Physics and engineering of radiation detection:
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
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Amsterdam [u.a.]
Elsevier Academic Press
2007
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| Ausgabe: | 1. ed. |
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| Beschreibung: | XXIV, 764 S. graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 9780120455812 0120455811 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Physics and engineering of radiation detection |c Syed Naeem Ahmed |
| 250 | |a 1. ed. | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a Amsterdam [u.a.] |b Elsevier Academic Press |c 2007 | |
| 300 | |a XXIV, 764 S. |b graph. Darst. | ||
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804136563013058560 |
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| adam_text | PHYSICS AND ENGINEERING OF RADIATION DETECTION SYED NAEEM AHMED QUEEN S
UNIVERSITY, KINGSTON, ONTARIO ^ ^ ^ ^ AE AMSTERDAM * BOSTON * HEIDELBERG
* LONDON 1 F SK NEW YORK * OXFORD * PARIS * SAN DIEGO JRTB SAN FRANCISCO
* SINGAPORE * SYDNEY * TOKYO ELSEVIER ACADEMIC PRESS IS AN IMPRINT OF
ELSEVIER %. CONTENTS PREFACE XXIII 1 PROPERTIES AND SOURCES OF RADIATION
1 1.1 TYPES OF RADIATION 1 1.2 WAVES OR PARTICLES? 2 1.3 RADIOACTIVITY
AND RADIOACTIVE DECAY 4 1.3.A DECAY ENERGY OR Q-VALUE 9 1.3.B THE DECAY
EQUATION 11 1.3.C COMPOSITE RADIONUCLIDES 15 1.3.D RADIOACTIVE CHAIN 18
1.3.E DECAY EQUILIBRIUM 22 E.L SECULAR EQUILIBRIUM 22 E.2 TRANSIENT
EQUILIBRIUM 24 E.3 NO EQUILIBRIUM 24 1.3.F BRANDUNG RATIO 24 1.3.G UNITS
OF RADIOACTIVITY 25 1.4 ACTIVATION 26 1.5 SOURCES OF RADIATION 27 1.5.A
NATURAL SOURCES 27 A.L COSMIC RADIATION SOURCES 27 A.2 TERRESTRIAL
RADIATION SOURCES 28 A.3 INTERNAL RADIATION SOURCES 28 1.5.B MAN-MADE
SOURCES 29 1.6 GENERAL PROPERTIES AND SOURCES OF PARTICLES AND WAVES 30
1.6.A PHOTONS 31 A.L SOURCES OF PHOTONS 32 1.6.B ELECTRONS 41 B.L
SOURCES OF ELECTRONS 42 1.6.C POSITRONS 45 C.L SOURCES OF POSITRONS 45
1.6.D PROTONS 46 D.L SOURCES OF PROTONS 47 1.6.E NEUTRONS 48 E.L SOURCES
OF NEUTRONS 49 1.6.F ALPHA PARTICLES 53 F.L SOURCES OF A-PARTICLES 54
1.6.G FISSION FRAGMENTS 54 VII * * » 1.6.H MUONS, NEUTRINOS AND OTHER
PARTICLES 56 H.L MUONS 56 H.2 NEUTRINOS 56 H.3 SOME OTHER PARTICLES 57 2
INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER 65 2.1 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS AND
TERMINOLOGIES 65 2.LA INVERSE SQUARE LAW 66 2.1.B CROSS SECTION 67 2.1.C
MEAN FREE PATH 68 2.1.D RADIATION LENGTH 70 2.1.E CONSERVATION LAWS 74
E.L CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 75 E.2 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 75 E.3
CONSERVATION OF ELECTRICAL CHARGE 76 2.2 TYPES OF PARTICLE INTERACTIONS
76 2.2.A ELASTIC SCATTERING 77 2.2.B INELASTIC SCATTERING 77 2.2.C
ANNIHILATION 77 2.2.D BREMSSTRAHLUNG 79 2.2.E CHERENKOV RADIATION 80 2.3
INTERACTION OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER 82 2.3.A INTERACTION MECHANISMS 82
A.L PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 83 A.2 COMPTON SCATTERING 87 A.3 THOMPSON
SCATTERING 94 A.4 RAYLEIGH SCATTERING 94 A.5 PAIR PRODUCTION 95 2.3.B
PASSAGE OF PHOTONS THROUGH MATTER 97 B.L MEASURING ATTENUATION
COEFFICIENT 101 B.2 MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS 102 B.3 STACKED MATERIALS 103
2.4 INTERACTION OF HEAVY CHARGED PARTICLES WITH MATTER 105 2.4.A
RUTHERFORD SCATTERING 105 2.4.B PASSAGE OF CHARGED PARTICLES THROUGH
MATTER 110 2.4.C BRAGG CURVE 116 2.4.D ENERGY STRAGGLING 117 2.4.E RANGE
AND RANGE STRAGGLING 118 E.L RANGE OF A-PARTICLES 119 E.2 RANGE OF
PROTONS 121 2.5 INTERACTION OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER 122 2.5.A
INTERACTION MODES 122 A.L IONIZATION 122 A.2 MOELLER SCATTERING 123 A.3
BHABHA SCATTERING 123 A.4 ELECTRON-POSITRON ANNIHILATION 124 A.5
BREMSSTRAHLUNG 124 A.6 CHERENKOV RADIATION 125 VNI 2.5.B PASSAGE OF
ELECTRONS THROUGH MATTER 127 2.5.C ENERGY STRAGGLING 130 2.5.D RANGE OF
ELECTRONS 132 2.6 INTERACTION OF NEUTRAL PARTICLES WITH MATTER 137 2.6.A
NEUTRONS 137 A.L ELASTIC SCATTERING 138 A.2 INELASTIC SCATTERING 138 A.3
TRANSMUTATION 139 A.4 RADIATIVE CAPTURE 139 A.5 SPALLATION 139 A.6
FISSION 139 A.7 TOTAL CROSS SECTION 140 A.8 PASSAGE OF NEUTRONS THROUGH
MATTER 140 2.7 PROBLEMS 143 3 GAS FILLED DETECTORS 149 3.1 PRODUCTION OF
ELECTRON-ION PAIRS 149 3.2 DIFFUSION AND DRIFT OF CHARGES IN GASES 152
3.2.A DIFFUSION IN THE ABSENCE OF ELECTRIC FIELD 152 A.L DIFFUSION IN
THE PRESENCE OF ELECTRIC FIELD 153 3.2.B DRIFT OF CHARGES IN ELECTRIC
FIELD 153 B.L DRIFT OF IONS 153 B.2 DRIFT OF ELECTRONS 155 3.2.C EFFECTS
OF IMPURITIES ON CHARGE TRANSPORT 157 3.3 REGIONS OF OPERATION OF GAS
FILLED DETECTORS 161 3.3.A RECOMBINATION REGION 161 3.3.B ION CHAMBER
REGION 161 3.3.C PROPORTIONAL REGION 162 C.L AVALANCHE MULTIPLICATION
163 3.3.D REGION OF LIMITED PROPORTIONALITY 166 3.3.E GEIGER-MUELLER
REGION 166 E.L BREAKDOWN 166 3.3.F CONTINUOUS DISCHARGE 169 3.4
IONIZATION CHAMBERS 169 3.4.A CURRENT VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS 170 3.4.B
MECHANICAL DESIGN 170 B.L PARALLEL PLATE GEOMETRY 170 B.2 CYLINDRICAL
GEOMETRY 174 3.4.C CHOICE OF GAS 177 3,4.D SPECIAL TYPES OF ION CHAMBERS
178 D.L PARALLEL PLATE FRISCH GRID CHAMBER 178 D.2 BORON-LINED ION
CHAMBER 179 D.3 COMPENSATED ION CHAMBER 180 3.4.E APPLICATIONS OF ION
CHAMBERS 181 3.4.F ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ION CHAMBERS 181 3.5
PROPORTIONAL COUNTERS 182 3.5.A MULTIPLICATION FACTOR 184 3.5.B CHOICE
OF GAS 188 IX - B.L THRESHOLD FOR AVALANCHE MULTIPLICATION 188 B.2
QUENCHING 189 B.3 GAS GAIN 190 3.5.C SPECIAL TYPES OF PROPORTIONAL
COUNTERS 190 C.L BF 3 PROPORTIONAL COUNTER 190 C.2 HELIUM PROPORTIONAL
COUNTERS 191 C.3 MULTI-WIRE PROPORTIONAL COUNTERS 191 3.6 GEIGER-MUELLER
