims in hospital largely depends upon correctly
provided first aid, and rate of evacuation and transportation to hospital. It should be
noted that countries contaminated with mines are almost all undeveloped countries
that even in the peaceful times have the lowest level of health care. It should be added
that hospitals tend to be robbed in the war, number of hospital staff is reduced, and
there is lack of medications and basic equipment, such as X-ray machine, blood
transfusion equipment, and equipment for identification of blood type.
War in Bosnia and Herzegovina is very specific, among other irregularities,
in terms of hospitals and other medical institutions being deliberately attacked,
which is considered to be a unique case in military history. Destruction of medical
infrastructure in BH as a consequence had extreme difficulties in implementing
health care, which was demonstrated by complicated supply of medical materials,
blood, anesthetics and equipment, as well as inability of evacuation.
Examples of hospital and other medical institutions destruction were
frequent. Hospital in
Breza
was hit by a mortar shell, but no other nearest building.
Although hospital in
Bihać
is situated in a separate complex, it was hit by a several
direct shots in which
12
patients were killed. Destruction of hospitals in Sarajevo
was everyday and systematic. At the very beginning of the war in Sarajevo,
38
of
45
paramedic vehicles have been destroyed. Immediate and urgent medical help
was at the verge of collapse, so medical staff started ordering medical supplies and
equipment by the air.
Besides destroyed hospital capacities, numerous laboratories were destroyed
as well, so that blood testing for infectious diseases transferred through blood,
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especially
HIV
and hepatitis,
was disabled and impossible. This presents a high
risk for patients treated for mine injuries, since their injuries require heavy blood
transfusions. Total collapse of preventive care system in
1993
has brought to that
that only
35 %
of children was vaccinated comparing to
95 %
before the war. The
chaotic humanitarian situation has worsened the health situation to the point
that percentage of children mortality has doubled, together with some contagious
diseases that were almost forgotten. Lack of water, heating, lighting, electricity,
anesthetics, antibiotics, and even simple things such as surgical gloves, has brought
medical staff in indescribable work conditions and lowered medical standards. The
hardest work conditions in medical institutions were in enclaves, such as
Goražde,
Žepa,
Srebrenica,
Bihać
and Sarajevo.
At the beginning of war in Bosnia and Herzegovina in
1992, 42 %
of
population that did not refuge was depending upon food distribution through
humanitarian aid. Sarajevo, as a capital city, was in complete encirclement with
daily needs for
270
tones of food that was transported through one of the biggest
airlifts in history. In August
1993
UNHCR was providing
57 %
of food supplies in
Zenica
and
39 %
of food supplies in
Tuzla.
Surgical (medical) care of mine victims require more hospital resources than
any other war injury. In affected countries, mine victims present
4 %
of all surgical
patients that require
25 %
of total hospital resources. Mine victims stay in hospital
in average
22
days, while persons injured by bullets and shell fragments
15
days.
Mine amputees stay in hospital
32
days, i.e. five weeks. There is also a difference in
average number of surgeries, namely for every two surgeries for bullets and shell
fragments come four surgeries for mines. There are cases where there were more
that
15
operations performed on one mine victim.
Mine accident survivor is very often permanently disabled, and has to change
prosthesis every three to five years. Children mine victims are especially difficult
and complex patients. Medical rehabilitation of mine victims is long and expensive,
because very often, due to complications, victims must return to hospitals.
Costs of treatments and medical rehabilitation of mine victims, including
cost of psychological, professional and social rehabilitation, and costs of living,
are in
1995
estimated to be
750
millions USD. The amount of costs is different in
individual countries, and in more developed countries it is higher. It is estimated
that for one mine victim costs range between
3.000
and
5.000
USD. These funds
are almost never completely available, so that medical care and protection of mine
victim are always limited and incomplete. The entire concept of rehabilitation is
very complex, long-term and expensive, but it is the only way of assistance.
State institutions in postwar Bosnia and Herzegovina have numerous tasks
in mine victim assistance within the scope of existing systems of social welfare and
health care. Despite the fact that after the war number of mine victims is constantly
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MINSKI RAT U BOSNI
!
HERCEGOVINI
decreasing, being
632
victims in
1996, 100
victims in
2000,
and
43
victims in
2004,
mine victim assistance should be taken in consideration in longer terms. Mine
victim assistance is a complex process that should not be treated exclusively as an
issue of medical care and rehabilitation. The final aim of mine victim assistance is
complete social
reintegration.
