Beogradska tvrdava: = The fortress of Belgrade
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Beograd
Javno Preduzeće "Beogradska Tvrđava"
2006
|
| Ausgabe: | 2., dop. izd. |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Abstract Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | In kyrill. Schr., serb. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache |
| Beschreibung: | 334 S. zahlr. Ill., Kt. |
| ISBN: | 8690842705 |
Internformat
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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INTRODUCTION
[The Belgrade Fortress holds a special place among the fortifications!
of South-Eastern Europe. Its history is interwoven with all the
events shaping the destiny of European states and nations over the
past two thousand years. Positioned on an exceptionally favourable-
site, a junction of European routes to the East, it functioned for cen¬
turies both as a defensive stronghold and a base for conquest.
| The Fortress, its origin and evolution, is inseparable from the
¡history of Belgrade. Roman Singidunum was founded next to a hill-
jtop fortification overlooking the confluence of the
-rivers. Slavic Belgrade developed in the same place. A medieval town!
grew for centuries in the shelter of the Fortress, which remained its
core long after the settlement spread beyond its walls.
The study of the fortifications built, destroyed and rebuilt on
this site from ancient times until the eighteenth century plays an
important part in studying the city as a whole. It provides evidence
for the role Belgrade played in the past, reflecting the city s
downs. Furthermore, a composite and stratified complex, it is rele¬
vant in studying the evolution of European fortifications at large as
it clearly reflects all the changes European military architecture
underwent: from a fortified legionary camp-casiram to
fortified town to an almost modern bastioned artillery fortress.
The defences of Belgrade were built and developed in the spurs of
the mountains of
of two big rivers that form a natural border between two different geo¬
graphical regions. The area where the
Pannonian
for both settlement and fortification. A good view of the surrounding
area and easy access, the proximity of wide valleys connecting distant
regions, control of river crossings and land movements account for
the remarkable importance the site had for centuries. Overland and
river routes that meet there were an important historical and geo¬
graphical factor. Positioned at the border between the two regions,
it is owing to these routes that Belgrade was also a contact zone
between them. As a result, it often found itself on the route of con¬
quests and forays, migrations and trade, a fact that decisively influ¬
enced the city s development and its fate.
In addition to the geographical position, the relief features played
a prominent role in the foundation of the settlement and fortifica¬
tions. The flat-topped elevation above the confluence offered good
possibilities of defence. Its steep slopes and rocky cliffs were sur¬
rounded by water on three sides. Easy access was only possible from
the southeast. Rising
the area, enabling control of the waterways, of the overland routes
in the south and the plain in the north. Though not a decisive factor,
the geology of the site was also suitable for fortification construction.
Solid rock
the foundations.
The shape of the hill above the confluence influenced the
arrangement of the ramparts, which took the advantage of its strate¬
gic potentials. At the same time, however, the natural features were
also changed to meet the requirements of defence. Over the cen¬
turies, man and nature have changed the site to the extent that it lost
some of its essential original characteristics. The rocky cliffs almost
completely disappeared under vegetation and embankments, while
the riverfront area was considerably expanded by reclamation of the
shoreline.
The centuries-long development of the Belgrade Fortress maybe
read from plentiful historical sources (written, cartographic and artis¬
tic), and especially from the results of archaeological excavations.
The written sources are of diverse origin and value. Their number
greatly varies from one historical period to another. It is only from
the twelfth century onwards that Belgrade becomes more often
referred to by Byzantine and Hungarian sources. The amount and
variety of the written material about Belgrade abruptly increases
from the beginning of the fifteenth century. Besides information
provided by Serbian, Hungarian and Ottoman chroniclers, there are
abundant archival materials. But very few of the surviving records,
which offer valuable historical information, relate to the Fortress
and its evolution.
Highly relevant to the study of the Fortress and city of Belgrade
are cartographic sources. Due to its location and the role it played in
European affairs in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
Belgrade is one of the cities most frequently shown in old plans.
More than two hundred plans known from that period, for the most
part kept in libraries and archives throughout Europe, usually show
the Fortress with details of its defence system, the city and its envi¬
rons, or different dispositions of siege troops. As for artistic depic¬
tions, the majority of which are sixteenth- and seventeenth-century
engravings with the view of the city, their critical analysis leaves us
with only a few of any informative significance.
The results of archaeological excavation conducted for more than
forty years, and as yet uncompleted, are especially important for the
study of the Belgrade Fortress. They have provided a wealth of new
information, giving an insight into the origin and sequence of forti¬
fications on the site over a span of almost two millennia.
ROMAN LEGIONARY CAMP
The site presently occupied by the Belgrade Fortress was first settled
in the Neolithic and Eneolithic. The earliest remains have been found
on the Upper Town plateau
but there are no traces of a Celtic settlement. In the closing centuries
of the pre-Christian era, their settlement and, possibly, a fortification
were further downstream, in the area of modern
The exceptionally favourable geostrategic position of the eleva¬
tion above the confluence of two rivers does not seem to have
encouraged settlement in prehistoric periods. Nor was the site used
in times of insecurity, when settlements began to be fortified.
The Roman world, with its advanced civilization, arrived in the1
region in the last years B.C. The final conquest of the area of modern
Belgrade was preceded by campaigns against the Celtic population
in the first century B.C. and Roman persistent efforts to establish
control over this strategically important part of the Danube Basin.
Once annexed to the Roman Empire, the conquered territory became
its part in social, political and economic terms, which had a far-
reaching effect on its further development. One of the results was
the founding of Roman Singidunum, modern Belgrade s ancient
precursor.
The site where modern Belgrade lies must have been very
important for the defence of the Roman Empire after it established
its frontier on the Danube in the first century
potentials were recognized quite early. There are indications that
legions
Singidunum as early as the first half of the first century. With the
military and administrative consolidation in the area of the Danube
limes by the end of the first century, Singidunum became the base of
Legion IV Flavia, maintained there until the end of Roman rule.
The presence of the legion no doubt decisively contributed to the
development of Singidunum as a Roman town. The camp became
the nucleus around which the town grew in the following centuries.
In the first half of the second century, probably during the reign of the
Emperor Hadrian, Singidunum was granted the rank of municipium,
a self-governing urban community, and in the mid third century it
became
Remains of the castrum of Legion IV Flavia were discovered and
partially investigated during the years of excavation in the Belgrade
Fortress area. Its ramparts, the oldest vestige of any fortification on
the site, were poorly preserved. What has survived of them is either
buried deep under the foundations of later fortifications or almost
completely destroyed. As a result, little is known about the earliest
phase of Roman fortifications. It has been ascertained, however, that
the castrum was located in the Upper Town area and in a section of
Kalemegdan Park adjacent to
plan
an area of
was defended by another two ramparts running down the Danube-
facing slope.
At first, immediately after the arrival of the legion, the camp was
probably enclosed with earthen walls and wooden palisades. Some¬
what later, most likely at the end of the second century, the earth¬
works were replaced by stone ramparts strengthened with towers.
They were built of neatly cut stones, as was common practice for
major legionary camps. Deep pointed ditches with slanting sides
were dug in front of them, and each gate was flanked by two towers.
:]320[=
The space of Roman legionary camps was normally divided into
barracks, storehouses and granaries, with the headquarters building in
the centre, and this must have been the case with the
dunum. The section of defences archaeologically confirmed on the
riverbank
port. That zone has yielded remains of temples, one of them dedicated
to the god Mithra, as well as workshops servicing the legion s needs.
Sharing the fate of the Roman Empire, Singidunum, as its frontier
stronghold, reached its peak in the second and third centuries. The
Romans maintained Legion IV Flavia in Singidunum throughout
the fourth century, when the town s decline began. What befell the
legion during the Gothic invasion of
num probably was finally destroyed in
the Danube Basin.
LATE ANTIQUE FORTRESS
Singidunum remained abandoned for a few decades in the wake of
the Hunnic invasion. Still nominally ruled by the Eastern Roman
Empire
tribes of Goths, Gepidae and, eventually,
late fifth century, Theodoric established a strong Gothic state; with
its eastern frontier in Srem, the strategic importance of Singidunum
becomes obvious.
The earliest information about the restoration of fortifications
at Singidunum under Justinian
temporary Byzantine historian Procopius. According to him, the
Emperor
parts, thereby bringing back to life the »beautiful and admirable
city«, but the actual scale of Justinian s building programme at
Singidunum can only be surmised from circumstantial evidence.
In the sixth century the need for and possibility of defending
the Byzantine Danube frontier was very much different from the
time the Roman limes had been established. The new defence system
consisted of a number of lesser fortifications located on major
strategic points along the border and in the interior of frontier
provinces. It was based on the principle of active defence, in contrast
with the earlier one, which mostly relied on fortified military camps.
Procopius did not fail to observe the change, explaining that the for¬
tifications along the Roman limes had not been so constructed as to
be unassailable, because the barbarians had been unfamiliar with
the craft of seizing fortresses, but in order not to leave the frontier
vacant. Procopius also noted that Justinian had new strong forts
constructed rather than restoring the old to their original form. It
seems, therefore, that the earlier sizeable frontier fortifications,
legionary camps in particular, were inadequate for the new needs.
One of the articles of a law organizing military government in
North Africa ordered that large frontier towns and castles should be
fortified in such a manner as to be
Implemented on the African frontier, this principle was certainly
applied to the Danube limes too. All this seems helpful in hypothe¬
sizing about the exact location and size of the late antique fort in
Singidunum. Given that the north-western section of the former le¬
gionary camp offered the best natural possibilities of defence, and that
the late antique fortification is likely to have covered only a portion
of the former castrum area., its location in the most easily
section should be presumed. In that case it would have covered one
third of the former castrum area, a little more than the fortified por¬
tion of the Upper Town in later periods.
Justinian s system of defence on the Danube border, including
Singidunum, was under frequent barbarian attacks. It could not
withstand a forceful Slavic incursion recorded in the middle of the
year
The stronghold of Singidunum played an important role in the
clashes ensuing in the late sixth and early seventh centuries. Battle
for the city was fought with changing fortunes. In
launched a surprise attack. Most inhabitants, who could come to the
garrison s aid should need be, were in the fields. According to the
contemporary Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta, the Avars
seized the town only after fierce fighting at its gates. A few years
later, Singidunum was once again attacked and captured, and this
time the Avars set out to demolish its fortifications and dislodge the
inhabitants, probably intent on disabling the strongpoint once and
for all. But the city was recaptured by the Byzantine general Priscus.
According to Simocatta, in preparation for Priscus attack, the Avars
encircled the fortification with carts to compensate for the damaged
fortifications. But, unable to repel the attackers and fearing the citi¬
zens behind their back, they eventually had to withdraw.
Early in the reign of Emperor Heraclius, Byzantine rule in the
Balkans received a fatal blow. Shaken in the previous decades, the
system of defence on the Danube frontier finally collapsed under
Avar and Slavic incursions in the 610s. There is no direct informa¬
tion about the destiny of Singidunum, but it certainly was not
spared. It probably was seized before the fall of
subsequent siege of Thessalonica.
BEGINNINGS OF A MEDIEVAL TOWN
Little is known about the beginnings of medieval Belgrade built on the
ruins of Singidunum. Between the 850s and 870s historical sources
make no reference to a settlement in this area. In
John
time, as an episcopal see. No more than six years later, contempo¬
raries describe Belgrade as »the most famed town on the Danube«.