COUNTERS 191 3.6.A CURRENT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS 193 3.6.B DEAD TIME
194 3.6.C CHOICE OF GAS 196 3.6.D QUENCHING 197 D.L INTERNAL QUENCHING
197 D.2 EXTERNAL QUENCHING 197 3.6.E ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GM
COUNTERS 198 3.7 SOURCES OF ERROR IN GASEOUS DETECTORS 198 3.7.A
RECOMBINATION LOSSES 198 3.7.B EFFECTS OF CONTAMINANTS 200 B.L RADIATIVE
CAPTURE 201 B.2 DISSOCIATIVE CAPTURE 201 B.3 CAPTURE WITHOUT
DISSOCIATION 202 3.7.C EFFECTS OF SPACE CHARGE BUILDUP 202 3.8 DETECTOR
EFFICIENCY 207 3.8.A SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO 212 4 LIQUID FILLED DETECTORS
221 4.1 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS 221 4.1.A CHARGE PAIR GENERATION AND
RECOMBINATION 221 4.1.B DRIFT OF CHARGES 226 B.L DRIFT OF ELECTRONS 226
B.2 DRIFT OF IONS 227 4.2 LIQUID IONIZATION CHAMBER 229 4.2.A
APPLICATIONS OF LIQUID FILLED ION CHAMBERS 230 4.3 LIQUID PROPORTIONAL
COUNTERS 230 4.3.A CHARGE MULTIPLICATION 230 4.4 COMMONLY USED LIQUID
DETECTION MEDIA 233 4.5 SOURCES OF ERROR IN LIQUID FILLED LONIZING
DETECTORS 234 4.5.A RECOMBINATION 234 4.5.B PARASITIC ELECTRON CAPTURE
AND TRAPPING 236 4.6 CHERENKOV DETECTORS 240 4.7 BUBBLE CHAMBER 242 4.8
LIQUID SCINTILLATOR DETECTORS 243 5 SOLID STATE DETECTORS 249 5.1
SEMICONDUCTOR DETECTORS 249 5.1.A STRUCTURE OF SEMICONDUCTORS 250 5.1.B
CHARGE CARRIERS DISTRIBUTION 251 5.1.C INTRINSIC, COMPENSATED, AND
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS . . . . 251 5.1.D DOPING 252 X D.L DOPING WITH
ACCEPTOR IMPURITY 254 D.2 DOPING WITH DONOR IMPURITY 255 5.1.E MECHANISM
AND STATISTICS OF ELECTRON-HOLE PAIR PRODUCTION . 255 E.L INTRINSIC
ENERGY RESOLUTION 260 E.2 RECOMBINATION 261 5.1.F CHARGE CONDUCTIVITY
264 F.L DRIFT OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 265 5.1.G MATERIALS SUITABLE FOR
RADIATION DETECTION 266 G.L SILICON (SI) 267 G.2 GERMANIUM (GE) 275 G.3
GALLIUM ARSENIDE (GAAS) 279 G.4 CADMIUM-ZINC-TELLURIUM (CDZNTE) 283
5.1.H THE PN-JUNCTION 284 H.L CHARACTERISTICS OF A REVERSE-BIASED
PN-DIODE 286 H.2 SIGNAL GENERATION 291 H.3 FREQUENCY RESPONSE 294 5.1.1
MODES OF OPERATION OF A PN-DIODE 294 1.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC MODE 295 1.2
PHOTOCONDUCTIVE MODE 295 5.1.J DESIRABLE PROPERTIES 297 J.L HIGH
RADIATION FIELDS 297 J.2 LOW RADIATION FIELDS 297 5.1.K SPECIFIC
SEMICONDUCTOR DETECTORS 298 K.L PIN DIODE 298 K.2 SCHOTTKY DIODE 299 K.3
HETEROJUNCTION DIODE 300 K.4 AVALANCHE PHOTODIODE 301 K.5 SURFACE
BARRIER DETECTOR 301 K.6 POSITION SENSITIVE DETECTORS 301 5.1.L
RADIATION DAMAGE IN SEMICONDUCTORS 302 L.L DAMAGE MECHANISM AND NIEL
SCALING 302 L.2 LEAKAGE CURRENT 303 L.3 TYPE INVERSION 304 L.4 DEPLETION
VOLTAGE 305 L.5 CHARGE TRAPPING AND CARRIER LIFETIME 305 L.6 ANNEALING
305 5.2 DIAMOND DETECTORS 306 5.2.A CHARGE PAIR PRODUCTION 307 5.2.B
RECOMBINATION 307 5-2.C DRIFT OF CHARGE PAIRS 308 5.2.D LEAKAGE CURRENT
310 5.2.E DETECTOR DESIGN 310 5.2.F RADIATION HARDNESS 311 5.2.G
APPLICATIONS 312 5.3 THERMOLUMINESCENT DETECTORS 312 5.3.A PRINCIPLE OF
THERMOLUMINESCENCE 313 6 SCINTILLATION DETECTORS AND PHOTODETECTORS 319
XI 1 6.1 SCINTILLATION MECHANISM AND SCINTILLATOR PROPERTIES 320 6.1.A
BASIC SCINTILLATION MECHANISM 320 6.1.B LIGHT YIELD 322 6.1.C RISE AND
DECAY TIMES 325 6.1.D QUENCHING 327 D.L SEIF QUENCHING 327 D.2 IMPURITY
QUENCHING 327 D.3 THERMAL QUENCHING . . 327 D.4 ENERGY QUENCHING 328
6.1.E DENSITY AND ATOMIC WEIGHT 328 6.1.F MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND
STABILITY 328 6.1.G OPTICAL PROPERTIES 328 6.1.H PHOSPHORESCENCE OR
AFTERGLOW 329 6.1.1 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE 330 6.1.J RADIATION DAMAGE
332 6.1.K SCINTILLATION EFFICIENCY 333 6.2 ORGANIC SCINTILLATORS 336
6.2.A SCINTILLATION MECHANISM . . 336 6.2.B PLASTIC SCINTILLATORS 339
6.2.C LIQUID SCINTILLATORS 345 6.2.D CRYSTALLINE SCINTILLATORS 348 D.L
ANTHRACENE (C U H W ) 349 D.2 P-TERPHENYL (C 18 C U ) 350 D.3 STILBENE
(C U H 12 ) 350 6.3 INORGANIC SCINTILLATORS 350 6.3.A SCINTILLATION
MECHANISM 351 A.L EXCITON LUMINESCENCE 351 A.2 DOPANT LUMINESCENCE 352
A.3 CORE VALENCE BAND LUMINESCENCE 352 6.3.B RADIATION DAMAGE 352 6.3.C
SOME COMMON INORGANIC SCINTILLATORS 353 C.L THALLIUM DOPED SODIUM IODIDE
(NAI:TL) 354 C.2 SODIUM DOPED CESIUM IODIDE (CSI:NA) 357 C.3 THALLIUM
DOPED CESIUM IODIDE (CSI:TL) 357 C.4 BISMUTH GERMANATE (BGO) 357 C.5
CADMIUM TUNGSTATE (CWO) 358 C.6 LEAD TUNGSTATE (PWO) 358 C.7 CERIUM
DOPED GADOLINIUM SILICATE (GSO) 358 C.8 CERIUM DOPED LUTETIUM ALUMINUM
GARNET (LUAG:CE) . . 358 C.9 CERIUM DOPED YTTRIUM ALUMINUM PEROVSKITE
(YAP:CE) . 359 CIO LIQUID XENON 359 6.4 TRANSFER OF SCINTILLATION
PHOTONS 360 6.4.A TYPES OF LIGHT GUIDES 361 A.L SIMPLE REFLECTION TYPE
361 A.2 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION TYPE 362 A.3 HYBRID LIGHT GUIDES 365
6.5 PHOTODETECTORS 366 6.5.A PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBES 367 XN A.L
PHOTOCATHODE 367 A.2 ELECTRON FOCUSING STRUCTURE 372 A.3 ELECTRON
MULTIPLICATION STRUCTURE 373 A.4 VOLTAGE DIVIDER CIRCUIT 379 A.5
ELECTRON COLLECTION 379 A.6 SIGNAL READOUT 380 A.7 ENCLOSURE 380 A.8
EFFICIENCY 382 A.9 SENSITIVITY 384 A.10 GAIN 386 A.LL SPATIAL UNIFORMITY
388 A.12 TIME RESPONSE 389 A.13 FREQUENCY RESPONSE 391 A.14 ENERGY
RESOLUTION 393 A.15 MODES OF OPERATION 393 A.16 NOISE CONSIDERATIONS 396
A.17 NOISE IN ANALOG MODE 397 A.18 NOISE IN DIGITAL MODE 400 A.19 EFFECT
OF MAGNETIC FIELD 403 6.5.B PHOTODIODE DETECTORS 403 6.5.C AVALANCHE
PHOTODIODE DETECTORS (APD) 405 C.L BASIC DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS 406
C.2 MULTIPLICATION PROCESS AND GAIN FLUCTUATIONS 407 C.3 QUANTUM
EFFICIENCY AND RESPONSIVITY 411 C.4 MODES OF OPERATION 412 C.5 NOISE
CONSIDERATIONS 413 C.6 RADIATION DAMAGE 415 7 POSITION SENSITIVE
DETECTION AND IMAGING 423 7.1 SOME IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES AND