Mine victim assistance is based on the following:
-
First aid, medical evacuation and transport;
-
Surgical care of the victim in hospital;
-
Rehabilitation (physiotherapy, prosthetic aids, technical aid, psychological
support);
-
Social and economic
reintegration
(self-support groups, professional
training, professional rehabilitation, relaxation and recreation);
-
Laws and regulations (laws for persons with disabilities, training and public
campaigns, promotion of rights of persons with disabilities and mine
victims).
None of the abovementioned components is specific to mine victims. Entire
process of mine victim assistance is similar to providing assistance to generally
disabled person. In the same way, social welfare and health care can not be separated
from the unique system of aforesaid services. Therefore, mine victims situation can
not be considered separate from situation of other persons with disabilities, but it
should be treated with comprehensive procedure of invalidity.
According to the Dayton Peace Agreement for Bosnia and Herzegovina, both
Entities and
Brčko
District are responsible for law regulations in area of health care
and social welfare. Law regulation does not recognize mine victim as a separate
category, so these victims are considered to be part of system of protection of war
invalids or civilian war casualties, depending on whether they were civilians or
members of military groups.
Mine victims, especially civilian ones, besides physical and psychological
suffering, are exposed to constant deterioration of their economic and social
conditions, which due to general consequences of war, border with poverty.
Landmines disable everyday way of life, that is to say, various activities of
civilians that live close to contaminated areas, therefore experiencing direct and
indirect material losses. They can be fatal, especially for smaller social groups that
do not have economic possibilities to compensate the losses. Accidents usually
happen in rural areas and poor countries in which main source of income is
agriculture, and where the power of individual in battle to survive is crucial.
Costs of medical care very often become a burden on mine victim and his
family. These added costs and less work power are additionally reducing possibility
of economic maneuvers of the family. A serious economic failure due to mine
accidents presents the loss of cattle, which is sometimes the only source of living for
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a family. As with any other loss that reflects on economic and social position of a
family, the loss of cattle does not present the cause of poverty itself, but the families
are facing traumas of uncertainty.
Having in mind that the largest part of the national production and service
companies in BH ceased to function, that agriculture in state of extensive production
can not become an activity from which one can economically support oneself, that
population is mainly unemployed or poorly paid, and that large part of population
is displaced, the economic burden of supporting war victims become responsibility
of victims themselves and their families. This is especially the case with repatriated
families that are starting from the beginning. BH Government and International
Community are continuing the work on removal of health and socio-economic
obstacles, with which mine survivals are faced.
Landmines affect war migrations of population, not only in terms of
movements, but also in terms of interruption of repatriation of refugees and
displaced persons in their prewar residences. Displacement of population is a
consequence of war originating in the ancient times. With the increase of number
of war conflicts in the world, the number of non-state war conflicts and number of
displaced persons is growing.
One of the hardest consequences of war in Bosnia and Herzegovina is over
a million of refugees and displaced persons. Estimate on number of refugees and
displaced persons in entire war areas of former SFRY is over
3,5
millions. In the
middle of
1995
number of refugees and displaced persons in BH was
1.327.000.
Only a small number of population abandoned their residence due to typical
war activities, while the most of the population was forced to leave in planned
and organized actions of "ethnic cleansing" in BH. A unique pattern of killing,
displacement and maltreatment is documented on vast area of BH that stretches
from
Foča
and
Goražde,
through valley of river
Drina
to Zvornik, then further west
to
Banja Luka, Prijedor
and
Bihać.
Towards the end of the war in
1995,
number of refugees and displaced
persons was
2,9
millions or around
70 %
of the prewar population in BH. It
clearly indicates that the ultimate goal of war was occupation of the territory and
preventing the other side to use its resources. Considering the fact that landmines,
with their known characteristics, are perfect instruments for prevention of use of
these resources, i.e. land, economic infrastructure, communication network, and
residences, it was logical to expect their mass use in war conflict.
War in BH did not demonstrate many cases of landmine use in direct
offensive against population in purpose of their intimidation and displacement, as
it was the case in Cambodia. Instead of landmines, other methods were used, such
as killing, intimidation and persecution. Nevertheless, landmines were planted so
as to unable refugees and displaced persons to return, or to prevent remaining of
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the population use of natural resources, thus impoverishing them and forcing them
to leave.
One research in BH has shown that landmines were a cause of departure and
inability to return of the
25 %
of population. Mined areas prevent repatriation even
in the case of political agreement. Six months after Dayton Peace Agreement was
signed, with which repatriation process was politically arranged, it was established
that in the meantime number of displaced persons in Bosnia and Herzegovina was
not decreasing, but increasing instead. Increase in number of displaced population
is a consequence of general decline of situation and continuation of war in political
terms. Although further mine contamination and all other war actions were stopped
by implementation of the Agreement, earlier mining was still a significant obstacle
in repatriation process.