The invading Slavs must have found the well-preserved late
antique ramparts on the elevation overlooking the rivers, and the
sight of the ruined town was probably reflected in the new Slavic
name
was best for settlement if defence was the primary consideration.
Although there is no reliable archaeological evidence, it may be
assumed therefore that the Slavic settlement initially formed within
the limits of the late antique fortress, and subsequently spread
towards the river.
The old fortress was probably too large for the needs and re¬
sources of the newly-settled Slavs. The ramparts were in need of
repair and regular maintenance, and a strong force of defenders, if
the settlement was to be effectively protected. The Slavs were unable
to meet all these conditions, at least in the beginning. Presumably
the protected area of the early medieval settlement covered only
part of the late antique fortification, as shown by the early medieval
cities in Gaul and Germany which all grew on Roman remains.
Considering the site of the old Singidunum fortress, its relief
characteristics and position in relation to the rivers, the Slavic forti¬
fication would have occupied its western corner as the strategically
most important part of the Upper Town plateau. An earthen ram¬
part with palisades and ditch, common in Slav-inhabited lands and
much of Europe at the time, was probably added towards the deserted
part of the late antique fortress.
The date of these works is impossible to determine without some
moi©
the settlement was probably fortified in its earliest phase, sometime
in the second half of the eighth century.
At the beginning of the ninth century, the region underwent
major change. The Avar khanate disappeared form the historical stage
and Frankish rule was established in parts of
a Bulgarian state developed. At the end of the century
settled by Magyars. Their arrival in the Danube Basin changed the
situation in central Europe, which in turn had a powerful influence
on the destiny of Belgrade.
BYZANTINE FRONTIER CASTLE
After the conquest of Samuel s Macedonian state in the second
decade of the eleventh century Byzantium restored its rule over the
whole of the Balkans, imposing its laws and introducing themes as
military and administrative units. For the first time after Slavic settle¬
ment, the Empire s frontier was re-established on the Danube.
Emperor Basil II entrusted one of his best generals,
Diogenes, with the organization of government and defence in the
region, which was of far-reaching importance for Belgrade, as it
became one of the most important strongholds on the northern
border. It probably received a permanent garrison, which required a
much larger and stronger fortress. As a result, its fortifications were
further developed and the town began to grow larger. For about two
hundred years, until the end of the twelfth century, Belgrade was
involved in every border conflict between Byzantium and Hungary,
often playing a decisive role.
The Belgrade fortification was very important for the functioning
of the Danube border defence system. But the treatment of frontier
fortifications, their renovation or construction, was not influenced
only by the real needs, but also by the Empire s home affairs and
current policies, as clearly shown by the example of Belgrade.
According to historical sources, in the eleventh century Belgrade s
defences consisted of stone ramparts. Archaeological excavations,
however, have not confirmed any building activity from the estab¬
lishment of Byzantine rule until the twelfth century. It seems rea¬
sonable to assume, therefore, that the Byzantine garrison used the
late antique fortification, simply repairing its well-preserved ram¬
parts. Such practice was not uncommon along the Danube border
of the Empire in the eleventh and first half of the twelfth century,
and the reasons are to be found in the deep internal crisis which
Byzantium was undergoing after the death of Emperor Basil II.
Unable to construct a new fortress, the Byzantine garrison in
Belgrade must have been compelled to rely on the partially repaired
Roman ramparts as a temporary solution. They, however, offered
poor protection, as observed by chroniclers accompanying the cru¬
saders in
withdrew his garrison to
the safer shelter of its fortifications. The inadequacy of Belgrade s
defences also became obvious in clashes with the Hungarians.
In
Salamon
invaders made use of various siege devices, including eight wooden
towers twice as high as the ramparts. After fierce fighting, the ram¬
parts were almost completely destroyed and the garrison was forced
to surrender. A few decades later the Hungarians recaptured Belgra¬
de. According to the Byzantine chronicler John Kinnamos, they
»razed the town to the ground«, and reused the stones for bunding
new fortifications in
cult to determine, but it was probably heavy. However, to demolish
the fortification was far from being an easy undertaking and, besides,
the stones had to be shipped off to
the Byzantines long to repair the fortifications it seems that the
Hungarians did not have enough time to demolish them completely.
That the fortress retained its function, though weakened, is evidenced
by a chronicler who passed through Belgrade in
Louis
On the accession of Emperor Manuel I Comnenus
the Empire s northern frontier was paid more attention. The conflic¬
ting Byzantine and Hungarian interests led to war more often than
in the previous years. Belgrade s strategic position was fully recognized
and it became a base for Byzantine campaigns against the Hungarians.
The army and fleet were stationed in the town and its environs, and
war operations were frequently directed by Manuel I himself. The
road to
operations, ran through Belgrade. All that required that Belgrade be
fortified more strongly.
:]322[:
According to Byzantine historians, construction of the new
fortress-castle began in
mined fortifications of
labour force. The building of the castle was not completed until
1165.
covered over the years of archaeological research reveal its building
method, layout and functions.
The castle was built in the strategic part of the Upper Town
plateau between the present-day Victor Monument and a Turkish
fountain near the
cliffs on the west and northwest, and by a ditch on the accessible
southeast side. It was irregular deltoid in plan,
wide. The firm stone ramparts were strengthened with nearly semi¬
circular polygonal towers at regular intervals. Facing the Danube
slope, the gate was sheltered from direct attack. In order to approach
the gate from the thoroughfare (present-day
was necessary to go past the castle s eastern tower. On the other hand,
this position facilitated communication with the riverside settle¬
ment as well as fast retreat into the castle in case of an unexpected
attack from the river.
Belgrade s newly-built castle was a typical achievement of twelfth-
-century Byzantine military architecture in its plan, size and func¬
tion. Its small size was the result of what was affordable rather than
what was needed. The enclosure could accommodate the town com¬
mander and part of his garrison. However, its function as a retreat
for the Emperor, who stayed in Belgrade more than once, must have
been taken into account. The presence of Manuel I Comnenus during
the construction of the castle confirms his personal interest in the
undertaking, and it appears that Constantinopolitan workers took
part in the building of Belgrade s new defences.
The system of defences on the northern border could not with¬
stand the Hungarian attack of
seized along with other fortifications. Somewhat later, Byzantium
peacefully regained the lost territory, but the broken defence system
was not reinstalled. A few years later, at the very end of the twelfth
century, Byzantium lost Belgrade for good and the Empire s border
was pushed south.
BETWEEN SERBIA AND HUNGARY
After the collapse of the Empire s Danube frontier and its with¬
drawal from the north of the Balkans in the twelfth century, Belgrade s
geopolitical position changed significantly. New states, Serbia and
Bulgaria, emerged in former Byzantine territories south of the Danu¬
be. Their interests soon came into conflict with Hungarian aspira¬
tions to expand into the central Balkans. From the early fourteenth
century, the Serbian rulers increasingly sought to consolidate the
border on the
and survival of Serbia in that territory. Belgrade was the central
point in their efforts, which had a powerful effect on its destiny as a
settlement and a fortification.
Away from the war zone during the thirteenth century, Belgrade
could only play the role of a lesser rear fortification. It retained the
same role even after
Hungarian king and added to the territory ruled by King Stefan
Dragutin
not further fortified. Undoubtedly maintained regularly, the old
Byzantine fortress must have been adequate for Belgrade s needs.
A significant change came about only in
death of Stefan
Hungarians had never ceased considering Belgrade part of their
realm, their attack was expected. Therefore, the defence of the annexed
territory was given special attention. According to the contempora¬
ry Hungarian sources and recent archaeological evidence, Belgrade
received some new defences sometime in the first half of the four¬
teenth century, while still under Serbian rule. Part of the riverside area
was enclosed with ramparts and connected with the hilltop fortress.
This outlying enclosure significantly contributed to the town s
defensive potentials. The new ramparts were extended towards the
river bank for the purpose of controlling the river frontier and con¬
centrating defence in the northerly direction, from which the Hunarn
garian attack was expected. The new fortification offered a number
of other advantages, such as control of river traffic or a safer way of
supplying the town in case of siege, especially with water. The choice
of the most favourable location for its construction, which allowed
its connection with the hilltop fortress and their adaptation into a
larger defence system, was a competent and up-to-date solution.
SERBIAN FORTIFIED TOWN
Recaptured by Hungary, Belgrade retained its function as a frontier
fortification, now incorporated into the system of defence on the
Hungarian southern border which was no longer peaceful. Serbia lost
Belgrade, but not the desire to regain it and push its frontier back to
the
their advance into the Balkans. After the Battle of Kosovo in
Serbia began its struggle for survival. Challenged by the same enemy,
Hungary appeared to be its natural ally. A rapprochement between
the two ensued after the Ottoman defeat at Angora in
agreement was reached in
rian vassalage and in return Belgrade was ceded to Serbia.
Belgrade s re-incorporation into Serbia decisively influenced its
further development and transformation into a fortified medieval
town in the full sense of the word. Well aware of its strategic importan¬
ce for the survival of Serbia, whose southern border was increasingly
under Ottoman threat, Despot Stefan made it his capital, whereby
turning it into the country s economic and cultural centre. The major
fortified towns at the time,
:]323[:
country s central and southern parts, and thus the first to take the
enemy hlow. Situated in the northernmost part of the state,
Belgrade was far enough to allow defence preparations in case of a
sudden Ottoman attack. Moreover, in case of siege it could easily
receive reinforcements from Hungary, whose help must have been
counted on.
Archaeology has provided a wealth of information about the
busy building activity in Belgrade between
in forming a general picture of the town and its fortifications are
also the Despot s biographer
French traveller Bertrandon
trustworthy testimonies of eyewitnesses who described Belgrade as
they saw it.
Considering the circumstances, construction of new fortifica¬
tions in Belgrade was a difficult and complex undertaking. Several
building phases may be identified through analysis of the relation¬
ship between the earlier structures and the alterations they under¬
went, but are most easily seen in the newly-built fortifications,
which reveal certain modifications to the initial programme and
design. Construction went through three basic stages, which reflect
a gradual growth of medieval town fortifications within a short
span of
After the take-over of the devastated and derelict town it was
necessary to repair its fortifications. The old Byzantine hilltop castle
was thoroughly reconstructed to assume the function of Despot
Stefan s fortified residence. It received a massive donjon at the centre
and a number of buildings forming the Despot s palace complex.
The outlying riverside ward, built a few decades earlier, was also
strengthened by building a fortified port. A large tower was erected
in the riverbed, with a rampart connecting it with the bank.
Brocquière
modate
After the old fortifications were repaired, in the north-western
portion of the former Roman legionary camp a new one was built
the Upper Town, a relatively regular rectangle
The renovated castle with the Despot s palace complex was fitted
into its western corner. The new fortification was a double enceinte
system. On three sides the system consisted of the main inner ram¬
part about
dropped into the ditch. The intended outer wall without a scarp on
the northwest was not completed due to alterations made to the ini¬
tial project.
The strength of each rampart depended on its position and
function in the defence system as a whole. On the same principle
depended the number and position of towers and bastions along the
inner and the outer rampart respectively. Consequently, the vulner¬
able north-eastern and south-eastern sides were given more attention.
The new fortification had a gate on each side. Flanked by two strong
towers, the main South Gate faced the major thoroughfare (present-
day
tan Road. Through the not so well defended East Gate, entirely pre¬
served till this day, ran the road to a suburb in present-day
The Lower Town
construction of which started after the Upper Town was completed,
does not seem to have been part of the initial building programme, as
indicated by its relationship to the earlier fortifications and alterations
its construction required. The change of plan must have resulted
from the rapid growth of Belgrade. The town s greatly increased
population and intensification of economic and other functions led
to a rapid expansion of the settlement. Both the old repaired forti¬
fications and those newly-built became inadequate. It seems that the
growth of Belgrade s settlement ran at a faster pace than that of its
fortifications.