QUANTITIES 423 7.1.A SPATIAL RESOLUTION 423 A.L CROSSTALK 424 A.2
ALIASING AND ANTIALIASING 424 A.3 POINT SPREAD FUNCTION (PSF) 431 A.4
LINE SPREAD FUNCTION (LSF) 432 A.5 EDGE SPREAD FUNCTION (ESF) 433 A.6
MODULATION TRANSFER FUNCTION (MTF) 434 7.1.B EFFICIENCY 437 B.L QUANTUM
EFFICIENCY 437 B.2 SPATIAL DETECTIVE QUANTUM EFFICIENCY (DQE(F)) 438
7.1.C SENSITIVITY 439 7.1.D DYNAMIC RANGE 439 7.1.E UNIFORMITY 439 7.1.F
TEMPORAL LINEARITY 440 7.1.G NOISE AND SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO (S/N) 440
7.2 POSITION SENSITIVE DETECTION 441 7.2.A TYPES OF POSITION SENSITIVE
DETECTORS 441 A.L ARRAY DEVICES 441 XIII A.2 SCANNING DEVICES 441 A.3
TIMING DEVICES 441 7.2.B MULTIWIRE PROPORTIONAL CHAMBERS (MWPCS) 441
7.2.C MULTIWIRE DRIFT CHAMBER 445 7.2.D MICROSTRIP GAS CHAMBERS 445
7.2.E SEMICONDUCTOR MICROSTRIP DETECTORS (SMSDS) 446 7.3 IMAGING DEVICES
450 7.3.A CONVENTIONAL IMAGING 450 A.L X-RAY PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS 450 A.2
THERMOLUMINESCENT DETECTOR ARRAYS 451 7.3.B ELECTRONICS IMAGING 451
7.3.C CHARGED COUPLED DEVICES 452 7.3.D DIRECT IMAGING 452 D.L
PROPERTIES OF A DIRECT IMAGING CCD 453 D.2 DISADVANTAGES OF DIRECT
IMAGING 455 7.3.E INDIRECT IMAGING 456 7.3.F MICROSTRIP AND MULTIWIRE
DETECTORS 457 7.3.G SCINTILLATING FIBER DETECTORS 457 8 SIGNAL
PROCESSING 463 8.1 PREAMPLIFICATION 464 8. LA VOLTAGE SENSITIVE
PREAMPLIFIER 465 8.1.B CURRENT SENSITIVE PREAMPLIFIER 467 8.1.C CHARGE
SENSITIVE PREAMPLIFIER 468 C.L RESISTIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM 471 C.2
PULSED RESET MECHANISM 472 8.2 SIGNAL TRANSPORT 474 8.2.A TYPEOFCABLE
476 A.L COAXIAL CABLE 477 A.2 TWISTED PAIR CABLE 479 A.3 FIAT RIBBON
CABLE 479 8.3 PULSE SHAPING 480 8.3.A DELAY LINE PULSE SHAPING 480 8.3.B
CR-RC PULSE SHAPING 481 B.L POLE-ZERO CANCELLATION 485 B.2 BASELINE
SHIFT MINIMIZATION 488 8.3.C SEMI-GAUSSIAN PULSE SHAPING 488 8.3.D
SEMI-TRIANGULAR PULSE SHAPING 489 8.4 FILTERING 490 8.4.A LOW PASS
FILTER 491 8.4.B HIGH PASS FILTER 493 8.4.C BAND PASS FILTER 493 8.5
AMPLIFICATION 493 8.6 DISCRIMINATION 494 8.6.A PULSE COUNTING 495 A.L
SINGLE CHANNEL ANALYZER (SCA) 496 A.2 MULTI CHANNEL ANALYZER (MCA) 497
8.7 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION 498 XIV 8.7.A A/D-CONVERSION RELATED
PARAMETERS 498 A.L CONVERSION TIME 498 A.2 DEADTIME 498 A.3 RESOLUTION
498 A.4 NONLINEARITY 499 A.5 STABILITY 499 8.7.B A/D CONVERSION METHODS
500 B.L DIGITAL RAMP ADC 500 B.2 SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION ADC 501 B.3
TRACKING ADC 501 B.4 WILKINSON ADC 502 B.5 FLASH ADC 505 8.7.C HYBRID
ADCS 506 8.8 DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING 506 8.8.A DIGITAL FILTERS 508 8.9
ELECTRONICS NOISE 509 8.9.A TYPES OF ELECTRONICS NOISE 511 A.L JOHNSON
NOISE 511 A.2 SHOT NOISE 513 A.3 1// NOISE 514 A.4 QUANTIZATION NOISE
515 8.9.B NOISE IN SPECIFIC COMPONENTS 516 B.L NOISE IN AMPLIFIERS 516
B.2 NOISE IN ADCS 518 8.9.C MEASURING SYSTEM NOISE 519 8.9.D NOISE
REDUCTION TECHNIQUES 519 D.L DETECTOR SIGNAL 520 D.2 FREQUENCY FILTERS
520 9 ESSENTIAL STATISTICS FOR DATA ANALYSIS 525 9.1 MEASURES OF
CENTRALITY 526 9.2 MEASURE OF DISPERSION 528 9.3 PROBABILITY 528 9.3.A
FREQUENTIST APPROACH 529 9.3.B BAYESIAN APPROACH 529 9.3.C PROBABILITY
DENSITY FUNCTION 529 C.L QUANTITIES DERIVABLE FROM A P.D.F 530 C.2
MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD METHOD 533 9.3.D SOME COMMON DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS
536 , D.L BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION 536 D.2 POISSON DISTRIBUTION 537 D.3
NORMAL OR GAUSSIAN DISTRIBUTION 539 D.4 CHI-SQUARE (X 2 ) DISTRIBUTION
542 D.5 STUDENT S T DISTRIBUTION 543 D.6 GAMMA DISTRIBUTION 544 9.4
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS 546 9.5 MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY 548 9.5.A
SYSTEMATIC ERRORS 548 XV 1 9.5.B RANDOM ERRORS 549 9.5.C ERROR
PROPAGATION 549 C.L ADDITION OF PARAMETERS 550 C.2 MULTIPLICATION OF
PARAMETERS 550 9.5.D PRESENTATION OF RESULTS 551 9.6 CONFIDENCE TESTS
551 9.6.A CHI-SQUARE (X 2 ) TEST 552 9.6.B STUDENT S T TEST ,. . . 553
9.7 REGRESSION 555 9.7.A SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION 555 9.7.B NONLINEAR
REGRESSION 556 9.8 CORRELATION 558 9.8.A PEARSON R OR SIMPLE LINEAR
CORRELATION 559 9.9 TIME SERIES ANALYSIS 561 9.9.A SMOOTHING 562 9.10
FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS 563 9.11 COUNTING STATISTICS 565 9.11.A
MEASUREMENT PRECISION AND DETECTION LIMITS 565 10 SOFTWARE FOR DATA
ANALYSIS 575 10.1 STANDARD ANALYSIS PACKAGES 575 10.1.A ROOT 575 A.L
AVAILABILITY 576 A.2 DATA HANDLING, ORGANIZATION, AND STORAGE 577 A.3
DATA ANALYSIS CAPABILITIES 579 A.4 GRAPHICS CAPABILITIES 579 A.5
USINGROOT 580 A.6 EXAMPLES 582 10.1.B ORIGIN 586 B.L DATA IMPORT
CAPABILITIES 587 B.2 GRAPHICS CAPABILITIES 588 B.3 DATA ANALYSIS
CAPABILITIES 588 B.4 PROGRAMMING ENVIRONMENT 589 B.5 EXAMPLES 589 10.1.C
MATLAB 591 C.L TOOLBOXES 592 C.2 DATA ACQUISITION AND IMPORT
CAPABILITIES 594 C.3 DATA ANALYSIS CAPABILITIES 594 C.4 VISUALIZATION
CAPABILITIES 594 C.5 PROGRAMMING ENVIRONMENT 595 C.6 EXAMPLES 595 10.2
CUSTOM-MADE DATA ANALYSIS PACKAGES 597 10.2.A DATA IMPORT/EXPORT
ROUTINES 598 10.2.B DATA ANALYSIS ROUTINES 599 10.2.C CODE GENERATION
600 10.2.D RESULT DISPLAY 600 11 DOSIMETRY AND RADIATION PROTECTION 603
11.1 IMPORTANCE OF DOSIMETRY 603 XVI LL.L.A DOSE AND DOSE RATE 604 11.2
QUANTITIES RELATED TO DOSIMETRY 604 11.2.A RADIATION EXPOSURE AND DOSE
604 A.L ROENTGEN (R) 605 A.2 ABSORBED DOSE 605 A.3 EQUIVALENT DOSE 605
A.4 EFFECTIVE DOSE 607 11.2.B FLUX OR FLUENCE RATE 609 11.2.C INTEGRATED
FLUX OR FLUENCE 610 11.2.D EXPOSURE AND ABSORBED DOSE - MATHEMATICAL
DEFINITIONS . . 611 11.2.E KERMA, CEMA, AND TERMA 615 E.L KERMA 615 E.2
CEMA 618 E.3 TERMA 618 11.2.F MEASURING KERMA AND EXPOSURE 619 11.2.G