Nevertheless, from the viewpoint of repatriation of displaced persons and
refugees landmines have unlimited duration, because they remain lethal during the
life of two-three generations. Considering the fact that a large number of landmines
were planted in BH, their removal requires substantial financial means and time,
which would largely exceed duration of psychological readiness of refugees and
displaced persons to return to their prewar residences. Mine danger was nearly
neglected in repatriation process, and it becomes serious only when somebody
is hurt, like it was the case with the death of the five members of one family that
returned in
Bosanska Posavina.
This illustrates that mine removal must precede the
repatriation program.
The next group of consequences caused by landmines is of ecological nature.
Due to priorities in mine danger removal, this issue is not being approached
seriously, nor is it defined as an ecological disaster. After war conflict is over
duration of landmines is extended into peacetime, and in this way is seriously
conditioning and determining way of life of civilians.
Considering the duration of period in which they can be activated, their
number and variety of types, landmines can be compared to great ecological
accidents and disasters. Consequences of landmine use and typical ecological
disasters can be compared in more different instances. In period between
1976-
1989,
in industrial accidents worldwide, that had enormous consequences on
environment, around
25.000
person died or were injured, while at the same time
period number of mine victims was six time bigger.
Besides direct consequences for life and health of population, and the fact
that they can cause long-term and serious changes in environment, vast areas of
agricultural land, woods, water springs, and water flows are still unexploited due
to landmines.
Mine clearance costs and reorganization of their negative influence can be
compared to costs of other ecological catastrophes. Total material damage caused
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MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
by Chernobyl catastrophe, as well as the cost of its renovation, are estimated to
14
billions USD, which equals to mine clearance in Afghanistan, Angola and Iraq,
provided that exact topography and geometry of minefields are known, which
unfortunately is not always the case. Due to landmine activation, there comes to
strong chemical process and explosion that does not exist in nature, so it affects the
changes in atmosphere, ground and water characteristics.
Landmine barriers are significantly changing the structure of the environment,
disable movements and living, and injure and kill people and animals that try to
pursue their everyday life activities. All this indicates that, due to their consequences
on people and environment, landmines can be compared to ecological, chemical
and nuclear weapons.
Ecological weapons are all the means that change the natural processes for
the military purposes. For example, artificial precipitations, snow melting, storms,
floods, tsunamis, sea currents and other. These weapons are not developed as other
standard weapons, so they are rarely used in practice.
Chemical weapons are more frequently used than ecological, therefore
causing more ill effects. Since the end of World War II use of chemical weapons was,
with different estimates, registered in
15-20
war conflicts, while at the same time
landmines were used in all war conflict, to higher or lower extent.
Comparison of landmines and nuclear weapons would not be appropriate due
to frequency of landmine use as typical and cheap mechanism in local conflicts, in
contrast to very complicated and expensive technologies that produce instruments
for mass destruction of human beings and natural resources. Fortunately, this
weapon has been used only two times (Hiroshima and Nagasaki) and their
consequences still today present a warning of a man caused disaster.
However, duration of functioning of these two weapons, as well as their
results, give justification to their comparison and identify suitable landmine lead
in terms of decade's long duration and their slow, but continuing accumulation of
victims and incapacitation the land.
Number of mine victims after World War II has long since exceeded total
number of victims from combat nuclear and chemical weapons use in both world
wars. In terms of incapacitation of environment, landmines disabled considerable
larger areas than nuclear weapons.
Having in mind all the ill effects that landmines cause, it became evident
that they are more and more treated as an ecological problem, to which an official
terminology is adjusting to. Namely, standard military terms are increasingly
being replaced by ecological terms. As a result, mine planting is called pollution,
and demining is called clearance. The fact that all three of these weapons are
internationally legally forbidden (ecological, chemical, and landmines) is very
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MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
encouraging, and present the best solution and prospect for all weapons in the
world.
Mine actions present a group of activities directed towards solving difficulties
originated from mine and unexploded ordnance contamination. They suggest
reestablishment
of safe environment in areas contaminated with mines and
unexploded ordnance, thus ensuring normal life and economic development of
the community, without any restraint. Therefore, affected local communities and
individuals, and their needs have a central place in planning and implementation
of mine actions. Integrated mine action plans for affected local community present
new concept in solving landmine problems. It implies that through interaction
of different components of mine actions, anti-mine effects are multiplied, and
mine risk and its negative socio-economic influence is reduced, which is the main
objective of all mine actions in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The main elements of mine actions are the following:
•
Humanitarian demining operations;
•
Mine risk education;
•
Mine victim assistance;
•
Destruction of stockpiles of antipersonnel mines;
•
Advocacy.