The new fortifications encompassed the Danube slope and a
large settled area by the river east of the older and already fortified
outlying settlement. The location and layout of the Lower Town
were determined by the disposition of the existing fortifications and
the Danube bank. Its main element was the north-eastern rampart,
about
walled the area between the Upper Town and the river. It included the
main Lower Town gate, aligned with the eastern communication.
Outside the rampart lay a sheltered inlet, probably intended for
civilian needs.
Once the extensive fortification works undertaken by despot
Stefan
a well-fortified medieval town. The defended area was ten times
larger than before, with a layout in conformity with new functions
and the implemented concept of defence. The castle with the palace
complex formed a separate and best protected part. This previously
independent fortification could function as the last line of defence
and thus had its own commander, »the keep warden«. The castle
was surrounded by three independently protected and functionally
different fortifications, the new Upper Town being the most impor¬
tant of them. Its purpose was to protect the town in the most suitable
direction of attack. It accommodated the main garrison force and
residential quarters for magnates and courtiers. It is known to have
contained the residence of the Despot s sister
decades later, that of
Unlike the Upper Town, the Lower Town functioned as a fortified
outlying settlement. The fact that the most important part of the
civilian settlement became enclosed with ramparts significantly
contributed to Belgrade s safety and further growth. It is known to
have contained the Church of the Dormition of the Virgin, one of
the most important town institutions, and the adjacent palace of the
metropolitan of Belgrade. There must have been other public build¬
ings, as well as residences of wealthier citizens.
The general disposition of Belgrade s defences and the layout of
its newly-built fortifications reveal the underlying concept of defence.
The system was conceived with the Ottoman threat in mind. There¬
fore it was the southern and eastern sides that were expected to bear
:]324[:
the brunt of attack. It was also assumed that the defenders would be
able to control the rivers in case of siege, which ruled out assault from
that direction. Moreover, assistance was expected from Hungary. It
was in its best interest that Belgrade remained a barrier stemming
the Ottoman northward advance. Briefly, attack was expected only
from land because the rivers were still fully controlled by Serbia and
Hungary, and the town could hardly be seized by land warfare alone.
The entire strategy of Belgrade s defence was based on these assess¬
ments, tested at the sieges of
defence collapsed only after control over the rivers was lost.
Belgrade s new fortifications were the achievement of the Serbian
despot and his subjects. There is no reference to any foreign aid in
the surviving sources and practically no adoption of foreign ready-
made ideas. The entire system of defence and the solutions applied
relied on the previous development of Serbian rmlitary architecture.
In the second half of the fourteenth century Serbian military
architecture underwent major change in response to the changed
political situation. In contrast with the earlier periods, fortifications
were built on strategic but more vulnerable lowland sites, and they
often enclosed palace complexes of the ruler or magnates. Strengt¬
hening of global defence systems and more sophisticated fortifica¬
tion designs were required. Therefore fortresses tended to be regular
in plan to ensure balanced protection on all sides and their layout
became more complex. To be singled out is the castle with its keep
intended as a last-resort defence. Ramparts were also modified. To
the main rampart a lower outer wall began to be added as the front
line of defence. The double enceinte of Serbian fortifications was
different from West-European in design and construction. Some
distinctively local features may also be seen in the construction of
towers.
All these developments found their full expression in the new
fortifications of Belgrade. Although continued, previous practices
were significantly improved. The defence system, as expressed in the
arrangement of new fortifications and the introduction of a double
enceinte, was a good and up-to-date solution in European terms. The
fortification of Belgrade was one the best achievement of Serbian
military architecture.
BULWARK
ANTEMURALE
The rapid growth of Belgrade in the early fifteenth century came to
an end with the death of Despot Stefan
agreement, where Despot Stefan s main concerns had obviously been
the continuity of government and security of the state, stipulated
the return of the town to Hungary as a guarantee of Hungary s re¬
cognition of the Despot s successor. Regardless of the magnitude of
such a loss, consolidation of relations with Hungary and a defensive
alliance against Turkey were of paramount importance. Fortified
carefully and with much effort for over two decades, Belgrade was
sacrificed to the nation s vital interests.
The status of Belgrade somewhat changed under Hungarian
rule. The former capital of Serbia became the key stronghold in the
defence system on the Hungarian southern border. The functioning
of the system, however, remained pretty much the same. Previously
the main Serbian strongpoint fortified against the Ottoman invaders,
the town was now ensuring Hungarian safety, a role it played success¬
fully for a whole century.
Administratively, Belgrade was part of the
the earlier period of Hungarian rule in the fourteenth century. The
garrison was commanded by a captain, while the castellan s primary
duty seems to have been the maintenance of fortifications. Due to
Belgrade s strategic importance, its captain had a higher rank than
the commanders of other Hungarian towns. Appointed by the king
and often chosen from among the most influential members of the
aristocracy, he was always a highly trusted man. For some time the
town commander was
in Hungarian history around the middle of the fifteenth century.
In the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, the importance of
Belgrade s geostrategic position became painfully obvious, especially
after the fall of Serbia. Belgrade became the main stronghold1 on«
Hungary s southern borders. Without seizing it, the Ottomans could
not seriously threaten the heartland of Hungary. It would be rea¬
sonable to assume therefore that its fortifications were paid special
attention, but that was not the case. Namely, in Hungarian history it
was a period marked by a weak central authority, internal disarray
and power struggle among the Hungarian magnates. In a situation
where protection of the borders was left to chance or the ability of
individuals any serious work on the town fortifications was out of
the question. The work was limited to repairing the old defences,
while the few newly-built ones were a far cry from what was reallyt;
needed. The ramparts and towers erected by the Serbian despot
were designed for pre-gunpowder warfare.
Defensive cannon began to be introduced in the last decades of
the fourteenth century, while early siege cannon were not much of a
threat to fortress curtain walls. It was only from about
artillery began to develop at a faster pace. To counter with the new
powerful weapon entirely new fortification designs were developed,
while the old ones needed to be adapted. Nothing of that was done
in Belgrade, and this important fortification remained well behind
the development of European fortification techniques.
In the late 1430s, the danger of Ottoman attack on Belgrade
became palpable. The Ottoman northward campaign led by Sultan
Murad
Serbia was conquered and in June the following year the Serbian
new capital Smederevo fell after a siege of three months. Belgrade
was next in line. It was surrounded from all sides, even from the
river. An estimated
ramparts, and a rear tent-camp was mounted. The siege weapons
:]325[=
included cannons, which still had small destructive power. The course
of the five-month siege is not known in detail. Belgrade was battered
with the aim of breaching the defences for an infantry assault. As it
seems that this failed to produce the desired result, an attempt to sap
the ramparts was made. A contemporary witness recorded that
Turkish soldiers had secretly began to dig
blew it up, causing many casualties. After this failure, the Ottoman
army mounted the main assault. At few points where escalade was
successful some of the fiercest fighting took place. The defenders
firearms, especially rifles, swept the approaches to the walls, and
after a violent battle the Turks were forced to retreat. The city was
defended, even though the expected relief forces failed to come.
Analysis of the course and results of the
into the quality of the fortifications built by the Serbian despot. The
main attack came from land and was directed to the best fortified side
of the town whose double enceinte system could not be breached by
as yet unperfected artillery. But the siege revealed the system s weak¬
nesses, in the first place its gates. Therefore, in the aftermath of the
siege, along with the repair of ramparts special attention was paid to
reinforcing the town gates. As the most vulnerable due to its posi¬
tion on the easily accessible land side, the Upper Town South Gate
was walled up. Its role was reassigned to the East Gate, carefully for¬
tified along with the Lower Town South Gate, and in front of the
two now main gates barbicans were built. Moreover, before the
Upper Town gate the present-day Zindan Gate was erected, with a
massive curved rampart and two strong semicircular towers providing
emplacements for seven cannons. A somewhat smaller fortification
consisting of two semicircular towers with four cannon emplace¬
ments was built in front of the Lower Town East Gate.
The new outworks significantly improved protection of the gates,
shielding the system s weakest points from direct attack. Introduction
of cannon for defending approaches to the gates was an important
innovation and the first ever attempt to adapt the Belgrade fortifi¬
cation to the new weapon.
After the abortive siege of
on Belgrade for a while. A new wave of conquests of the Balkan coun¬
tries began with the accession of Sultan Mehmed II
Having captured Constantinople in the spring of
the Serbian
of the Hungarian lands, Belgrade was the first target.
According to contemporary records, a huge Turkish army of some
100,000
1456,
given to siege artillery such as the large cannon which had destroyed
the walls of Constantinople. From European perspective, the Ottoman
artillery was the strongest and most advanced of its time.
As the Turks advanced towards Belgrade, Hungary was mustering
an army under some difficulty. Some troops were gathered by the
Hungarian general
trained crusading army was raised in the neighbouring European
countries by the Franciscan John of Capistrano. Contemporaries
recorded that Polish students from the University of Krakow came
to Belgrade s aid.
In early July Belgrade was tightly surrounded, with the main
siege force concentrated on the southern approaches as the most
suitable for attack. About
were mounted there with the purpose of clearing the way for an
infantry attack on the Upper Town ramparts. The flotilla was to block
relief troops from
The bombing lasted for ten days and contemporary records
speak of heavy damage inflicted to the ramparts. The situation in
the besieged town must have been very difficult. The fact that many-
defenders faced heavy siege cannons for the first time must have
caused as much psychological damage. The situation changed when
the Hungarian fleet succeeded in breaking the siege line for fresh
crusading troops. Failing on the rivers, the Ottomans began their
main assault in the evening of
force their way into the Upper Town through breaches made in the
ramparts. The castle bridge was the scene of the fiercest fighting,
where the assailants were defeated and forced to withdraw. Illustrating
the violence of the engagement, a contemporary recorded that a
sparrow stabbed with three arrows was found in the battlefield in its
wake. In the counterattack, the Sultan himself was wounded.
The successful defence of Belgrade was celebrated throughout
Europe as a great Christian victory. The Turkish northward advance
was stopped for a few decades. The success primarily was the result of
the defenders extraordinary efforts. Although heavily damaged, the
fortifications mostly withstood bombing by powerful cannons for a
few reasons. In the first place, with the exception of the southern side,
the targets bombed were unsuitable for the effective performance of
siege artillery. Besides, unperfected techniques of operating siege
artillery prevented its full destructive effect. Certain solutions
employed in the construction of the early fifteenth-century fortifi¬
cations probably proved advantageous. The outer rampart with its
stone scarp shielded the foot of the main wall from direct battery
and, consequently, from more serious damage. However, only two
metres thick, the ramparts had not been designed to sustain artillery
fire. Protection from constantly improving siege artillery required
major modifications. And yet, the ensuing repair works focused on
increasing defending firepower rather than on strengthening the
weak ramparts. Thus a new fortification was built, known today as
the Eastern Outer City. It jutted into the area between the barbicans
of the main town gates. Its most protruding part received a polygonal
cannon tower, known as the
tion was protection of the north-eastern approaches to the town
and its main gates by flanking gunfire. A somewhat larger polygonal
cannon tower, known as the
be bank to protect the entrance to the port. As a result, the defences
were reinforced, but inadequately, given the much more advanced
art of contemporary European fortification.