CAVITY THEORIES 619 G.L BRAGG-GRAY CAVITY THEORY 619 G.2 SPENCER-ATTIX
CAVITY THEORY 621 11.2.H LET AND RBE 622 11.2.1 BEAM SIZE 623 11.2.J
INTERNAL DOSE 624 J.L INTERNAL DOSE FROM CHARGED PARTICLES 625 J.2
INTERNAL DOSE FROM THERMAL NEUTRONS 625 11.3 PASSIVE DOSIMETRY 627
11.3.A THERMOLUMINESCENT DOSIMETRY 627 A.L WORKING PRINCIPLE AND GLOW
CURVE 628 A.2 COMMON TL MATERIALS 629 A.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF TL DOSIMETERS 630 11.3.B OPTICALLY STIMULATED LUMINESCENCE DOSIMETRY
631 B.L WORKING PRINCIPLE AND OSL CURVE 632 B.2 COMMON OSL MATERIALS 633
11.3.C FILM DOSIMETRY 633 C.L ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FILM
DOSIMETERS 634 C.2 COMMON RADIOCHROMATIC MATERIALS 634 11.3.D TRACK ETCH
DOSIMETRY 635 D.L ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TRACK ETCH DOSIMETERS
. 636 11.4 ACTIVE DOSIMETRY 636 11.4.A ION CHAMBER DOSIMETRY 636 A.L
FREE IN AIR ION CHAMBER DOSIMETRY 637 A.2 CAVITY ION CHAMBER DOSIMETRY
639 11.4.B SOLID STATE DOSIMETRY 642 B.L MOSFET DOSIMETER 643 B.2
DIAMOND DOSIMETER 645 11.4.C PLASTIC SCINTILLATOR DOSIMETER 646 11.4.D
QUARTZ FIBER ELECTROSCOPE 647 D.L ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF QUARTZ
FIBER ELECTROSCOPE 647 11.5 MICRODOSIMETRY 649 11.5.A MICRODOSIMETRIC
QUANTITIES 649 XVN %*, . . 5 A.L LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER AND DOSE 649 A.2
SPECIFIC ENERGY 650 A.3 LINEAL ENERGY 650 11.5.B EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
651 B.L TISSUE EQUIVALENT PROPORTIONAL COUNTER (TEPC) 651 B.2 SOLID
STATE NUCLEAR TRACK DETECTOR ((SSNTD) 653 B.3 SILICON MICRODOSIMETER 655
11.6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION 656 11.6.A ACUTE AND CHRONIC
RADIATION EXPOSURE 657 A.L ACUTE EXPOSURE 658 A.2 CHRONIC EXPOSURE 659
11.6.B EFFECTS AND SYMPTOMS OF EXPOSURE 660 B.L SOMATIC EFFECTS OF
RADIATION 660 B.2 GENETIC EFFECTS OF RADIATION 660 11.6.C EXPOSURE
LIMITS 660 11.7 RADIATION PROTECTION 662 11.7.A EXPOSURE REDUCTION 662
A.L TIME 662 A.2 DISTANCE 662 A.3 SHIELDING 664 12 RADIATION
SPECTROSCOPY 673 12.1 SPECTROSCOPY OF PHOTONS 673 12.1.A 7-RAY
SPECTROSCOPY 673 12.1.B CALIBRATION 677 12.1.C X-RAY SPECTROSCOPY 678
C.L X-RAY ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY 678 C.2 X-RAY PHOTOELECTRON
SPECTROSCOPY (XPS) 686 C.3 X-RAY DIFFRACTION SPECTROSCOPY (XDS) 689 12.2
SPECTROSCOPY OF CHARGED PARTICLES 692 12.2.A A-PARTICLE SPECTROSCOPY 692
A.L ENERGY OF AN UNKNOWN A-SOURCE 697 A.2 RANGE AND STOPPING POWER OF
A-PARTICLES IN A GAS 697 A.3 ACTIVITY OF AN A SOURCE 697 12.2.B ELECTRON
SPECTROSCOPY 698 12.3 NEUTRON SPECTROSCOPY 699 12.3.A NEUTRONS AS MATTER
PROBES 699 12.3.B NEUTRON SPECTROMETRY TECHNIQUES 701 B.L TRIPLE-AXIS
SPECTROMETRY (TAS) 704 B.2 HIGH FLUX BACKSCATTERING SPECTROMETER (HFBS)
706 B.3 FILTER ANALYZER SPECTROMETER (FAS) 706 B.4 DISK CHOPPER
SPECTROMETER 707 B.5 FERMI CHOPPER SPECTROMETER (FCS) 708 B.6 SPIN ECHO
SPECTROMETER 709 12.4 MASS SPECTROSCOPY 710 12.5 TIME SPECTROSCOPY 711
13 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS 717 13.1 DATA ACQUISITION CHAIN 717 XVM
13.1.A PULSE COUNTING 717 A.L SLOW PULSE COUNTING 718 A.2 FAST PULSE
COUNTING 718 13.1.B ENERGY SPECTROSCOPY 719 13.1.C TIME SPECTROSCOPY 719
13.1.D COINCIDENCE SPECTROSCOPY 720 13.2 MODULAR INSTRUMENTS 721 13.2A
NIM STANDARD 721 A.L NIM LAYOUT 722 A.2 NIM MODULES 723 A.3 NIM LOGIC
724 A.4 SIGNAL TRANSPORT 725 13.2.B CAMAC STANDARD 725 B.L CAMAC LAYOUT
725 B.2 CAMAC CONTROLLERS 725 B.3 CAMAC LOGIC 726 13.2.C VME STANDARD
726 C.L VME LAYOUT 727 C.2 VME BACKPLANE 728 C.3 VME MODULES 728 C.4 VME
LOGIC 728 13.2.D FASTBUS STANDARD 729 D.L FASTBUS LAYOUT 729 D.2 FASTBUS
BACKPLANE 729 13.3 PC BASED SYSTEMS 729 13.3.A PCI BOARDS 729 13.3.B PC
SERIAL PORT MODULES 730 13.3.C PC PARALLEL PORT MODULES 732 13.3.D USB
BASED MODULES 732 13.3.E TCP/IP BASED SYSTEMS 732 APPENDICES 737 A
ESSENTIAL ELECTRONIC MEASURING DEVICES 739 A.L MULTIMETERS 739 A.L.A
MEASURING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT 739 A.L.B ANALOG MULTIMETER (AMM) 740
A.L.C DIGITAL MULTIMETER (DMM) 740 A.L.D MEASURING VOLTAGE 740 A.L.E
MEASURING CURRENT 741 A.2 OSCILLOSCOPE 741 A.2.A ANALOG OSCILLOSCOPE 741
A.L ATTENUATOR 742 A.2 ELECTRON GUN 742 A.3 ELECTRON BEAM DEFLECTION
SYSTEMS 742 A.4 TRIGGER SYSTEM 744 A.2.B DIGITAL OSCILLOSCOPES 744 A.2.C
SIGNAL PROBES 745 C.L PASSIVE PROBES 745 XIX *T C.2 ACTIVE PROBES 746 B
CONSTANTS AND CONVERSION FACTORS 749 B.L CONSTANTS 749 B.2 MASSES AND
ELECTRICAL CHARGES OF PARTICLES 750 B.3 CONVERSION PREFIXES 751 C VME
CONNECTOR PIN ASSIGNMENTS , 753 INDEX 757 XX
|
| adam_txt |
PHYSICS AND ENGINEERING OF RADIATION DETECTION SYED NAEEM AHMED QUEEN'S
UNIVERSITY, KINGSTON, ONTARIO ^ ^ ^ ^ AE AMSTERDAM * BOSTON * HEIDELBERG
* LONDON 1 F SK NEW YORK * OXFORD * PARIS * SAN DIEGO JRTB SAN FRANCISCO
* SINGAPORE * SYDNEY * TOKYO ELSEVIER ACADEMIC PRESS IS AN IMPRINT OF
ELSEVIER %. CONTENTS PREFACE XXIII 1 PROPERTIES AND SOURCES OF RADIATION
1 1.1 TYPES OF RADIATION 1 1.2 WAVES OR PARTICLES? 2 1.3 RADIOACTIVITY
AND RADIOACTIVE DECAY 4 1.3.A DECAY ENERGY OR Q-VALUE 9 1.3.B THE DECAY
EQUATION 11 1.3.C COMPOSITE RADIONUCLIDES 15 1.3.D RADIOACTIVE CHAIN 18
1.3.E DECAY EQUILIBRIUM 22 E.L SECULAR EQUILIBRIUM 22 E.2 TRANSIENT
EQUILIBRIUM 24 E.3 NO EQUILIBRIUM 24 1.3.F BRANDUNG RATIO 24 1.3.G UNITS
OF RADIOACTIVITY 25 1.4 ACTIVATION 26 1.5 SOURCES OF RADIATION 27 1.5.A
NATURAL SOURCES 27 A.L COSMIC RADIATION SOURCES 27 A.2 TERRESTRIAL
RADIATION SOURCES 28 A.3 INTERNAL RADIATION SOURCES 28 1.5.B MAN-MADE
SOURCES 29 1.6 GENERAL PROPERTIES AND SOURCES OF PARTICLES AND WAVES 30
1.6.A PHOTONS 31 A.L SOURCES OF PHOTONS 32 1.6.B ELECTRONS 41 B.L
SOURCES OF ELECTRONS 42 1.6.C POSITRONS 45 C.L SOURCES OF POSITRONS 45
1.6.D PROTONS 46 D.L SOURCES OF PROTONS 47 1.6.E NEUTRONS 48 E.L SOURCES