Regardless of the fact that all elements of mine actions in Bosnia and
Herzegovina are highly developed, fast and simple solution to mine problem can not
be expected. Mine actions are one of the priorities of medium-term development
strategy in BH. Coordination between objectives and plans of mine action strategy
and other special strategies needs to be implemented through comprehensive
development strategy in BH. By connecting mine problem with other activities,
economic growth, quality of life and general prosperity is increasing, as a precondition
for efficient solution to mine problem and their socio-economic influence.
Humanitarian demining operations present a group of activities whose main
objective is mine danger removal. They include mine clearance, survey, marking,
quality assurance, and mapping.
Mine danger removal is one of the most important humanitarian principles,
which presents a precondition for reconstruction of land, natural and economic
resources, as well as return of displaced persons. The final objective is reduction of
suspected areas. This reduction is performed through: systematic survey (general
assessment of mine situation), general survey, data gathering, assessment of level of
risk, and identification of minefields.
Reduction of suspected area through systematic survey is conducted by
survey teams of Mine Action Centre in BH, as a separate activity, but also as a
supporting activity during the general survey.
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MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
Generał
survey of the suspected area is conducted by Mine Action Centre
in BH, whose objective is information gathering and data processing, minefields
identification and preparation of project documentation for humanitarian demining
operations and mine action plans.
Technical survey operations help to reduce suspected area where there is
confirmed existence of minefields or there exists high probability of minefields.
Technical survey operations are conducted by accredited demining organizations
under the supervision of Mine Action Centre in BH. Accredited demining
organizations conduct mine clearance operations under the expert supervision of
Mine Action Centre in BH.
Suspected area marking is an activity of risk reduction that includes urgent
and permanent marking of the suspected areas. Permanent marking is conducted
by accredited demining organizations and all other organizations in accordance
with the project documentation of Mine Action Centre in BH. Urgent marking is
a part of mine risk education, but also an integral part of humanitarian demining
operations. It is conducted by accredited demining organizations that perform mine
risk education and Mine Action Centre in BH.
Quality assurance of humanitarian demining operations is implemented
through expert supervision of humanitarian demining operations, evaluation
and accreditation of humanitarian organizations, training and testing, safety and
measures of protection at demining sites, internal quality control of demining
organization, and supervision by the contractor. The key role in quality assurance
has Mine Action Centre in BH. They organize systems of quality control and
manage the process in accordance with legal provisions, Standards for mine and
unexploded ordnance removal, and other regulations that are presented by the
Demining Commission.
Mine risk education is a component of mine actions whose main objective is
to reduce mine risk to which people, property and environment are exposed to, thus
enabling safe living and free socio-economic development. That is an educational
process whose aim is safety of mine-affected communities, so that people would
become aware not only of the risk, but also how to reduce the risk to which they,
their property and their environment are exposed to. Mine risk education is
usually not an independent activity. It presents an integral part of planning and
implementation of mine actions.
Mine risk education includes three interconnected activities: public
information dissemination, education and training, and community mine action
activity cooperation.
Public information dissemination as a part of the mine risk education is
related to activities of public information, whose main objective is mine risk
reduction through mine awareness among individuals and affected communities.
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It is primarily connected with one-way communication that is transmitted through
media by giving relevant information and advice in efficient and prompt manner.
This information can be directed towards messages about mine risk reduction on
local level, and public support for mine action program on all levels.
Education and training refer to all educational activities that aim at mine
risk reduction through mine awareness of individuals and affected communities,
so that they could behave accordingly. Education and training is a two-way process
that includes exchange of knowledge, opinion and practice through teaching
and learning. Activities of education and training can be performed in formal
and non-formal environment. For example, it can be education and training in
schools: teacher-student; family education: parents-children or children-parents;
peer education in work and recreational environment: safety training for mine
protection for humanitarian and other workers, and insertion of safety instruction
in health care and safety services.