:]326[:
Except for frequent skirmishes with the Turkish garrison stationed
in the fortress of
a major operation against Belgrade until the early 1520s. At that
time, Hungary was torn by internal strife and the system of defence
on its southern border, with its forts poorly maintained and insuffi¬
ciently armed, was in a bad state. This created suitable conditions for
the Ottoman expansion into central Europe. Young and belligerent,
Sultan
Belgrade
lessons from the earlier sieges,
conquering Srem, thereby severing links with Hungary. Under the
Sultan s command from his camp in
pletely encircled Belgrade by the end of July
The main assault was launched upon the considerably weaker
riverside fortification. The Turkish left wing attacked the northeast
rampart of the Lower Town. The defenders offered strong resistance
from the
August. A Turkish chronicler noted that »the spine of the infidel was
broken« when the
right wing attacked the Western Outer City. Deployed on the
ostrvo (War Isle), the Turkish centre battered the weak riverfront
rampart. On the 8th of August Turkish forces stormed into the
Lower Town through the breaches and after a day-long battle the
riverside fortifications were taken. The defenders were forced to
withdraw to the Upper Town and hold on until help arrived from
Hungary. Violent Turkish attacks continued on the remainder of the
fortification. In order to sap the castle ramparts and towers, the
Turks started digging a tunnel from the Lower Town. It was only
after the destruction of these towers that the defenders were forced
to surrender. Finally, on
Belgrade, the town they had been trying to conquer for a century.
The fall of Belgrade meant the collapse of the entire southern
frontier which Hungary was unable to prevent. The Hungarian king
was unable to raise a relief army and the defenders of Belgrade were
left to themselves. Established in the early fifteenth century, the town s
system of defence was strengthened with outworks and artillery
towers, but the initial concept of defence was not modified. It was
still believed that the Turks would attack from land and that the
Hungarian fleet, retaining control over the rivers, would ensure the
defenders undisturbed assistance. The result of such assessments
was that Belgrade was not strongly fortified towards the rivers. As
clearly shown by the outcome of the
a thus conceived defence of Belgrade to be successful was the proper
functioning of the entire system on the southern border.
IN THE REAR OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
The Ottoman conquest in
ment of Belgrade. For the first time in many centuries the Belgrade
fortress lost its primary military function as a strategic frontier for¬
tification. With the theatre of war moved far to the north, it assumed
a different role. It became an
plies to the Ottoman armies campaigning in central Europe. In this
period of peaceful development, until the last decades of the seven¬
teenth century, there was no need to extend and modernize its for¬
tifications. Instead of walls and towers, large food and arms store¬
houses were built. A cannon foundry was erected in close proximity
to the town walls on the Sava-facing slope, and a gunpowder works
rose in the environs of Belgrade.
Peaceful development of the town was disrupted by the abortive
siege of Vienna in
Ottoman rule in central Europe. After a succession of Turkish defeats,
major military operations were rapidly approaching Belgrade. As a
result, it recovered its former strategic importance and became the
key Turkish strongpoint expected to curb the advance of Austrian
forces. However, Belgrade was ill-equipped for such a role. Its forti¬
fications were neither extended nor reinforced since the end of the
15th century. Meanwhile, the European art of fortification had under¬
gone tremendous change. Systems of artillery fortifications were
being constantly improved in response to the changing techniques
of warfare. With its medieval fortifications, Belgrade was almost two
centuries behind. This diminished the chances of successful defence
despite the favourable geographical position and called for an urgent
strengthening of the old fortifications. For that there was neither
time nor money, and Belgrade had to await the Austrian siege of
1688
Having inflicted several defeats to the Ottomans, an Austrian
army of some
early summer of
gathering at Petrovaradin. The main body of troops was commanded
by the Bavarian electoral Maximilian
along the
were preparing their defence under the direction of Yegen
Pasha. He had about
rison of equal strength within the walls of Belgrade.
Early in August, the Austrians crossed the
and entered the city of Belgarde despite a resistance offered by the
Turks. The siege started by establishing the contravallation line
opposite the Upper Town south-eastern rampart, and the circum-
vallation line whose purpose was to protect the rear of siege troops.
The contravallation line included four approaches, as well as cannon
emplacements. The Austrians mounted the main assault upon the
Upper Town, still defended by its old medieval ramparts. Their can¬
non fire levelled part of the rampart on the easily accessible side to
open the way for the infantry to storm into the Fortress. It was in that
direction that the main assault was launched on
The Lower Town was attacked simultaneously in order to engage
part of the garrison and weaken the defence of the main section.
While the Austrians were advancing into the Upper Town, the Lower
:]327[:
Town was taken. The surviving defenders, who had retreated into
the castle, were forced to surrender.
After the siege of less than a month, the Austrians took Belgrade
rather effortlessly and without significant losses. The Turkish garrison,
though strong and well supplied, failed to defend Belgrade primarily
due to the weak and obsolete system of defences. The siege made it
clear that Belgrade could no longer be protected by the medieval
system of fortifications.
BETWEEN THE WARRING EMPIRES
Conflict between the two great powers in the region of which
Belgrade was the centre determined the city s fate. It regained its
military function as a strategic frontier stronghold, which it main¬
tained throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. There¬
fore both empires, the Austrian and the Ottoman, did their best to
fortify the town as strongly as possible. In the first decades of the
eighteenth century construction of the most advanced fortifications
made Belgrade the strongest fortress of south-eastern Europe.
The first improvements, though only provisional, were made
during the short-lived Austrian occupation. On orders from Vienna,
the town commander Count
prepare the newly-captured fortress for defence and ensure protection
against siege artillery. Attention was focused on the badly damaged
south-eastern rampart. Breaches were provisionally blocked and a new
gate was built (known as the
glacis with a covert way and a ravelin in the direction of the new
gate. The East and West gates of the Upper Town Were reinforced
with two bastions. At the same time preparations were being made
for a thorough reconstruction of fortifications.
But in the autumn of
the following year went on with what the Austrians had started. In
the course of the battle for Belgrade, the engineer directing the for¬
tification works and Starenberg s aide Andrea Cornaro had been
captured. It was to this Venetian of Cretan origin that the Turks,
lacking in military engineers, entrusted the reconstruction of the
fortress. At first with the status of a war prisoner, he later was set free
and directed the works in his capacity as mimarbasha (chief engineer)
until his death in
Comaro s original project for the reconstruction of the Belgrade
Fortress has not survived, but its copy is known from a plan drawn
by
an assistant to the Turkish collaborator
over to the Austrians. Based on these drawings,
that is now kept in the Vienna War Archive. Focused on fortifying the
Upper Town, Cornaro s project designed new ramparts according to
the principles of artillery fortifications. The main defence was to
rest upon new outworks on the South-eastern front, concentrated in
the direction of the easiest approach,
assaults upon the Fortress in earlier sieges. These fortifications
included two flanking two-horned bastions with a ravelin between
them aligned with the main line of communication. In front of the
Upper Town side ramparts a glacis with covert way was planned,
while the bastions in front of the gates, built in
as they were. Cornaro s project for the Lower Town envisaged minor
alterations as well as bastions before the East Gate and at the
entrance to the old port.
The works continued for the whole last decade of the seventeenth
century, occasionally supervised by Sultan Mustafa II. It was recorded
that the Sultan personally directed the fortification of the entrance
to the old port at the
in
Cornaro s project had not been fully carried out. The Upper Town
was enclosed with new ramparts on three sides, while the north¬
eastern one remained protected by the old medieval wall. Heavily
damaged during the siege and unsuitable for the new conditions of
warfare, the castle was torn down. The south-eastern outer line of de¬
fences remained unfinished. Only one of the two hornwark bastions
was built. The Lower Town received a new riverfront rampart, and
the existing south-eastern one was strengthened with an earthen
embankment. Its flanks were reinforced with glacises and palisades.
A contemporary accompanying the French emissary
in
high quality of construction, especially of the Upper Town ramparts,
but he found the latter too high. On the other hand, he thought that
the outworks with the two-horned bastion were too low and the ditch
too shallow. So he concluded that successful defence could only be
achieved with a strong garrison backed by an army. Similar criticism
came from an Austrian general, Count Haresch, who came to Bel¬
grade a few years later on an intelligence mission.
The contemporary observers criticism seems to have been quite
justified. The bastioned line in front of the Upper Town, designed
according to the principles of the Dutch fortification school set in
the first half of the seventeenth century, was already outdated. In the
second half of the seventeenth century, the design of European for¬
tresses became much more sophisticated. Such were fortification
techniques of the famous French Marshal
tary architecture at the time of Cornaro s Belgrade works and into
the eighteenth century. And yet, Cornaro made use of obsolete solu¬
tions. The reason is difficult to find, but his lack of knowledge does
not seems a likely explanation. Cornaro s deliberate sabotage cannot
be ruled out, given that the Turks lacked skill in designing modern
bastioned fortifications. Forced to work for the enemy, he may have
found his own way of supporting the Christian cause. However, the
fortifications of Belgrade had other weaknesses too. As Cornaro s
project was not carried through, the bastioned fronts remained
inadequately connected and too weak to shield the main fortress
wall from direct artillery fire. Some of these shortcomings became
conspicuous at the Austrian siege of
:]328[:
A new war between Austria and Turkey broke in the spring of
1716.
Savoy crossed the Danube the following year and besieged Belgrade.
The besiegers camp was enclosed with the contravallation and cir-
cumvallation lines designed by well-known Austrian engineers. After
the conquest of the Turkish-held town of
positioned on the river bank and the cannons aimed at the Lower
Town. The goal of the Turkish garrison was to hold on until the
arrival of the main forces from the south commanded by
Pasha. The Austrians, on the other hand, wanted to seize Belgrade
before the engagement with the main body of Turkish troops. With
the construction of siege positions still underway, bombing of the low
ramparts of the Lower Town began. In mid August, a large building
where gunpowder was stored was hit and the blast destroyed almost
all Lower Town structures. But despite frequent bombing campaigns
and massive destruction within the walls, the Austrians made no
assault on the Fortress. In the meantime, in early August, Turkish re¬
lief forces reached Belgrade and were deployed towards the Austrian
circumvallation line in the area of modern Mali
became obvious that the decisive battle for Belgrade was going to be
fought on the battlefield rather than in an assault on the Fortress.
On
beaten and forced to retreat, pursued by a Serbian volunteer corps.
This victory decided Belgrade s destiny. Two days later, the Turkish
commander of the Fortress signed the capitulation treaty.
The course of the siege revealed flaws in the defence system of the
Belgrade Fortress as established by the fortifications constructed at
the end of the seventeenth century. The artillery attacks showed the
shortcomings of the Lower Town new fortifications which, conse¬
quently, suffered the heaviest damage. An important factor was also
the fact that the Turks did not have modern and well-secured facilities
for gunpowder storage in the Fortress, a prerequisite for the success
of defence. It also became clear that the Fortress could no longer be
defended without outworks on the opposite banks of the
Danube rivers. It is interesting to note that the criticism by
Ferriole s companion proved justified, namely that given the state of
its defences the Belgrade Fortress could only be protected by a
strong garrison, with strong external forces in support. The Turks
seem to have been aware of that while choosing defensive strategies
in their attempt to keep Belgrade.