OF NEUTRONS 49 1.6.F ALPHA PARTICLES 53 F.L SOURCES OF A-PARTICLES 54
1.6.G FISSION FRAGMENTS 54 VII * * » 1.6.H MUONS, NEUTRINOS AND OTHER
PARTICLES 56 H.L MUONS 56 H.2 NEUTRINOS 56 H.3 SOME OTHER PARTICLES 57 2
INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER 65 2.1 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS AND
TERMINOLOGIES 65 2.LA INVERSE SQUARE LAW 66 2.1.B CROSS SECTION 67 2.1.C
MEAN FREE PATH 68 2.1.D RADIATION LENGTH 70 2.1.E CONSERVATION LAWS 74
E.L CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 75 E.2 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 75 E.3
CONSERVATION OF ELECTRICAL CHARGE 76 2.2 TYPES OF PARTICLE INTERACTIONS
76 2.2.A ELASTIC SCATTERING 77 2.2.B INELASTIC SCATTERING 77 2.2.C
ANNIHILATION 77 2.2.D BREMSSTRAHLUNG 79 2.2.E CHERENKOV RADIATION 80 2.3
INTERACTION OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER 82 2.3.A INTERACTION MECHANISMS 82
A.L PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 83 A.2 COMPTON SCATTERING 87 A.3 THOMPSON
SCATTERING 94 A.4 RAYLEIGH SCATTERING 94 A.5 PAIR PRODUCTION 95 2.3.B
PASSAGE OF PHOTONS THROUGH MATTER 97 B.L MEASURING ATTENUATION
COEFFICIENT 101 B.2 MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS 102 B.3 STACKED MATERIALS 103
2.4 INTERACTION OF HEAVY CHARGED PARTICLES WITH MATTER 105 2.4.A
RUTHERFORD SCATTERING 105 2.4.B PASSAGE OF CHARGED PARTICLES THROUGH
MATTER 110 2.4.C BRAGG CURVE 116 2.4.D ENERGY STRAGGLING 117 2.4.E RANGE
AND RANGE STRAGGLING 118 E.L RANGE OF A-PARTICLES 119 E.2 RANGE OF
PROTONS 121 2.5 INTERACTION OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER 122 2.5.A
INTERACTION MODES 122 A.L IONIZATION 122 A.2 MOELLER SCATTERING 123 A.3
BHABHA SCATTERING 123 A.4 ELECTRON-POSITRON ANNIHILATION 124 A.5
BREMSSTRAHLUNG 124 A.6 CHERENKOV RADIATION 125 VNI 2.5.B PASSAGE OF
ELECTRONS THROUGH MATTER 127 2.5.C ENERGY STRAGGLING 130 2.5.D RANGE OF
ELECTRONS 132 2.6 INTERACTION OF NEUTRAL PARTICLES WITH MATTER 137 2.6.A
NEUTRONS 137 A.L ELASTIC SCATTERING 138 A.2 INELASTIC SCATTERING 138 A.3
TRANSMUTATION 139 A.4 RADIATIVE CAPTURE 139 A.5 SPALLATION 139 A.6
FISSION 139 A.7 TOTAL CROSS SECTION 140 A.8 PASSAGE OF NEUTRONS THROUGH
MATTER 140 2.7 PROBLEMS 143 3 GAS FILLED DETECTORS 149 3.1 PRODUCTION OF
ELECTRON-ION PAIRS 149 3.2 DIFFUSION AND DRIFT OF CHARGES IN GASES 152
3.2.A DIFFUSION IN THE ABSENCE OF ELECTRIC FIELD 152 A.L DIFFUSION IN
THE PRESENCE OF ELECTRIC FIELD 153 3.2.B DRIFT OF CHARGES IN ELECTRIC
FIELD 153 B.L DRIFT OF IONS 153 B.2 DRIFT OF ELECTRONS 155 3.2.C EFFECTS
OF IMPURITIES ON CHARGE TRANSPORT 157 3.3 REGIONS OF OPERATION OF GAS
FILLED DETECTORS 161 3.3.A RECOMBINATION REGION 161 3.3.B ION CHAMBER
REGION 161 3.3.C PROPORTIONAL REGION 162 C.L AVALANCHE MULTIPLICATION
163 3.3.D REGION OF LIMITED PROPORTIONALITY 166 3.3.E GEIGER-MUELLER
REGION 166 E.L BREAKDOWN 166 3.3.F CONTINUOUS DISCHARGE 169 3.4
IONIZATION CHAMBERS 169 3.4.A CURRENT VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS 170 3.4.B
MECHANICAL DESIGN 170 B.L PARALLEL PLATE GEOMETRY 170 B.2 CYLINDRICAL
GEOMETRY 174 3.4.C CHOICE OF GAS 177 3,4.D SPECIAL TYPES OF ION CHAMBERS
178 D.L PARALLEL PLATE FRISCH GRID CHAMBER 178 D.2 BORON-LINED ION
CHAMBER 179 D.3 COMPENSATED ION CHAMBER 180 3.4.E APPLICATIONS OF ION
CHAMBERS 181 3.4.F ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ION CHAMBERS 181 3.5
PROPORTIONAL COUNTERS 182 3.5.A MULTIPLICATION FACTOR 184 3.5.B CHOICE
OF GAS 188 IX -\ B.L THRESHOLD FOR AVALANCHE MULTIPLICATION 188 B.2
QUENCHING 189 B.3 GAS GAIN 190 3.5.C SPECIAL TYPES OF PROPORTIONAL
COUNTERS 190 C.L BF 3 PROPORTIONAL COUNTER 190 C.2 HELIUM PROPORTIONAL
COUNTERS 191 C.3 MULTI-WIRE PROPORTIONAL COUNTERS 191 3.6 GEIGER-MUELLER
COUNTERS 191 3.6.A CURRENT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS 193 3.6.B DEAD TIME
194 3.6.C CHOICE OF GAS 196 3.6.D QUENCHING 197 D.L INTERNAL QUENCHING
197 D.2 EXTERNAL QUENCHING 197 3.6.E ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GM
COUNTERS 198 3.7 SOURCES OF ERROR IN GASEOUS DETECTORS 198 3.7.A
RECOMBINATION LOSSES 198 3.7.B EFFECTS OF CONTAMINANTS 200 B.L RADIATIVE
CAPTURE 201 B.2 DISSOCIATIVE CAPTURE 201 B.3 CAPTURE WITHOUT
DISSOCIATION 202 3.7.C EFFECTS OF SPACE CHARGE BUILDUP 202 3.8 DETECTOR
EFFICIENCY 207 3.8.A SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO 212 4 LIQUID FILLED DETECTORS
221 4.1 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS 221 4.1.A CHARGE PAIR GENERATION AND
RECOMBINATION 221 4.1.B DRIFT OF CHARGES 226 B.L DRIFT OF ELECTRONS 226
B.2 DRIFT OF IONS 227 4.2 LIQUID IONIZATION CHAMBER 229 4.2.A
APPLICATIONS OF LIQUID FILLED ION CHAMBERS 230 4.3 LIQUID PROPORTIONAL
COUNTERS 230 4.3.A CHARGE MULTIPLICATION 230 4.4 COMMONLY USED LIQUID
DETECTION MEDIA 233 4.5 SOURCES OF ERROR IN LIQUID FILLED LONIZING
DETECTORS 234 4.5.A RECOMBINATION 234 4.5.B PARASITIC ELECTRON CAPTURE
AND TRAPPING 236 4.6 CHERENKOV DETECTORS 240 4.7 BUBBLE CHAMBER 242 4.8
LIQUID SCINTILLATOR DETECTORS 243 5 SOLID STATE DETECTORS 249 5.1
SEMICONDUCTOR DETECTORS 249 5.1.A STRUCTURE OF SEMICONDUCTORS 250 5.1.B
CHARGE CARRIERS DISTRIBUTION 251 5.1.C INTRINSIC, COMPENSATED, AND
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS . . . . 251 5.1.D DOPING 252 X D.L DOPING WITH
ACCEPTOR IMPURITY 254 D.2 DOPING WITH DONOR IMPURITY 255 5.1.E MECHANISM
AND STATISTICS OF ELECTRON-HOLE PAIR PRODUCTION . 255 E.L INTRINSIC
ENERGY RESOLUTION 260 E.2 RECOMBINATION 261 5.1.F CHARGE CONDUCTIVITY
264 F.L DRIFT OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 265 5.1.G MATERIALS SUITABLE FOR
RADIATION DETECTION 266 G.L SILICON (SI) 267 G.2 GERMANIUM (GE) 275 G.3
GALLIUM ARSENIDE (GAAS) 279 G.4 CADMIUM-ZINC-TELLURIUM (CDZNTE) 283
5.1.H THE PN-JUNCTION 284 H.L CHARACTERISTICS OF A REVERSE-BIASED
PN-DIODE 286 H.2 SIGNAL GENERATION 291 H.3 FREQUENCY RESPONSE 294 5.1.1