Community mine action activity cooperation is related to system and
procedures of exchange
ofinformation
among government institutions, organizations
that deal with mine actions and affected communities about presence of mines and
their potential risk. These procedures and system enable high level
ofinformation
of
the affected community about planned demining actions, about nature and duration
of tasks and exact locations that are marked or cleaned. Affected community
informs local authorities and demining organizations about a place and size of
the contaminated area. This information can be of great assistance in eliminating
planning problems in mine actions in affected community. Involving communities
in mine action activities provide additional information for the staff employed in
program planning and designing suitable projects for mine risk reduction.
Mine victim assistance is a component of mine actions for which a separate
strategy is to be developed due to the importance of mine victims rehabilitation and
reintegration in
Bosnian and Herzegovinian society.
Priorities in mine victims tasks:
-
Improvement and coordination of law regulations relating to persons with
disabilities;
-
Strengthen rehabilitation system;
-
Increase awareness of deficiency as a way to improve quality of life;
-
Employment of persons with disabilities.
This concept directs mine victims assistance within the framework of overall
systems of social welfare and health care for persons with disabilities. Implementation
of mine victim assistance depends upon progress of future reforms in fields of
social welfare, employment and health care system. The basic preconditions for
implementation of aforesaid priorities are: development of system of coordination,
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MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
quality assurance system, and information system, improvement of planning and
information, and reliance on local capacities for mine victim assistance.
The head coordinator of mine victim assistance is Mine Action Centre in
BH. Coordination with other organizations and institutions involved in mine
victim assistance is accomplished through coordination group that bring together
all subjects active in field
ormine
victim assistance, and through the Committee for
mine victim assistance as an operational body of the coordination group.
Development of quality assurance system will focus on establishing standards
for medical rehabilitation, ortho-prosthetics services, training of staff for quality
assurance, standard operational procedures for implementation of different projects
for mine victim assistance, accreditation for work in BH, and organization and
evaluation of projects.
Destruction of stockpiles of landmines implies destruction of stockpiles and
clearance of surrounding area, i.e. destruction of landmines in contaminated areas.
For Ottawa Convention signatory country, destruction of landmine stockpiles is
determined by the Articles
4
and
5
of the Convention.
Each State Party undertakes to destroy or ensure the destruction of all
stockpiled anti-personnel mines it owns or possesses, or that are under its
jurisdiction, as soon as possible but not later than four years after signing the
Convention. Each State Party undertakes to destroy or ensure the destruction of all
anti-personnel mines in mined areas under its jurisdiction, not later than ten years
after signing the Convention.
In addition, the Convention is enabling all State Parties that believe that
they will be unable to destroy or ensure the destruction of all anti-personnel mines
within the deadline, an extension for completing the destruction of such anti¬
personnel mines, for a period of up to ten years.
Countries signatories of the Convention are oriented towards mutual
cooperation and assistance in order to perform all provisions of the Convention.
As it was earlier stated, Bosnia and Herzegovina signed Ottawa Convention on
3
December
1997.
The Convention was ratified on
8
September
1998,
and on
1
March
1999,
it entered into force and became obligatory Convention for BH.
Advocacy implies spreading knowledge about international norms
and encourages governments to work according to and implement Ottawa
Convention.
Successful organization and implementation of mine actions depend upon
three mutually balanced elements. On one side that is reduction of mine risk and its
socio-economic influence, and on the other side available capacities and financing
of mine actions.
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The main objective of mine actions is reduction of mine risk and its socio-
economic influence on the acceptable level. The character
ormine
problem requires
more efficient risk management through constant mine situation assessment,
efficient planning, coordination and joining all components of mine actions in one
integrated process. In the centre of the mine action is affected community and its
needs. Complexity of mine problem in BH is such that fast and simple solution can
not be anticipated. Using clear politics in prioritizing mine actions, attention can be
directed towards implementation of strategic and operational plans.
Immediately after the Dayton Peace Agreement was signed, International
Community started activities to establish a structure for organization, coordination
and implementation of demining activities in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In June
1996
United Nations, supported by United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) have established United Nations Mine Action Centre
(UNMAC) in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It symbolizes the time when official mine
clearance in BH started. UNMAC took over all minefield records from
SFOR,
and
began training local staff for tasks in mine action activities.
In July of
1998,
national structures took over responsibilities to implement
demining activities, with further financial, expert and technical assistance of UNDP.
In
1997,
in order to coordinate all donor activities and mobilize all capacities for
demining activities, UNDP established International Trust Fund for Demining with
head office in Slovenia. This institution started its activities in
1998
as International
Trust Fund for Demining and Mine Victim Assistance in BH, later spreading its
activities on other endangered countries in the region. Upon issuing the Demining
Law in Bosnia and Herzegovina in February
2002,
a legal framework was made for
the conduct of humanitarian demining operations and other mine actions in Bosnia
and Herzegovina.