ONE OF THE STRONGEST FORTRESSES IN EUROPE
The conquest of Belgrade in
great victory and, in a broader sense, as a victory of Christendom in
its centuries-long confrontation with Islam. Incorporated into the
Habsburg
and as such
Europe it became, between
fence against the Ottoman Empire and a base for the re-conquest of
its European territories. In its eastward expansion the Catholic
monarchy intended for Belgrade the role of an influential cultural,
political and economic base for Catholic expansion and German
colonization. These goals drew Belgrade, though briefly, into the
orbit of European urban developments. The existing Oriental town
with its fortress, an outdated fortification despite attempts at mo¬
dernization, was in stark contrast to this new function and the pre¬
vailing urban and fortification concepts of a Baroque Europe. To
make Belgrade into a fortified European city of the Baroque epoch
required a complete reconstruction. The reconstruction programme
envisaged the fortress as an exclusively military structure, a town
laid out on a grid pattern and protected by bastioned fortifications,
as well as outworks on the opposite bank of the
rivers as an integral part of the system of defence. Such an ambitious
programme required extensive preparations, from organizing the
administration of the occupied territory and drawing reconstruc¬
tion projects to providing funds for the works.
Temporary military government established after the conquest
of northern Serbia and Belgrade was replaced by the so-called Ser¬
bian Administration headed by Carl Alexander of
department for fortress construction was founded, which was
responsible to the
problem, which at first slowed down the works. The problem was
partially solved by levying taxes on the imperial provinces; for
example, the Italian provinces of Naples, Sicily and
plied
ceived of as »the bulwark of Christendom«, the Catholic Church
also gave its contribution.
Many original documents relating to construction and recon¬
struction works in Belgrade during the Austrian occupation
-1739)
prints make it possible to follow their course almost step by step and
to analyze the designs employed. According to this documentation,
the work was planned in two phases, the first being preparatory and
completed in
The construction works at first were directed by a well-known
military engineer, Colonel
ceeded by Major
Belgrade s new fortifications, the realization of which seems to have
begun as early as the second half of
repair and extension of Cornaro s Upper and Lower Town ramparts,
as well as the building of Suly s large powder magazine on the
Danube-facing slope in the Lower Town. This well-preserved building
consists of two rock-cut halls, each with nine columns, intercon¬
nected by a vaulted access corridor. Technically sophisticated, this
design offered a functional solution and may be considered a signifi¬
cant achievement of contemporary military architecture. Among
other important structures built in the Upper Town was a large, about
60
:]329[:
The realization of Suly s project was discontinued as early as the
beginning of
satisfaction. Many objections were raised against his project and
accusations of embezzlement brought. The search for the best design
began all over again and various projects were submitted, some by
well-known contemporary engineers such as Colonel
of the Military Academy in Vienna. Finally, in the middle of
Aulic
Démoret),
According to
Belgrade Fortress as the heart of a system consisting of the town for¬
tifications and the outworks on the opposite side of the river. All the
earlier outworks were to be pulled down and the fortified core of the
Belgrade Fortress, its Upper and Lower Towns, enclosed with new
bastioned traces. Special attention was given to the South-eastern
front defending the easiest access to the Fortress, where construc¬
tion of two half bastions with orillons and receded flanks for six
cannon batteries was planned. Both half bastions were connected
with the main Fortress gate (present-day Stambol Gate) by a curtain
with a large ravelin in front. In the Lower Town, construction of a
similar bastion front was planned for the old port, which was to
become a closed naval port. An outer line of defences, consisting of
counterguards with lunettes and glacises with a covert way, was
planned before the main bastion fronts and the fortification on the
inland side.
The city was to be defended by a new bastioned trace from the
bank of the
Republic. The trace was to consist of eight bastions connected by
curtains and an outer line of works similar to the one defending the
Fortress. Outworks were planned on the left bank of the
confluence with the Danube and on the opposite bank of the Danube.
On the whole, Doxat offered an enhanced fortification design,
while fully observing the basic intention of making Belgrade into a
fortified Baroque city with multiple functions such as military, econo¬
mic, administrative and other. His project drew on Marshal Vauban s
First System, the acme of the European art of fortification at the time.
This new system offered excellent potentials for defence against attack
coming both from the inland and river sides. The shortcomings
observed during the
of outworks at the confluence of the rivers.
The realization of
went on for nearly
de Fortress works, the main bastioned line around the city and the
outworks on the
left the outer line of city defences unfinished, while the construction
of the Danube outworks had not even begun. Even so, the Fortress of
Belgrade was brought to its acme both in terms of the area it cove¬
red and the models of defence employed. The strongest fortification
in the southeast of Europe at the time, it promised success in resisting
siege, such as the one laid by the Ottomans in
Having defeated the Austrians at Grocka on
Turks reached Belgrade. The dispirited Austrian commanders were
unwilling to defend the city despite good chances of success, and
peace negotiations began. The truce was signed at the very moment
the defence began to produce results. According to the truce, the
Austrians ceded Belgrade to Turkey, with the proviso that all fortifi¬
cations built after
works on the left bank of the
outer city was to be torn down in three months time, and the new
fortifications of the Belgrade Fortress within six months. So it was
almost without resistance that Belgrade was surrendered, a city that
had for twenty years been fortified and developed to become the
Habsburg
spite of Belgrade s strong defences, Austria was unable to safeguard
it. Other factors played a decisive role.
OTTOMAN FRONTIER STRONGHOLD
Under Ottoman rule Belgrade retained its strategic importance,
becoming the key stronghold on which the preservation of the
Empire s European possessions depended. But acutely aware of its
actual strength and the international balance of power, the Porte
was compelled to abandon all ambition to regain the lost northern
territories. Not a base for conquest any more, Belgrade assumed
solely the role of a defensive frontier fortification, and the Turks put
much effort into making the Fortress ready for that task. But the
Ottoman Empire, with its weakened central power and exhausted by
internal strife, was incapable of undertaking so extensive a project as
the
The demolition of the Austrian fortifications had reduced the
Belgrade Fortress to its basic form: the Upper and Lower Town for¬
tifications built or renovated prior to
lines the Fortress was highly vulnerable, so refortifying was the task
of the hour. Apparently the choice of the design was not a matter of
dispute. As the Turkish idea of an impregnable and well-constructed
fortress appears to have coincided with the state of affairs prior to
the demolition, the new defences were to be constructed in the same
manner and according to the same design as the pulled-down
Austrian fortifications.
Construction works began towards the end of
for twenty years, with much difficulty and frequent interruptions.
When they were completed, the Fortress had the shape it has pre¬
served till this day. The newly-built fortifications in fact were a very
simplified version of the previous Austrian ones. Like the Austrians
before them, the Turks basically followed the patterns of Vauban s
school of fortification. But compared to the Austrian bastioned
traces, which had their merits in the development of European for¬
tifications, the Ottoman had many shortcomings; for example, the
outworks with lunettes and counterguards beyond the main bastion
:]33O[=
front were left out and the latter remained unprotected, which weake¬
ned its defensive function. Moreover, the whole purpose of following
the previous fortification patterns may be brought into question.
Belgrade s geopolitical position became fundamentally different
after the peace settlement of
man frontier fortress on the right bank of the
the opposite bank was not under Ottoman rule and no outworks
could be built on it, which in turn made the defence of the Lower
Town much more difficult. This fact should have generated a different
approach to its system of defence, but it obviously was not given
careful consideration. The only relevant contribution in that sense
was the building of a strong rampart around the gunpowder maga¬
zine in the Lower Town to shield it against potential cannon fire from
the left bank of the
The bastioned line of defence around the city was not restored,
and a palisade of little defensive significance was built in its place.
Thus the defence of Belgrade became reduced again to the Fortress,
in contrast with the earlier period, when it had been but the heart of
a larger system of defence.
A new war and the short-lived Austrian occupation
left no trace on the fortifications of Belgrade. To judge from the sur¬
viving documents, plans in particular, the Austrians intended to
enhance the system of defences, but Belgrade changed hands once
more.
IN THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES
The Peace of Sistova in
Turkey fought with one another. The Belgrade Fortress remained an
Ottoman frontier fortification, but this was not its primary func¬
tion. The situation in the pashalik of Belgrade was rapidly changing.
The Sultan s authority was no longer challenged by the external
enemy but by internal strife. In the 1790s armed conflicts between
the rebelling Janissaries and the imperial army were frequent and
the time was ripe for the Serbs to rise up. Under the circumstances
Belgrade became a military and administrative centre of the Otto¬
man authorities struggling against the Serbs and their aspirations
for independence. Even as outdated as it was in comparison with
European fortifications, but reconstructed in the previous period,
the Belgrade Fortress played the role of an important Ottoman
stronghold.
The last siege the Fortress saw was laid towards the end of
After the great victories at
gent army led by Karadjordje reached Belgrade. The Turks were
forced to surrender after a few weeks of fighting with the poorly
equipped insurgent troops. For the first time in four centuries, the
liberated city became the capital of Serbia and its Fortress the main
Serbian stronghold. The Serbian garrison remained in the Fortress
until the uprising was crushed in
was undertaken. Nor were they extended or significantly repaired
during the last period of Ottoman rule that followed.
By the time the Serbian troops replated the Turkish garrison, in
1867,
cance. All European fortifications of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries had lost importance with the advent of high-explosive
artillery shells. The Serbian troops merely used the Belgrade Fortress
as an enclosed complex of barracks and storehouses.
The Fortress suffered heavy damage in World War One. Although
long-obsolete by then, it was held and protected as an important
stronghold in the system of defence of Belgrade and the borders of the
Kingdom of Serbia. In the violent bombing from heavy howitzers in
1914
within the Fortress were destroyed and its walls severely damaged.
The Belgrade Fortress kept falling into decay in the interwar
period. The development of a modern city was at odds with the old
Fortress. A new traffic artery cut its way through the Lower Town,
little by little the outworks became covered with park lanes, and a
Zoo grew leaning against the ramparts. At the same time, however,
there was a growing awareness of the need for the Fortress to be pre¬
served as the most significant monument to the city s past. Some
sections of the ramparts were renovated; the Zindan Towers
received new battlements; and the
City was completely reconstructed. Damaged in
tower of the Upper Town, next to the East Gate, was also reconstruc¬
ted. War wounds inflicted to the walls of the
Lower Town were also healed.
A new era in the long history of the Belgrade Fortress has begun
in the aftermath of World War Two. It irrevocably lost all defensive
significance and the army left its ramparts. Extensive archaeological
excavations have been initiated and followed by major conservation
works. Pieces of information about the once famous fortification
have been rescued from oblivion and its ramparts and towers
restored to their former shape. The nearly two-millennia-old
Fortress has been adjusting to the new age and the needs of modern
man by being both a large museum of Belgrade s history and a
favourite venue of its citizens.
LISTE
Fig.
Fig.
Bologna University)
Fig.
64/954)
Fig.
Istanbul)
Fig.