MODES OF OPERATION OF A PN-DIODE 294 1.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC MODE 295 1.2
PHOTOCONDUCTIVE MODE 295 5.1.J DESIRABLE PROPERTIES 297 J.L HIGH
RADIATION FIELDS 297 J.2 LOW RADIATION FIELDS 297 5.1.K SPECIFIC
SEMICONDUCTOR DETECTORS 298 K.L PIN DIODE 298 K.2 SCHOTTKY DIODE 299 K.3
HETEROJUNCTION DIODE 300 K.4 AVALANCHE PHOTODIODE 301 K.5 SURFACE
BARRIER DETECTOR 301 K.6 POSITION SENSITIVE DETECTORS 301 5.1.L
RADIATION DAMAGE IN SEMICONDUCTORS 302 L.L DAMAGE MECHANISM AND NIEL
SCALING 302 L.2 LEAKAGE CURRENT 303 L.3 TYPE INVERSION 304 L.4 DEPLETION
VOLTAGE 305 L.5 CHARGE TRAPPING AND CARRIER LIFETIME 305 L.6 ANNEALING
305 5.2 DIAMOND DETECTORS 306 5.2.A CHARGE PAIR PRODUCTION 307 5.2.B
RECOMBINATION 307 5-2.C DRIFT OF CHARGE PAIRS 308 5.2.D LEAKAGE CURRENT
310 5.2.E DETECTOR DESIGN 310 5.2.F RADIATION HARDNESS 311 5.2.G
APPLICATIONS 312 5.3 THERMOLUMINESCENT DETECTORS 312 5.3.A PRINCIPLE OF
THERMOLUMINESCENCE 313 6 SCINTILLATION DETECTORS AND PHOTODETECTORS 319
XI 1 6.1 SCINTILLATION MECHANISM AND SCINTILLATOR PROPERTIES 320 6.1.A
BASIC SCINTILLATION MECHANISM 320 6.1.B LIGHT YIELD 322 6.1.C RISE AND
DECAY TIMES 325 6.1.D QUENCHING 327 D.L SEIF QUENCHING 327 D.2 IMPURITY
QUENCHING 327 D.3 THERMAL QUENCHING . . 327 D.4 ENERGY QUENCHING 328
6.1.E DENSITY AND ATOMIC WEIGHT 328 6.1.F MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND
STABILITY 328 6.1.G OPTICAL PROPERTIES 328 6.1.H PHOSPHORESCENCE OR
AFTERGLOW 329 6.1.1 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE 330 6.1.J RADIATION DAMAGE
332 6.1.K SCINTILLATION EFFICIENCY 333 6.2 ORGANIC SCINTILLATORS 336
6.2.A SCINTILLATION MECHANISM . . 336 6.2.B PLASTIC SCINTILLATORS 339
6.2.C LIQUID SCINTILLATORS 345 6.2.D CRYSTALLINE SCINTILLATORS 348 D.L
ANTHRACENE (C U H W ) 349 D.2 P-TERPHENYL (C 18 C U ) 350 D.3 STILBENE
(C U H 12 ) 350 6.3 INORGANIC SCINTILLATORS 350 6.3.A SCINTILLATION
MECHANISM 351 A.L EXCITON LUMINESCENCE 351 A.2 DOPANT LUMINESCENCE 352
A.3 CORE VALENCE BAND LUMINESCENCE 352 6.3.B RADIATION DAMAGE 352 6.3.C
SOME COMMON INORGANIC SCINTILLATORS 353 C.L THALLIUM DOPED SODIUM IODIDE
(NAI:TL) 354 C.2 SODIUM DOPED CESIUM IODIDE (CSI:NA) 357 C.3 THALLIUM
DOPED CESIUM IODIDE (CSI:TL) 357 C.4 BISMUTH GERMANATE (BGO) 357 C.5
CADMIUM TUNGSTATE (CWO) 358 C.6 LEAD TUNGSTATE (PWO) 358 C.7 CERIUM
DOPED GADOLINIUM SILICATE (GSO) 358 C.8 CERIUM DOPED LUTETIUM ALUMINUM
GARNET (LUAG:CE) . . 358 C.9 CERIUM DOPED YTTRIUM ALUMINUM PEROVSKITE
(YAP:CE) . 359 CIO LIQUID XENON 359 6.4 TRANSFER OF SCINTILLATION
PHOTONS 360 6.4.A TYPES OF LIGHT GUIDES 361 A.L SIMPLE REFLECTION TYPE
361 A.2 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION TYPE 362 A.3 HYBRID LIGHT GUIDES 365
6.5 PHOTODETECTORS 366 6.5.A PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBES 367 XN A.L
PHOTOCATHODE 367 A.2 ELECTRON FOCUSING STRUCTURE 372 A.3 ELECTRON
MULTIPLICATION STRUCTURE 373 A.4 VOLTAGE DIVIDER CIRCUIT 379 A.5
ELECTRON COLLECTION 379 A.6 SIGNAL READOUT 380 A.7 ENCLOSURE 380 A.8
EFFICIENCY 382 A.9 SENSITIVITY 384 A.10 GAIN 386 A.LL SPATIAL UNIFORMITY
388 A.12 TIME RESPONSE 389 A.13 FREQUENCY RESPONSE 391 A.14 ENERGY
RESOLUTION 393 A.15 MODES OF OPERATION 393 A.16 NOISE CONSIDERATIONS 396
A.17 NOISE IN ANALOG MODE 397 A.18 NOISE IN DIGITAL MODE 400 A.19 EFFECT
OF MAGNETIC FIELD 403 6.5.B PHOTODIODE DETECTORS 403 6.5.C AVALANCHE
PHOTODIODE DETECTORS (APD) 405 C.L BASIC DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS 406
C.2 MULTIPLICATION PROCESS AND GAIN FLUCTUATIONS 407 C.3 QUANTUM
EFFICIENCY AND RESPONSIVITY 411 C.4 MODES OF OPERATION 412 C.5 NOISE
CONSIDERATIONS 413 C.6 RADIATION DAMAGE 415 7 POSITION SENSITIVE
DETECTION AND IMAGING 423 7.1 SOME IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES AND
QUANTITIES 423 7.1.A SPATIAL RESOLUTION 423 A.L CROSSTALK 424 A.2
ALIASING AND ANTIALIASING 424 A.3 POINT SPREAD FUNCTION (PSF) 431 A.4
LINE SPREAD FUNCTION (LSF) 432 A.5 EDGE SPREAD FUNCTION (ESF) 433 A.6
MODULATION TRANSFER FUNCTION (MTF) 434 7.1.B EFFICIENCY 437 B.L QUANTUM
EFFICIENCY 437 B.2 SPATIAL DETECTIVE QUANTUM EFFICIENCY (DQE(F)) 438
7.1.C SENSITIVITY 439 7.1.D DYNAMIC RANGE 439 7.1.E UNIFORMITY 439 7.1.F
TEMPORAL LINEARITY 440 7.1.G NOISE AND SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO (S/N) 440
7.2 POSITION SENSITIVE DETECTION 441 7.2.A TYPES OF POSITION SENSITIVE
DETECTORS 441 A.L ARRAY DEVICES 441 XIII A.2 SCANNING DEVICES 441 A.3
TIMING DEVICES 441 7.2.B MULTIWIRE PROPORTIONAL CHAMBERS (MWPCS) 441
7.2.C MULTIWIRE DRIFT CHAMBER 445 7.2.D MICROSTRIP GAS CHAMBERS 445
7.2.E SEMICONDUCTOR MICROSTRIP DETECTORS (SMSDS) 446 7.3 IMAGING DEVICES
450 7.3.A CONVENTIONAL IMAGING 450 A.L X-RAY PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS 450 A.2
THERMOLUMINESCENT DETECTOR ARRAYS 451 7.3.B ELECTRONICS IMAGING 451
7.3.C CHARGED COUPLED DEVICES 452 7.3.D DIRECT IMAGING 452 D.L
PROPERTIES OF A DIRECT IMAGING CCD 453 D.2 DISADVANTAGES OF DIRECT
IMAGING 455 7.3.E INDIRECT IMAGING 456 7.3.F MICROSTRIP AND MULTIWIRE
DETECTORS 457 7.3.G SCINTILLATING FIBER DETECTORS 457 8 SIGNAL
PROCESSING 463 8.1 PREAMPLIFICATION 464 8. LA VOLTAGE SENSITIVE
PREAMPLIFIER 465 8.1.B CURRENT SENSITIVE PREAMPLIFIER 467 8.1.C CHARGE
SENSITIVE PREAMPLIFIER 468 C.L RESISTIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM 471 C.2
PULSED RESET MECHANISM 472 8.2 SIGNAL TRANSPORT 474 8.2.A TYPEOFCABLE
476 A.L COAXIAL CABLE 477 A.2 TWISTED PAIR CABLE 479 A.3 FIAT RIBBON
CABLE 479 8.3 PULSE SHAPING 480 8.3.A DELAY LINE PULSE SHAPING 480 8.3.B
CR-RC PULSE SHAPING 481 B.L POLE-ZERO CANCELLATION 485 B.2 BASELINE
SHIFT MINIMIZATION 488 8.3.C SEMI-GAUSSIAN PULSE SHAPING 488 8.3.D
SEMI-TRIANGULAR PULSE SHAPING 489 8.4 FILTERING 490 8.4.A LOW PASS
FILTER 491 8.4.B HIGH PASS FILTER 493 8.4.C BAND PASS FILTER 493 8.5
AMPLIFICATION 493 8.6 DISCRIMINATION 494 8.6.A PULSE COUNTING 495 A.L