Mine Action Strategy in Bosnia and Herzegovina is a basic document
for execution of humanitarian demining operations and other mine actions.
Development of the integral strategy of mine actions in Bosnia and Herzegovina
is a product of number of factors that influence humanitarian demining process.
Among them, the most important ones are:
-
Expectations of the citizens of BH: awareness of ever-growing long-term
mine danger, that has created broad public opinion on this matter;
-
Mine actions as a precondition for reconstruction of the country: numerous
economic and natural resources can not be re-established and used due to
mine contamination;
-
Obtain level of capacity: expertise of the staff and identification of mine
situation enables long-term definition of objectives and the most important
projects;
270
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
-
Countries donors and donor organizations expect firm politics for mine
actions. This politics is to be defined and implemented by the state bodies
inBH.
First Demining Strategy in BH at the beginning of
2002
related significantly
on total structure of mine actions and attitude of interested parties towards mine
problem in BH. New gained experiences on strategic planning on state level pointed
at discrepancy between real needs for mine risk reduction in BH and material and
other opportunities for realization of annual plans. This was a starting point in
revision of existing Demining Strategy in BH in
2003.
Process of revision is based upon harmonization of mine actions and
international conventions and standards, connection with BH mid-term development
strategy, the nature of mine actions, coordination and partnership, humanitarian
significance and integrated approach to mine actions in local community.
Existing Mine Action Strategy in BH for period
2002-2010
was ratified by
BH Council of Ministers on
15
April
2004.
A starting point for the Strategy were
UN Mine Action Strategy for period
2001-2005,
Demining Law in BH, provisions
adopted from Ottawa Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling,
Production and Transport of Antipersonnel Mines and on their Destruction
and other International Conventions, International Standards for Mine Actions,
available data about mine situation in BH, available facilities for mine actions, and
previous practice.
Concept that was offered in existing Strategy predicts total clearance of
contaminated areas of first category of priority, partial reduction and complete
marking of area of second category of priority, and permanent marking of entrance
into areas of third category of priority. As a result, a significant contaminated
area would be cleaned, which would reduce mine risk and create conditions for
normal life.
These tasks would be followed by important activities of mine risk education
and activities of destruction of unexploded ordnance and other explosive ordnances
that people still possess. The vision of the Strategy predicts BH that is not
contaminated with mines and unexploded ordnance, where individuals and
communities can live safe, peaceful and normal life, and where mine victims are
completely integrated into society.
BH Mine Action Strategy adopted in
2003,
with a clear vision and objectives
connected to normalization of life, development, and safe return, establishes general
opinion that demining and other mine actions are one of the basic preconditions
for country's reconstruction. This Strategy is accepted by international and national
subjects engaged in this field of work, and it supports interest of the International
Community for different projects that could not be realized without previous
demining of the concrete area.
271
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
Realization of the demining process in
BH
requires legislative that would
enable full control of this process by the government authorities. The Law was
enacted on
12
February
2002.
It defines authorizations and duties of the Council of
Ministers, Demining Commission, BH MAC, and regulations related to demining
organizations,
deminers,
etc. The structure of the demining organization in Bosnia
and Herzegovina consists of state level bodies, entity level bodies, and international
level bodies.
State level bodies are the following:
BH Demining Commission is a part of Ministry of Civil Affairs and
Communication and for its work is responsible directly to this Ministry. Main
objectives of the Commission are the following:
-
The Commission represents Bosnia and Herzegovina at all the conferences,
both national and international, related to the mine action, particularly in
the campaign to ban landmines, as well as at the professional conferences;
-
The Commission approves Standards for mine clearance and unexploded
ordnance operations in BH;
-
The Commission recommends qualified and competent candidates for the
positions of BH MAC director, director's assistants and the chief of finance,
to be nominated by the Council of Ministers;
-
At the proposal of the director, approves internal regulations for work in
Mine Action Centre in BH;
-
Facilitates cooperation between the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
and the Republic of
Srpska;
-
Submits report to BH Council of Ministers and regularly informs the Board
of Donors about Commission's activities, as well as about the progress in
demining, in accordance with reports provided by BH MAC;
-
Conducts other tasks in accordance with the Decision of Establishment.