(Belgrade City Museum)
CONTENTS
САДРЖАЈ
УВОД
MctopífjcKti
ÀpxeonOuiká
ПОЛОЖА)
АМТИЧКО
Ѓимски легијски
Рановизантијско утврђење
СРЕДЊОВЕКОВНА УТВРТ>ЕЊА БЕОГРАДСКОГ
Настакак
Визактмјско
Угарско-српско
Српски утврђени
Угарско
Београдски
БАСТИОНА
Прва реконструкнија
Друга
ípeha
БЕОГР
ЗАВРШНАРЕЧ
РЕЧНИК
ИЗВОРИ
THÈ
|
| adam_txt |
л
'-.V
INTRODUCTION
[The Belgrade Fortress holds a special place among the fortifications!
of South-Eastern Europe. Its history is interwoven with all the
events shaping the destiny of European states and nations over the
past two thousand years. Positioned on an exceptionally favourable-
site, a junction of European routes to the East, it functioned for cen¬
turies both as a defensive stronghold and a base for conquest.
| The Fortress, its origin and evolution, is inseparable from the
¡history of Belgrade. Roman Singidunum was founded next to a hill-
jtop fortification overlooking the confluence of the
-rivers. Slavic Belgrade developed in the same place. A medieval town!
grew for centuries in the shelter of the Fortress, which remained its
core long after the settlement spread beyond its walls.
The study of the fortifications built, destroyed and rebuilt on
this site from ancient times until the eighteenth century plays an
important part in studying the city as a whole. It provides evidence
for the role Belgrade played in the past, reflecting the city's
downs. Furthermore, a composite and stratified complex, it is rele¬
vant in studying the evolution of European fortifications at large as
it clearly reflects all the changes European military architecture
underwent: from a fortified legionary camp-casiram to
fortified town to an almost modern bastioned artillery fortress.
The defences of Belgrade were built and developed in the spurs of
the mountains of
of two big rivers that form a natural border between two different geo¬
graphical regions. The area where the
Pannonian
for both settlement and fortification. A good view of the surrounding
area and easy access, the proximity of wide valleys connecting distant
regions, control of river crossings and land movements account for
the remarkable importance the site had for centuries. Overland and
river routes that meet there were an important historical and geo¬
graphical factor. Positioned at the border between the two regions,
it is owing to these routes that Belgrade was also a contact zone
between them. As a result, it often found itself on the route of con¬
quests and forays, migrations and trade, a fact that decisively influ¬
enced the city's development and its fate.
In addition to the geographical position, the relief features played
a prominent role in the foundation of the settlement and fortifica¬
tions. The flat-topped elevation above the confluence offered good
possibilities of defence. Its steep slopes and rocky cliffs were sur¬
rounded by water on three sides. Easy access was only possible from
the southeast. Rising
the area, enabling control of the waterways, of the overland routes
in the south and the plain in the north. Though not a decisive factor,
the geology of the site was also suitable for fortification construction.
Solid rock
the foundations.
The shape of the hill above the confluence influenced the
arrangement of the ramparts, which took the advantage of its strate¬
gic potentials. At the same time, however, the natural features were
also changed to meet the requirements of defence. Over the cen¬
turies, man and nature have changed the site to the extent that it lost
some of its essential original characteristics. The rocky cliffs almost
completely disappeared under vegetation and embankments, while
the riverfront area was considerably expanded by reclamation of the
shoreline.
The centuries-long development of the Belgrade Fortress maybe
read from plentiful historical sources (written, cartographic and artis¬
tic), and especially from the results of archaeological excavations.
The written sources are of diverse origin and value. Their number
greatly varies from one historical period to another. It is only from
the twelfth century onwards that Belgrade becomes more often
referred to by Byzantine and Hungarian sources. The amount and
variety of the written material about Belgrade abruptly increases
from the beginning of the fifteenth century. Besides information
provided by Serbian, Hungarian and Ottoman chroniclers, there are
abundant archival materials. But very few of the surviving records,
which offer valuable historical information, relate to the Fortress
and its evolution.
Highly relevant to the study of the Fortress and city of Belgrade
are cartographic sources. Due to its location and the role it played in
European affairs in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
Belgrade is one of the cities most frequently shown in old plans.
More than two hundred plans known from that period, for the most
part kept in libraries and archives throughout Europe, usually show
the Fortress with details of its defence system, the city and its envi¬
rons, or different dispositions of siege troops. As for artistic depic¬
tions, the majority of which are sixteenth- and seventeenth-century
engravings with the view of the city, their critical analysis leaves us
with only a few of any informative significance.
The results of archaeological excavation conducted for more than
forty years, and as yet uncompleted, are especially important for the
study of the Belgrade Fortress. They have provided a wealth of new
information, giving an insight into the origin and sequence of forti¬
fications on the site over a span of almost two millennia.
ROMAN LEGIONARY CAMP
The site presently occupied by the Belgrade Fortress was first settled
in the Neolithic and Eneolithic. The earliest remains have been found
on the Upper Town plateau
but there are no traces of a Celtic settlement. In the closing centuries
of the pre-Christian era, their settlement and, possibly, a fortification
were further downstream, in the area of modern
The exceptionally favourable geostrategic position of the eleva¬
tion above the confluence of two rivers does not seem to have
encouraged settlement in prehistoric periods. Nor was the site used
in times of insecurity, when settlements began to be fortified.
The Roman world, with its advanced civilization, arrived in the1
region in the last years B.C. The final conquest of the area of modern
Belgrade was preceded by campaigns against the Celtic population
in the first century B.C. and Roman persistent efforts to establish
control over this strategically important part of the Danube Basin.
Once annexed to the Roman Empire, the conquered territory became
its part in social, political and economic terms, which had a far-
reaching effect on its further development. One of the results was
the founding of Roman Singidunum, modern Belgrade's ancient
precursor.
The site where modern Belgrade lies must have been very
important for the defence of the Roman Empire after it established
its frontier on the Danube in the first century
potentials were recognized quite early. There are indications that
legions
Singidunum as early as the first half of the first century. With the
military and administrative consolidation in the area of the Danube
limes by the end of the first century, Singidunum became the base of
Legion IV Flavia, maintained there until the end of Roman rule.
The presence of the legion no doubt decisively contributed to the
development of Singidunum as a Roman town. The camp became
the nucleus around which the town grew in the following centuries.
In the first half of the second century, probably during the reign of the
Emperor Hadrian, Singidunum was granted the rank of municipium,
a self-governing urban community, and in the mid third century it
became
Remains of the castrum of Legion IV Flavia were discovered and
partially investigated during the years of excavation in the Belgrade
Fortress area. Its ramparts, the oldest vestige of any fortification on
the site, were poorly preserved. What has survived of them is either
buried deep under the foundations of later fortifications or almost
completely destroyed. As a result, little is known about the earliest
phase of Roman fortifications. It has been ascertained, however, that
the castrum was located in the Upper Town area and in a section of
Kalemegdan Park adjacent to
plan
an area of
was defended by another two ramparts running down the Danube-
facing slope.
At first, immediately after the arrival of the legion, the camp was
probably enclosed with earthen walls and wooden palisades. Some¬
what later, most likely at the end of the second century, the earth¬
works were replaced by stone ramparts strengthened with towers.
They were built of neatly cut stones, as was common practice for
major legionary camps. Deep pointed ditches with slanting sides
were dug in front of them, and each gate was flanked by two towers.
:]320[=
The space of Roman legionary camps was normally divided into
barracks, storehouses and granaries, with the headquarters building in
the centre, and this must have been the case with the
dunum. The section of defences archaeologically confirmed on the
riverbank
port. That zone has yielded remains of temples, one of them dedicated
to the god Mithra, as well as workshops servicing the legion's needs.
Sharing the fate of the Roman Empire, Singidunum, as its frontier
stronghold, reached its peak in the second and third centuries. The
Romans maintained Legion IV Flavia in Singidunum throughout
the fourth century, when the town's decline began. What befell the
legion during the Gothic invasion of
num probably was finally destroyed in
the Danube Basin.
LATE ANTIQUE FORTRESS
Singidunum remained abandoned for a few decades in the wake of
the Hunnic invasion. Still nominally ruled by the Eastern Roman
Empire
tribes of Goths, Gepidae and, eventually,
late fifth century, Theodoric established a strong Gothic state; with
its eastern frontier in Srem, the strategic importance of Singidunum
becomes obvious.
The earliest information about the restoration of fortifications
at Singidunum under Justinian
temporary Byzantine historian Procopius. According to him, the
Emperor
parts, thereby bringing back to life the »beautiful and admirable
city«, but the actual scale of Justinian's building programme at
Singidunum can only be surmised from circumstantial evidence.
In the sixth century the need for and possibility of defending
the Byzantine Danube frontier was very much different from the
time the Roman limes had been established. The new defence system
consisted of a number of lesser fortifications located on major
strategic points along the border and in the interior of frontier
provinces. It was based on the principle of active defence, in contrast
with the earlier one, which mostly relied on fortified military camps.
Procopius did not fail to observe the change, explaining that the for¬
tifications along the Roman limes had not been so constructed as to
be unassailable, because the barbarians had been unfamiliar with
the craft of seizing fortresses, but in order not to leave the frontier
vacant. Procopius also noted that Justinian had new strong forts
constructed rather than restoring the old to their original form. It
seems, therefore, that the earlier sizeable frontier fortifications,
legionary camps in particular, were inadequate for the new needs.
One of the articles of a law organizing military government in
North Africa ordered that large frontier towns and castles should be
fortified in such a manner as to be
Implemented on the African frontier, this principle was certainly
applied to the Danube limes too. All this seems helpful in hypothe¬
sizing about the exact location and size of the late antique fort in
Singidunum. Given that the north-western section of the former le¬
gionary camp offered the best natural possibilities of defence, and that
the late antique fortification is likely to have covered only a portion
of the former castrum area., its location in the most easily
section should be presumed. In that case it would have covered one
third of the former castrum area, a little more than the fortified por¬
tion of the Upper Town in later periods.
Justinian's system of defence on the Danube border, including
Singidunum, was under frequent barbarian attacks. It could not
withstand a forceful Slavic incursion recorded in the middle of the
year
The stronghold of Singidunum played an important role in the
clashes ensuing in the late sixth and early seventh centuries. Battle
for the city was fought with changing fortunes. In
launched a surprise attack. Most inhabitants, who could come to the
garrison's aid should need be, were in the fields. According to the
contemporary Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta, the Avars
seized the town only after fierce fighting at its gates. A few years
later, Singidunum was once again attacked and captured, and this
time the Avars set out to demolish its fortifications and dislodge the
inhabitants, probably intent on disabling the strongpoint once and
for all. But the city was recaptured by the Byzantine general Priscus.
According to Simocatta, in preparation for Priscus' attack, the Avars
encircled the fortification with carts to compensate for the damaged
fortifications. But, unable to repel the attackers and fearing the citi¬
zens behind their back, they eventually had to withdraw.
Early in the reign of Emperor Heraclius, Byzantine rule in the
Balkans received a fatal blow. Shaken in the previous decades, the
system of defence on the Danube frontier finally collapsed under
Avar and Slavic incursions in the 610s. There is no direct informa¬
tion about the destiny of Singidunum, but it certainly was not
spared. It probably was seized before the fall of
subsequent siege of Thessalonica.
BEGINNINGS OF A MEDIEVAL TOWN
Little is known about the beginnings of medieval Belgrade built on the
ruins of Singidunum. Between the 850s and 870s historical sources
make no reference to a settlement in this area. In
John
time, as an episcopal see. No more than six years later, contempo¬
raries describe Belgrade as »the most famed town on the Danube«.
The invading Slavs must have found the well-preserved late
antique ramparts on the elevation overlooking the rivers, and the
sight of the ruined town was probably reflected in the new Slavic
name
was best for settlement if defence was the primary consideration.
Although there is no reliable archaeological evidence, it may be
assumed therefore that the Slavic settlement initially formed within
the limits of the late antique fortress, and subsequently spread
towards the river.