SINGLE CHANNEL ANALYZER (SCA) 496 A.2 MULTI CHANNEL ANALYZER (MCA) 497
8.7 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION 498 XIV 8.7.A A/D-CONVERSION RELATED
PARAMETERS 498 A.L CONVERSION TIME 498 A.2 DEADTIME 498 A.3 RESOLUTION
498 A.4 NONLINEARITY 499 A.5 STABILITY 499 8.7.B A/D CONVERSION METHODS
500 B.L DIGITAL RAMP ADC 500 B.2 SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION ADC 501 B.3
TRACKING ADC 501 B.4 WILKINSON ADC 502 B.5 FLASH ADC 505 8.7.C HYBRID
ADCS 506 8.8 DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING 506 8.8.A DIGITAL FILTERS 508 8.9
ELECTRONICS NOISE 509 8.9.A TYPES OF ELECTRONICS NOISE 511 A.L JOHNSON
NOISE 511 A.2 SHOT NOISE 513 A.3 1// NOISE 514 A.4 QUANTIZATION NOISE
515 8.9.B NOISE IN SPECIFIC COMPONENTS 516 B.L NOISE IN AMPLIFIERS 516
B.2 NOISE IN ADCS 518 8.9.C MEASURING SYSTEM NOISE 519 8.9.D NOISE
REDUCTION TECHNIQUES 519 D.L DETECTOR SIGNAL 520 D.2 FREQUENCY FILTERS
520 9 ESSENTIAL STATISTICS FOR DATA ANALYSIS 525 9.1 MEASURES OF
CENTRALITY 526 9.2 MEASURE OF DISPERSION 528 9.3 PROBABILITY 528 9.3.A
FREQUENTIST APPROACH 529 9.3.B BAYESIAN APPROACH 529 9.3.C PROBABILITY
DENSITY FUNCTION 529 C.L QUANTITIES DERIVABLE FROM A P.D.F 530 C.2
MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD METHOD 533 9.3.D SOME COMMON DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS
536 , D.L BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION 536 D.2 POISSON DISTRIBUTION 537 D.3
NORMAL OR GAUSSIAN DISTRIBUTION 539 D.4 CHI-SQUARE (X 2 ) DISTRIBUTION
542 D.5 STUDENT'S T DISTRIBUTION 543 D.6 GAMMA DISTRIBUTION 544 9.4
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS 546 9.5 MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY 548 9.5.A
SYSTEMATIC ERRORS 548 XV 1 9.5.B RANDOM ERRORS 549 9.5.C ERROR
PROPAGATION 549 C.L ADDITION OF PARAMETERS 550 C.2 MULTIPLICATION OF
PARAMETERS 550 9.5.D PRESENTATION OF RESULTS 551 9.6 CONFIDENCE TESTS
551 9.6.A CHI-SQUARE (X 2 ) TEST 552 9.6.B STUDENT'S T TEST ,. . . 553
9.7 REGRESSION 555 9.7.A SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION 555 9.7.B NONLINEAR
REGRESSION 556 9.8 CORRELATION 558 9.8.A PEARSON R OR SIMPLE LINEAR
CORRELATION 559 9.9 TIME SERIES ANALYSIS 561 9.9.A SMOOTHING 562 9.10
FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS 563 9.11 COUNTING STATISTICS 565 9.11.A
MEASUREMENT PRECISION AND DETECTION LIMITS 565 10 SOFTWARE FOR DATA
ANALYSIS 575 10.1 STANDARD ANALYSIS PACKAGES 575 10.1.A ROOT 575 A.L
AVAILABILITY 576 A.2 DATA HANDLING, ORGANIZATION, AND STORAGE 577 A.3
DATA ANALYSIS CAPABILITIES 579 A.4 GRAPHICS CAPABILITIES 579 A.5
USINGROOT 580 A.6 EXAMPLES 582 10.1.B ORIGIN 586 B.L DATA IMPORT
CAPABILITIES 587 B.2 GRAPHICS CAPABILITIES 588 B.3 DATA ANALYSIS
CAPABILITIES 588 B.4 PROGRAMMING ENVIRONMENT 589 B.5 EXAMPLES 589 10.1.C
MATLAB 591 C.L TOOLBOXES 592 C.2 DATA ACQUISITION AND IMPORT
CAPABILITIES 594 C.3 DATA ANALYSIS CAPABILITIES 594 C.4 VISUALIZATION
CAPABILITIES 594 C.5 PROGRAMMING ENVIRONMENT 595 C.6 EXAMPLES 595 10.2
CUSTOM-MADE DATA ANALYSIS PACKAGES 597 10.2.A DATA IMPORT/EXPORT
ROUTINES 598 10.2.B DATA ANALYSIS ROUTINES 599 10.2.C CODE GENERATION
600 10.2.D RESULT DISPLAY 600 11 DOSIMETRY AND RADIATION PROTECTION 603
11.1 IMPORTANCE OF DOSIMETRY 603 XVI LL.L.A DOSE AND DOSE RATE 604 11.2
QUANTITIES RELATED TO DOSIMETRY 604 11.2.A RADIATION EXPOSURE AND DOSE
604 A.L ROENTGEN (R) 605 A.2 ABSORBED DOSE 605 A.3 EQUIVALENT DOSE 605
A.4 EFFECTIVE DOSE 607 11.2.B FLUX OR FLUENCE RATE 609 11.2.C INTEGRATED
FLUX OR FLUENCE 610 11.2.D EXPOSURE AND ABSORBED DOSE - MATHEMATICAL
DEFINITIONS . . 611 11.2.E KERMA, CEMA, AND TERMA 615 E.L KERMA 615 E.2
CEMA 618 E.3 TERMA 618 11.2.F MEASURING KERMA AND EXPOSURE 619 11.2.G
CAVITY THEORIES 619 G.L BRAGG-GRAY CAVITY THEORY 619 G.2 SPENCER-ATTIX
CAVITY THEORY 621 11.2.H LET AND RBE 622 11.2.1 BEAM SIZE 623 11.2.J
INTERNAL DOSE 624 J.L INTERNAL DOSE FROM CHARGED PARTICLES 625 J.2
INTERNAL DOSE FROM THERMAL NEUTRONS 625 11.3 PASSIVE DOSIMETRY 627
11.3.A THERMOLUMINESCENT DOSIMETRY 627 A.L WORKING PRINCIPLE AND GLOW
CURVE 628 A.2 COMMON TL MATERIALS 629 A.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF TL DOSIMETERS 630 11.3.B OPTICALLY STIMULATED LUMINESCENCE DOSIMETRY
631 B.L WORKING PRINCIPLE AND OSL CURVE 632 B.2 COMMON OSL MATERIALS 633
11.3.C FILM DOSIMETRY 633 C.L ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FILM
DOSIMETERS 634 C.2 COMMON RADIOCHROMATIC MATERIALS 634 11.3.D TRACK ETCH
DOSIMETRY 635 D.L ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TRACK ETCH DOSIMETERS
. 636 11.4 ACTIVE DOSIMETRY 636 11.4.A ION CHAMBER DOSIMETRY 636 A.L
FREE IN AIR ION CHAMBER DOSIMETRY 637 A.2 CAVITY ION CHAMBER DOSIMETRY
639 11.4.B SOLID STATE DOSIMETRY 642 B.L MOSFET DOSIMETER 643 B.2
DIAMOND DOSIMETER 645 11.4.C PLASTIC SCINTILLATOR DOSIMETER 646 11.4.D
QUARTZ FIBER ELECTROSCOPE 647 D.L ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF QUARTZ
FIBER ELECTROSCOPE 647 11.5 MICRODOSIMETRY 649 11.5.A MICRODOSIMETRIC
QUANTITIES 649 XVN %*, . . 5 A.L LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER AND DOSE 649 A.2
SPECIFIC ENERGY 650 A.3 LINEAL ENERGY 650 11.5.B EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
651 B.L TISSUE EQUIVALENT PROPORTIONAL COUNTER (TEPC) 651 B.2 SOLID
STATE NUCLEAR TRACK DETECTOR ((SSNTD) 653 B.3 SILICON MICRODOSIMETER 655
11.6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION 656 11.6.A ACUTE AND CHRONIC
RADIATION EXPOSURE 657 A.L ACUTE EXPOSURE 658 A.2 CHRONIC EXPOSURE 659
11.6.B EFFECTS AND SYMPTOMS OF EXPOSURE 660 B.L SOMATIC EFFECTS OF
RADIATION 660 B.2 GENETIC EFFECTS OF RADIATION 660 11.6.C EXPOSURE
LIMITS 660 11.7 RADIATION PROTECTION 662 11.7.A EXPOSURE REDUCTION 662
A.L TIME 662 A.2 DISTANCE 662 A.3 SHIELDING 664 12 RADIATION
SPECTROSCOPY 673 12.1 SPECTROSCOPY OF PHOTONS 673 12.1.A 7-RAY