Mine Action Centre in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BH MAC) is a technical
office of the Demining Commission. It was established by the decision of BH
Council of Ministers. The law specifies offices in
Banja Luka
and Sarajevo that
report directly to BH MAC. BH MAC can temporarily establish regional offices, if
needed. BH MAC objectives are the following:
-
Central database of mine actions;
-
Projects proposal and preparation;
-
General survey;
-
Establish priorities for mine actions;
-
Technical supervision of mine actions;
-
Propose standards for mine actions;
-
Issue certificates for conducted demining and technical survey operations;
-
Testing and accreditation of demining organizations for mine actions;
272
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I
HERCEGOVIN!
-
Prepare work plans and reports of mine actions for the Demining
Commission and the Board of Donors;
-
Coordination and supervision of implementation of Mine Action Strategy;
-
Perform other tasks in accordance with the Decision of Establishment.
The work of BH MAC is supervised by the Demining Commission. Demining
Law entitled Mine Action Centre in BH to conduct mine actions on entire territory
of BH. Law also regulates implementation of demining operations in accordance
with the BH Mine Action Strategy that was adopted in April
2003.
It confirms the
objective to conduct clearance of the areas of first category of priority by
2010.
Implementation of mine clearance operations officially started in
1996,
and by the
end of
2003
only
45
km2 of the area was cleaned.
The Entity bodies are established to facilitate contact with the Board of
Donors and determine responsibilities of Civil Protection and armed forces in the
demining process.
One of very important international bodies in BH is the Board of Donors that
supports the work of the Demining Commission and BH MAC, whose president is
appointed by High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina. The members of
the Board are representatives of international organizations and governments that
support implementation of mine actions in BH.
The demining process in BH is implemented based on the Demining Plan
for Bosnia and Herzegovina, proposed by BH MAC. The Plan is approved by the
Demining Commission in cooperation with the Board of Donors and adopted by
the Council of Ministers. The resources for implementation of Demining Plan come
from donors, budgets of the institutions in BH and both Entities, as well as other
sources.
Demining works in BH are conducted by qualified international and national
demining organizations accredited by BH MAC. Demining organizations are obliged
to conduct demining activities in accordance with the Regulations and Standards
for mine and unexploded ordnance clearance in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
According to the regulations of the BH Demining Law,
deminer
can be
person older than
18
years of age, with minimum secondary education.
Deminer
can not be a person convicted of criminal activity against BH, against life, body
and property, and other criminal activities with elements of violent behavior, self-
interest and ulterior motives.
Deminer
has to be mentally and physically competent,
which is proved by certificate of the authorized health institution. The mandatory
requirement is appropriate technical exam according to BH Standards.
Demining organization is obliged to make a contract with an insurance
company on the life insurance of its
deminers in
case of death or injury caused by
demining activities. Supervision over demining activities is performed by quality
assurance inspectors of BH MAC.
273
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
Standards for mine and unexploded ordnance removal in Bosnia and
Herzegovina present a basic document for humanitarian demining operations on
territory of BH. BH Standards are written based on International Mine Action
Standards
(IMAS),
UN MAC Technical and Safety Guidelines for Humanitarian
Demining Operations in BH, regulations of BH Demining Law, and theory and
practice in BH and internationally. Standards describe minimum of technical and
safety measures that demining organizations need to include in their Standard
Operational Procedures for humanitarian demining operations in Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
Each organization formulates their own Standard Operational Procedures
in which they include conditions of Standards and other more experienced
technical and safety measures for the purpose of safety of men who are conducting
humanitarian demining operations and quality control of the cleaned area for users/
inhabitants in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Regulations of the BH Standards and technical and safety measures included
in demining organizations Standard Operational Procedures are inspected by
BH MAC inspectors. Standards enable the staff to realize mine and unexploded
ordnance removal in BH and make a foundation for interpretation of any similar
activity. The importance of Standards requires that they are constantly revised and
improved. Standardization process is not yet finished and certain elements of mine
actions need to be processed more thoroughly.
Current Standards were adopted on
5
June
2003,
and they consist of
15
chapters:
-
Training;
-
Marking of the mined areas and demining sites;
-
Demining site layout and manual operations;
-
Destruction of mines and UXOs;
-
Mine survey;
-
Explosive ordnance removal;
-
System of communication, registering data, and reporting;
-
Takeover of demined area or building;
-
Safety;
-
Medical support and casualty evacuation;
-
Quality assurance;
-
EDD
teams;
-
Demining accident investigation;
-
Mechanical ground preparation;
-
House clearance.
International activities regarding mine actions can be observed through
contacts with Governments of foreign countries through their Embassies in BH,
274
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
through BH Embassies abroad, and various non-governmental organizations, with
the purpose of ensuring continuous financing of mine actions in BH.