The old fortress was probably too large for the needs and re¬
sources of the newly-settled Slavs. The ramparts were in need of
repair and regular maintenance, and a strong force of defenders, if
the settlement was to be effectively protected. The Slavs were unable
to meet all these conditions, at least in the beginning. Presumably
the protected area of the early medieval settlement covered only
part of the late antique fortification, as shown by the early medieval
cities in Gaul and Germany which all grew on Roman remains.
Considering the site of the old Singidunum fortress, its relief
characteristics and position in relation to the rivers, the Slavic forti¬
fication would have occupied its western corner as the strategically
most important part of the Upper Town plateau. An earthen ram¬
part with palisades and ditch, common in Slav-inhabited lands and
much of Europe at the time, was probably added towards the deserted
part of the late antique fortress.
The date of these works is impossible to determine without some
moi©
the settlement was probably fortified in its earliest phase, sometime
in the second half of the eighth century.
At the beginning of the ninth century, the region underwent
major change. The Avar khanate disappeared form the historical stage
and Frankish rule was established in parts of
a Bulgarian state developed. At the end of the century
settled by Magyars. Their arrival in the Danube Basin changed the
situation in central Europe, which in turn had a powerful influence
on the destiny of Belgrade.
BYZANTINE FRONTIER CASTLE
After the conquest of Samuel's Macedonian state in the second
decade of the eleventh century Byzantium restored its rule over the
whole of the Balkans, imposing its laws and introducing themes as
military and administrative units. For the first time after Slavic settle¬
ment, the Empire's frontier was re-established on the Danube.
Emperor Basil II entrusted one of his best generals,
Diogenes, with the organization of government and defence in the
region, which was of far-reaching importance for Belgrade, as it
became one of the most important strongholds on the northern
border. It probably received a permanent garrison, which required a
much larger and stronger fortress. As a result, its fortifications were
further developed and the town began to grow larger. For about two
hundred years, until the end of the twelfth century, Belgrade was
involved in every border conflict between Byzantium and Hungary,
often playing a decisive role.
The Belgrade fortification was very important for the functioning
of the Danube border defence system. But the treatment of frontier
fortifications, their renovation or construction, was not influenced
only by the real needs, but also by the Empire's home affairs and
current policies, as clearly shown by the example of Belgrade.
According to historical sources, in the eleventh century Belgrade's
defences consisted of stone ramparts. Archaeological excavations,
however, have not confirmed any building activity from the estab¬
lishment of Byzantine rule until the twelfth century. It seems rea¬
sonable to assume, therefore, that the Byzantine garrison used the
late antique fortification, simply repairing its well-preserved ram¬
parts. Such practice was not uncommon along the Danube border
of the Empire in the eleventh and first half of the twelfth century,
and the reasons are to be found in the deep internal crisis which
Byzantium was undergoing after the death of Emperor Basil II.
Unable to construct a new fortress, the Byzantine garrison in
Belgrade must have been compelled to rely on the partially repaired
Roman ramparts as a temporary solution. They, however, offered
poor protection, as observed by chroniclers accompanying the cru¬
saders in
withdrew his garrison to
the safer shelter of its fortifications. The inadequacy of Belgrade's
defences also became obvious in clashes with the Hungarians.
In
Salamon
invaders made use of various siege devices, including eight wooden
towers twice as high as the ramparts. After fierce fighting, the ram¬
parts were almost completely destroyed and the garrison was forced
to surrender. A few decades later the Hungarians recaptured Belgra¬
de. According to the Byzantine chronicler John Kinnamos, they
»razed the town to the ground«, and reused the stones for bunding
new fortifications in
cult to determine, but it was probably heavy. However, to demolish
the fortification was far from being an easy undertaking and, besides,
the stones had to be shipped off to
the Byzantines long to repair the fortifications it seems that the
Hungarians did not have enough time to demolish them completely.
That the fortress retained its function, though weakened, is evidenced
by a chronicler who passed through Belgrade in
Louis
On the accession of Emperor Manuel I Comnenus
the Empire's northern frontier was paid more attention. The conflic¬
ting Byzantine and Hungarian interests led to war more often than
in the previous years. Belgrade's strategic position was fully recognized
and it became a base for Byzantine campaigns against the Hungarians.
The army and fleet were stationed in the town and its environs, and
war operations were frequently directed by Manuel I himself. The
road to
operations, ran through Belgrade. All that required that Belgrade be
fortified more strongly.
:]322[:
According to Byzantine historians, construction of the new
fortress-castle began in
mined fortifications of
labour force. The building of the castle was not completed until
1165.
covered over the years of archaeological research reveal its building
method, layout and functions.
The castle was built in the strategic part of the Upper Town
plateau between the present-day Victor Monument and a Turkish
fountain near the
cliffs on the west and northwest, and by a ditch on the accessible
southeast side. It was irregular deltoid in plan,
wide. The firm stone ramparts were strengthened with nearly semi¬
circular polygonal towers at regular intervals. Facing the Danube
slope, the gate was sheltered from direct attack. In order to approach
the gate from the thoroughfare (present-day
was necessary to go past the castle's eastern tower. On the other hand,
this position facilitated communication with the riverside settle¬
ment as well as fast retreat into the castle in case of an unexpected
attack from the river.
Belgrade's newly-built castle was a typical achievement of twelfth-
-century Byzantine military architecture in its plan, size and func¬
tion. Its small size was the result of what was affordable rather than
what was needed. The enclosure could accommodate the town com¬
mander and part of his garrison. However, its function as a retreat
for the Emperor, who stayed in Belgrade more than once, must have
been taken into account. The presence of Manuel I Comnenus during
the construction of the castle confirms his personal interest in the
undertaking, and it appears that Constantinopolitan workers took
part in the building of Belgrade's new defences.
The system of defences on the northern border could not with¬
stand the Hungarian attack of
seized along with other fortifications. Somewhat later, Byzantium
peacefully regained the lost territory, but the broken defence system
was not reinstalled. A few years later, at the very end of the twelfth
century, Byzantium lost Belgrade for good and the Empire's border
was pushed south.
BETWEEN SERBIA AND HUNGARY
After the collapse of the Empire's Danube frontier and its with¬
drawal from the north of the Balkans in the twelfth century, Belgrade's
geopolitical position changed significantly. New states, Serbia and
Bulgaria, emerged in former Byzantine territories south of the Danu¬
be. Their interests soon came into conflict with Hungarian aspira¬
tions to expand into the central Balkans. From the early fourteenth
century, the Serbian rulers increasingly sought to consolidate the
border on the
and survival of Serbia in that territory. Belgrade was the central
point in their efforts, which had a powerful effect on its destiny as a
settlement and a fortification.
Away from the war zone during the thirteenth century, Belgrade
could only play the role of a lesser rear fortification. It retained the
same role even after
Hungarian king and added to the territory ruled by King Stefan
Dragutin
not further fortified. Undoubtedly maintained regularly, the old
Byzantine fortress must have been adequate for Belgrade's needs.
A significant change came about only in
death of Stefan
Hungarians had never ceased considering Belgrade part of their
realm, their attack was expected. Therefore, the defence of the annexed
territory was given special attention. According to the contempora¬
ry Hungarian sources and recent archaeological evidence, Belgrade
received some new defences sometime in the first half of the four¬
teenth century, while still under Serbian rule. Part of the riverside area
was enclosed with ramparts and connected with the hilltop fortress.
This outlying enclosure significantly contributed to the town's
defensive potentials. The new ramparts were extended towards the
river bank for the purpose of controlling the river frontier and con¬
centrating defence in the northerly direction, from which the Hunarn
garian attack was expected. The new fortification offered a number
of other advantages, such as control of river traffic or a safer way of
supplying the town in case of siege, especially with water. The choice
of the most favourable location for its construction, which allowed
its connection with the hilltop fortress and their adaptation into a
larger defence system, was a competent and up-to-date solution.
SERBIAN FORTIFIED TOWN
Recaptured by Hungary, Belgrade retained its function as a frontier
fortification, now incorporated into the system of defence on the
Hungarian southern border which was no longer peaceful. Serbia lost
Belgrade, but not the desire to regain it and push its frontier back to
the
their advance into the Balkans. After the Battle of Kosovo in
Serbia began its struggle for survival. Challenged by the same enemy,
Hungary appeared to be its natural ally. A rapprochement between
the two ensued after the Ottoman defeat at Angora in
agreement was reached in
rian vassalage and in return Belgrade was ceded to Serbia.
Belgrade's re-incorporation into Serbia decisively influenced its
further development and transformation into a fortified medieval
town in the full sense of the word. Well aware of its strategic importan¬
ce for the survival of Serbia, whose southern border was increasingly
under Ottoman threat, Despot Stefan made it his capital, whereby
turning it into the country's economic and cultural centre. The major
fortified towns at the time,
:]323[:
country's central and southern parts, and thus the first to take the
enemy hlow. Situated in the northernmost part of the state,
Belgrade was far enough to allow defence preparations in case of a
sudden Ottoman attack. Moreover, in case of siege it could easily
receive reinforcements from Hungary, whose help must have been
counted on.
Archaeology has provided a wealth of information about the
busy building activity in Belgrade between
in forming a general picture of the town and its fortifications are
also the Despot's biographer
French traveller Bertrandon
trustworthy testimonies of eyewitnesses who described Belgrade as
they saw it.
Considering the circumstances, construction of new fortifica¬
tions in Belgrade was a difficult and complex undertaking. Several
building phases may be identified through analysis of the relation¬
ship between the earlier structures and the alterations they under¬
went, but are most easily seen in the newly-built fortifications,
which reveal certain modifications to the initial programme and
design. Construction went through three basic stages, which reflect
a gradual growth of medieval town fortifications within a short
span of
After the take-over of the devastated and derelict town it was
necessary to repair its fortifications. The old Byzantine hilltop castle
was thoroughly reconstructed to assume the function of Despot
Stefan's fortified residence. It received a massive donjon at the centre
and a number of buildings forming the Despot's palace complex.
The outlying riverside ward, built a few decades earlier, was also
strengthened by building a fortified port. A large tower was erected
in the riverbed, with a rampart connecting it with the bank.
Brocquière
modate
After the old fortifications were repaired, in the north-western
portion of the former Roman legionary camp a new one was built
the Upper Town, a relatively regular rectangle
The renovated castle with the Despot's palace complex was fitted
into its western corner. The new fortification was a double enceinte
system. On three sides the system consisted of the main inner ram¬
part about
dropped into the ditch. The intended outer wall without a scarp on
the northwest was not completed due to alterations made to the ini¬
tial project.
The strength of each rampart depended on its position and
function in the defence system as a whole. On the same principle
depended the number and position of towers and bastions along the
inner and the outer rampart respectively. Consequently, the vulner¬
able north-eastern and south-eastern sides were given more attention.
The new fortification had a gate on each side. Flanked by two strong
towers, the main South Gate faced the major thoroughfare (present-
day
tan Road. Through the not so well defended East Gate, entirely pre¬
served till this day, ran the road to a suburb in present-day
The Lower Town
construction of which started after the Upper Town was completed,
does not seem to have been part of the initial building programme, as
indicated by its relationship to the earlier fortifications and alterations
its construction required. The change of plan must have resulted
from the rapid growth of Belgrade. The town's greatly increased
population and intensification of economic and other functions led
to a rapid expansion of the settlement. Both the old repaired forti¬
fications and those newly-built became inadequate. It seems that the
growth of Belgrade's settlement ran at a faster pace than that of its
fortifications.