SPECTROSCOPY 673 12.1.B CALIBRATION 677 12.1.C X-RAY SPECTROSCOPY 678
C.L X-RAY ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY 678 C.2 X-RAY PHOTOELECTRON
SPECTROSCOPY (XPS) 686 C.3 X-RAY DIFFRACTION SPECTROSCOPY (XDS) 689 12.2
SPECTROSCOPY OF CHARGED PARTICLES 692 12.2.A A-PARTICLE SPECTROSCOPY 692
A.L ENERGY OF AN UNKNOWN A-SOURCE 697 A.2 RANGE AND STOPPING POWER OF
A-PARTICLES IN A GAS 697 A.3 ACTIVITY OF AN A SOURCE 697 12.2.B ELECTRON
SPECTROSCOPY 698 12.3 NEUTRON SPECTROSCOPY 699 12.3.A NEUTRONS AS MATTER
PROBES 699 12.3.B NEUTRON SPECTROMETRY TECHNIQUES 701 B.L TRIPLE-AXIS
SPECTROMETRY (TAS) 704 B.2 HIGH FLUX BACKSCATTERING SPECTROMETER (HFBS)
706 B.3 FILTER ANALYZER SPECTROMETER (FAS) 706 B.4 DISK CHOPPER
SPECTROMETER 707 B.5 FERMI CHOPPER SPECTROMETER (FCS) 708 B.6 SPIN ECHO
SPECTROMETER 709 12.4 MASS SPECTROSCOPY 710 12.5 TIME SPECTROSCOPY 711
13 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS 717 13.1 DATA ACQUISITION CHAIN 717 XVM
13.1.A PULSE COUNTING 717 A.L SLOW PULSE COUNTING 718 A.2 FAST PULSE
COUNTING 718 13.1.B ENERGY SPECTROSCOPY 719 13.1.C TIME SPECTROSCOPY 719
13.1.D COINCIDENCE SPECTROSCOPY 720 13.2 MODULAR INSTRUMENTS 721 13.2A
NIM STANDARD 721 A.L NIM LAYOUT 722 A.2 NIM MODULES 723 A.3 NIM LOGIC
724 A.4 SIGNAL TRANSPORT 725 13.2.B CAMAC STANDARD 725 B.L CAMAC LAYOUT
725 B.2 CAMAC CONTROLLERS 725 B.3 CAMAC LOGIC 726 13.2.C VME STANDARD
726 C.L VME LAYOUT 727 C.2 VME BACKPLANE 728 C.3 VME MODULES 728 C.4 VME
LOGIC 728 13.2.D FASTBUS STANDARD 729 D.L FASTBUS LAYOUT 729 D.2 FASTBUS
BACKPLANE 729 13.3 PC BASED SYSTEMS 729 13.3.A PCI BOARDS 729 13.3.B PC
SERIAL PORT MODULES 730 13.3.C PC PARALLEL PORT MODULES 732 13.3.D USB
BASED MODULES 732 13.3.E TCP/IP BASED SYSTEMS 732 APPENDICES 737 A
ESSENTIAL ELECTRONIC MEASURING DEVICES 739 A.L MULTIMETERS 739 A.L.A
MEASURING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT 739 A.L.B ANALOG MULTIMETER (AMM) 740
A.L.C DIGITAL MULTIMETER (DMM) 740 A.L.D MEASURING VOLTAGE 740 A.L.E
MEASURING CURRENT 741 A.2 OSCILLOSCOPE 741 A.2.A ANALOG OSCILLOSCOPE 741
A.L ATTENUATOR 742 A.2 ELECTRON GUN 742 A.3 ELECTRON BEAM DEFLECTION
SYSTEMS 742 A.4 TRIGGER SYSTEM 744 A.2.B DIGITAL OSCILLOSCOPES 744 A.2.C
SIGNAL PROBES 745 C.L PASSIVE PROBES 745 XIX *T C.2 ACTIVE PROBES 746 B
CONSTANTS AND CONVERSION FACTORS 749 B.L CONSTANTS 749 B.2 MASSES AND
ELECTRICAL CHARGES OF PARTICLES 750 B.3 CONVERSION PREFIXES 751 C VME
CONNECTOR PIN ASSIGNMENTS , 753 INDEX 757 XX |
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| author | Ahmed, Syed Naeem 1965- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)111716781X |
| author_facet | Ahmed, Syed Naeem 1965- |
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| callnumber-raw | QC795.32.R3 |
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| classification_rvk | UN 7200 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)236115947 (DE-599)HBZHT015092837 |
| dewey-full | 539.7 |
| dewey-hundreds | 500 - Natural sciences and mathematics |
| dewey-ones | 539 - Modern physics |
| dewey-raw | 539.7 |
| dewey-search | 539.7 |
| dewey-sort | 3539.7 |
| dewey-tens | 530 - Physics |
| discipline | Physik |
| discipline_str_mv | Physik |
| edition | 1. ed. |
| format | Book |
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| genre | (DE-588)4006432-3 Bibliografie gnd-content |
| genre_facet | Bibliografie |
| id | DE-604.BV022474429 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T17:45:54Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T20:58:23Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9780120455812 0120455811 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-015681859 |
| oclc_num | 236115947 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-703 |
| owner_facet | DE-703 |
| physical | XXIV, 764 S. graph. Darst. |
| publishDate | 2007 |
| publishDateSearch | 2007 |
| publishDateSort | 2007 |
| publisher | Elsevier Academic Press |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Ahmed, Syed Naeem 1965- Verfasser (DE-588)111716781X aut Physics and engineering of radiation detection Syed Naeem Ahmed 1. ed. Amsterdam [u.a.] Elsevier Academic Press 2007 XXIV, 764 S. graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Radiation Measurement Instruments Strahlungsdetektor (DE-588)4136936-1 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4006432-3 Bibliografie gnd-content Strahlungsdetektor (DE-588)4136936-1 s DE-604 GBV Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015681859&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Ahmed, Syed Naeem 1965- Physics and engineering of radiation detection Radiation Measurement Instruments Strahlungsdetektor (DE-588)4136936-1 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4136936-1 (DE-588)4006432-3 |
| title | Physics and engineering of radiation detection |
| title_auth | Physics and engineering of radiation detection |
| title_exact_search | Physics and engineering of radiation detection |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Physics and engineering of radiation detection |
| title_full | Physics and engineering of radiation detection Syed Naeem Ahmed |
| title_fullStr | Physics and engineering of radiation detection Syed Naeem Ahmed |
| title_full_unstemmed | Physics and engineering of radiation detection Syed Naeem Ahmed |
| title_short | Physics and engineering of radiation detection |
| title_sort | physics and engineering of radiation detection |
| topic | Radiation Measurement Instruments Strahlungsdetektor (DE-588)4136936-1 gnd |
| topic_facet | Radiation Measurement Instruments Strahlungsdetektor Bibliografie |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015681859&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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