Bosnia and Herzegovina as an independent country, the Demining
Commission and BH MAC established a continuous cooperation with all European
countries, Japan, China and Islamic countries. The special form of cooperation
was established with the Government of the United States of America that is
based on principle "dollar for dollar", through which they are participating in the
implementation of the large number of demining projects and other mine actions
in BH. Important segment in implementation of mine actions in BH is European
Union that is supporting these activities, especially by financially assisting demining
teams of the Civil Protection.
Stabilization forces
(SFOR)
are in many ways involved in implementation
of mine actions in BH as well.
SFOR
responsibilities regarding mine problem are:
inspections of storage depots of ammunition and weapons, gathering weapons and
explosive ordnance in operation "Harvest", and technical support to entity armies
in execution of humanitarian demining operations.
SFOR
supervisors monitor
employment of all International Mine Actions Standards in BH.
One of the important parts of the implementation of mine actions in BH
is participation of foreign non-governmental commercial organizations that are
actively involved in humanitarian demining and other mine actions in BH. This
contributes to participation of Governments of foreign countries in terms of
financing various projects, especially projects on which they are engaged.
In
2004
UNDP started new five years integrated mine action program in BH
worth
11,8
millions USD. It aims at establishing connection between mine removal
priorities and long-term economic development program, by preventing the trend
of mine removal process decline which is the result of lack of donations.
The program has three components. The first one is building capacities that
would enable BH Government to take over a full ownership over implementation
of mine actions in time of
18
months; the second one is clearance of
4
km2 of the
mined area selected due to its economic value and repatriation process; the third
one is transformation of BH armed forces in long-term national capacity that would
be able to undertake the implementation of mine actions in BH.
In Southeastern Europe there exists an initiative for cooperation between
countries in region, especially in terms of technical cooperation, education and
development of regional capacities. For that purpose, Southeastern Europe Mine
Action Coordination Committee was founded in
2000
under patronage of
ITE
The
result of the development of regional capacities is the opening of the Centre for
EOD Training in
2003
in
Konjic, BH.
Funding of the first three years was provided
by Government of the United States of America, after which the responsibilities
come within the authority of BH Council of Ministers.
275
MINSKI RAT U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
International Community
has thus far invested significant financial means in
demining process, provided expert help and personnel, imposed standards, made a
contribution in sophisticated equipment, and other tools necessary for mine danger
removal process. Assessments of the future financial situation of mine actions in
Bosnia and Herzegovina are becoming increasingly uncertain. It is necessary to
create national capacities for mine action fund raising, but also to initiate specific
funds within budgets on all levels of government in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
276 |
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| author | Hasanagić, Fadil |
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| id | DE-604.BV022512475 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T17:59:50Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T20:59:13Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9958781182 |
| language | Bosnian |
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| physical | 299 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| publishDate | 2006 |
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| spelling | Hasanagić, Fadil Verfasser aut Minski rat u Bosni i Hercegovini Fadil Hasanagić Bihać Grafičar 2006 299 S. Ill., graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Mine action war in Bosnia and Hercegovina Geschichte 1992-1995 gnd rswk-swf Bosnienkrieg (DE-588)4345999-7 gnd rswk-swf Landmine (DE-588)4123608-7 gnd rswk-swf Bosnienkrieg (DE-588)4345999-7 s Landmine (DE-588)4123608-7 s Geschichte 1992-1995 z DE-604 Digitalisierung BSBMuenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015719341&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015719341&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Hasanagić, Fadil Minski rat u Bosni i Hercegovini Bosnienkrieg (DE-588)4345999-7 gnd Landmine (DE-588)4123608-7 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4345999-7 (DE-588)4123608-7 |
| title | Minski rat u Bosni i Hercegovini |
| title_auth | Minski rat u Bosni i Hercegovini |
| title_exact_search | Minski rat u Bosni i Hercegovini |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Minski rat u Bosni i Hercegovini |
| title_full | Minski rat u Bosni i Hercegovini Fadil Hasanagić |
| title_fullStr | Minski rat u Bosni i Hercegovini Fadil Hasanagić |
| title_full_unstemmed | Minski rat u Bosni i Hercegovini Fadil Hasanagić |
| title_short | Minski rat u Bosni i Hercegovini |
| title_sort | minski rat u bosni i hercegovini |
| topic | Bosnienkrieg (DE-588)4345999-7 gnd Landmine (DE-588)4123608-7 gnd |
| topic_facet | Bosnienkrieg Landmine |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015719341&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015719341&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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