The new fortifications encompassed the Danube slope and a
large settled area by the river east of the older and already fortified
outlying settlement. The location and layout of the Lower Town
were determined by the disposition of the existing fortifications and
the Danube bank. Its main element was the north-eastern rampart,
about
walled the area between the Upper Town and the river. It included the
main Lower Town gate, aligned with the eastern communication.
Outside the rampart lay a sheltered inlet, probably intended for
civilian needs.
Once the extensive fortification works undertaken by despot
Stefan
a well-fortified medieval town. The defended area was ten times
larger than before, with a layout in conformity with new functions
and the implemented concept of defence. The castle with the palace
complex formed a separate and best protected part. This previously
independent fortification could function as the last line of defence
and thus had its own commander, »the keep warden«. The castle
was surrounded by three independently protected and functionally
different fortifications, the new Upper Town being the most impor¬
tant of them. Its purpose was to protect the town in the most suitable
direction of attack. It accommodated the main garrison force and
residential quarters for magnates and courtiers. It is known to have
contained the residence of the Despot's sister
decades later, that of
Unlike the Upper Town, the Lower Town functioned as a fortified
outlying settlement. The fact that the most important part of the
civilian settlement became enclosed with ramparts significantly
contributed to Belgrade's safety and further growth. It is known to
have contained the Church of the Dormition of the Virgin, one of
the most important town institutions, and the adjacent palace of the
metropolitan of Belgrade. There must have been other public build¬
ings, as well as residences of wealthier citizens.
The general disposition of Belgrade's defences and the layout of
its newly-built fortifications reveal the underlying concept of defence.
The system was conceived with the Ottoman threat in mind. There¬
fore it was the southern and eastern sides that were expected to bear
:]324[:
the brunt of attack. It was also assumed that the defenders would be
able to control the rivers in case of siege, which ruled out assault from
that direction. Moreover, assistance was expected from Hungary. It
was in its best interest that Belgrade remained a barrier stemming
the Ottoman northward advance. Briefly, attack was expected only
from land because the rivers were still fully controlled by Serbia and
Hungary, and the town could hardly be seized by land warfare alone.
The entire strategy of Belgrade's defence was based on these assess¬
ments, tested at the sieges of
defence collapsed only after control over the rivers was lost.
Belgrade's new fortifications were the achievement of the Serbian
despot and his subjects. There is no reference to any foreign aid in
the surviving sources and practically no adoption of foreign ready-
made ideas. The entire system of defence and the solutions applied
relied on the previous development of Serbian rmlitary architecture.
In the second half of the fourteenth century Serbian military
architecture underwent major change in response to the changed
political situation. In contrast with the earlier periods, fortifications
were built on strategic but more vulnerable lowland sites, and they
often enclosed palace complexes of the ruler or magnates. Strengt¬
hening of global defence systems and more sophisticated fortifica¬
tion designs were required. Therefore fortresses tended to be regular
in plan to ensure balanced protection on all sides and their layout
became more complex. To be singled out is the castle with its keep
intended as a last-resort defence. Ramparts were also modified. To
the main rampart a lower outer wall began to be added as the front
line of defence. The double enceinte of Serbian fortifications was
different from West-European in design and construction. Some
distinctively local features may also be seen in the construction of
towers.
All these developments found their full expression in the new
fortifications of Belgrade. Although continued, previous practices
were significantly improved. The defence system, as expressed in the
arrangement of new fortifications and the introduction of a double
enceinte, was a good and up-to-date solution in European terms. The
fortification of Belgrade was one the best achievement of Serbian
military architecture.
BULWARK
ANTEMURALE
The rapid growth of Belgrade in the early fifteenth century came to
an end with the death of Despot Stefan
agreement, where Despot Stefan's main concerns had obviously been
the continuity of government and security of the state, stipulated
the return of the town to Hungary as a guarantee of Hungary's re¬
cognition of the Despot's successor. Regardless of the magnitude of
such a loss, consolidation of relations with Hungary and a defensive
alliance against Turkey were of paramount importance. Fortified
carefully and with much effort for over two decades, Belgrade was
sacrificed to the nation's vital interests.
The status of Belgrade somewhat changed under Hungarian
rule. The former capital of Serbia became the key stronghold in the
defence system on the Hungarian southern border. The functioning
of the system, however, remained pretty much the same. Previously
the main Serbian strongpoint fortified against the Ottoman invaders,
the town was now ensuring Hungarian safety, a role it played success¬
fully for a whole century.
Administratively, Belgrade was part of the
the earlier period of Hungarian rule in the fourteenth century. The
garrison was commanded by a captain, while the castellan's primary
duty seems to have been the maintenance of fortifications. Due to
Belgrade's strategic importance, its captain had a higher rank than
the commanders of other Hungarian towns. Appointed by the king
and often chosen from among the most influential members of the
aristocracy, he was always a highly trusted man. For some time the
town commander was
in Hungarian history around the middle of the fifteenth century.
In the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, the importance of
Belgrade's geostrategic position became painfully obvious, especially
after the fall of Serbia. Belgrade became the main stronghold1 on«
Hungary's southern borders. Without seizing it, the Ottomans could
not seriously threaten the heartland of Hungary. It would be rea¬
sonable to assume therefore that its fortifications were paid special
attention, but that was not the case. Namely, in Hungarian history it
was a period marked by a weak central authority, internal disarray
and power struggle among the Hungarian magnates. In a situation
where protection of the borders was left to chance or the ability of
individuals any serious work on the town fortifications was out of
the question. The work was limited to repairing the old defences,
while the few newly-built ones were a far cry from what was reallyt;
needed. The ramparts and towers erected by the Serbian despot
were designed for pre-gunpowder warfare.
Defensive cannon began to be introduced in the last decades of
the fourteenth century, while early siege cannon were not much of a
threat to fortress curtain walls. It was only from about
artillery began to develop at a faster pace. To counter with the new
powerful weapon entirely new fortification designs were developed,
while the old ones needed to be adapted. Nothing of that was done
in Belgrade, and this important fortification remained well behind
the development of European fortification techniques.
In the late 1430s, the danger of Ottoman attack on Belgrade
became palpable. The Ottoman northward campaign led by Sultan
Murad
Serbia was conquered and in June the following year the Serbian
new capital Smederevo fell after a siege of three months. Belgrade
was next in line. It was surrounded from all sides, even from the
river. An estimated
ramparts, and a rear tent-camp was mounted. The siege weapons
:]325[=
included cannons, which still had small destructive power. The course
of the five-month siege is not known in detail. Belgrade was battered
with the aim of breaching the defences for an infantry assault. As it
seems that this failed to produce the desired result, an attempt to sap
the ramparts was made. A contemporary witness recorded that
Turkish soldiers had secretly began to dig
blew it up, causing many casualties. After this failure, the Ottoman
army mounted the main assault. At few points where escalade was
successful some of the fiercest fighting took place. The defenders'
firearms, especially rifles, swept the approaches to the walls, and
after a violent battle the Turks were forced to retreat. The city was
defended, even though the expected relief forces failed to come.
Analysis of the course and results of the
into the quality of the fortifications built by the Serbian despot. The
main attack came from land and was directed to the best fortified side
of the town whose double enceinte system could not be breached by
as yet unperfected artillery. But the siege revealed the system's weak¬
nesses, in the first place its gates. Therefore, in the aftermath of the
siege, along with the repair of ramparts special attention was paid to
reinforcing the town gates. As the most vulnerable due to its posi¬
tion on the easily accessible land side, the Upper Town South Gate
was walled up. Its role was reassigned to the East Gate, carefully for¬
tified along with the Lower Town South Gate, and in front of the
two now main gates barbicans were built. Moreover, before the
Upper Town gate the present-day Zindan Gate was erected, with a
massive curved rampart and two strong semicircular towers providing
emplacements for seven cannons. A somewhat smaller fortification
consisting of two semicircular towers with four cannon emplace¬
ments was built in front of the Lower Town East Gate.
The new outworks significantly improved protection of the gates,
shielding the system's weakest points from direct attack. Introduction
of cannon for defending approaches to the gates was an important
innovation and the first ever attempt to adapt the Belgrade fortifi¬
cation to the new weapon.
After the abortive siege of
on Belgrade for a while. A new wave of conquests of the Balkan coun¬
tries began with the accession of Sultan Mehmed II
Having captured Constantinople in the spring of
the Serbian
of the Hungarian lands, Belgrade was the first target.
According to contemporary records, a huge Turkish army of some
100,000
1456,
given to siege artillery such as the large cannon which had destroyed
the walls of Constantinople. From European perspective, the Ottoman
artillery was the strongest and most advanced of its time.
As the Turks advanced towards Belgrade, Hungary was mustering
an army under some difficulty. Some troops were gathered by the
Hungarian general
trained crusading army was raised in the neighbouring European
countries by the Franciscan John of Capistrano. Contemporaries
recorded that Polish students from the University of Krakow came
to Belgrade's aid.
In early July Belgrade was tightly surrounded, with the main
siege force concentrated on the southern approaches as the most
suitable for attack. About
were mounted there with the purpose of clearing the way for an
infantry attack on the Upper Town ramparts. The flotilla was to block
relief troops from
The bombing lasted for ten days and contemporary records
speak of heavy damage inflicted to the ramparts. The situation in
the besieged town must have been very difficult. The fact that many-
defenders faced heavy siege cannons for the first time must have
caused as much psychological damage. The situation changed when
the Hungarian fleet succeeded in breaking the siege line for fresh
crusading troops. Failing on the rivers, the Ottomans began their
main assault in the evening of
force their way into the Upper Town through breaches made in the
ramparts. The castle bridge was the scene of the fiercest fighting,
where the assailants were defeated and forced to withdraw. Illustrating
the violence of the engagement, a contemporary recorded that a
sparrow stabbed with three arrows was found in the battlefield in its
wake. In the counterattack, the Sultan himself was wounded.
The successful defence of Belgrade was celebrated throughout
Europe as a great Christian victory. The Turkish northward advance
was stopped for a few decades. The success primarily was the result of
the defenders' extraordinary efforts. Although heavily damaged, the
fortifications mostly withstood bombing by powerful cannons for a
few reasons. In the first place, with the exception of the southern side,
the targets bombed were unsuitable for the effective performance of
siege artillery. Besides, unperfected techniques of operating siege
artillery prevented its full destructive effect. Certain solutions
employed in the construction of the early fifteenth-century fortifi¬
cations probably proved advantageous. The outer rampart with its
stone scarp shielded the foot of the main wall from direct battery
and, consequently, from more serious damage. However, only two
metres thick, the ramparts had not been designed to sustain artillery
fire. Protection from constantly improving siege artillery required
major modifications. And yet, the ensuing repair works focused on
increasing defending firepower rather than on strengthening the
weak ramparts. Thus a new fortification was built, known today as
the Eastern Outer City. It jutted into the area between the barbicans
of the main town gates. Its most protruding part received a polygonal
cannon tower, known as the
tion was protection of the north-eastern approaches to the town
and its main gates by flanking gunfire. A somewhat larger polygonal
cannon tower, known as the
be bank to protect the entrance to the port. As a result, the defences
were reinforced, but inadequately, given the much more advanced
art of contemporary European fortification.
:]326[:
Except for frequent skirmishes with the Turkish garrison stationed
in the fortress of
a major operation against Belgrade until the early 1520s. At that
time, Hungary was torn by internal strife and the system of defence
on its southern border, with its forts poorly maintained and insuffi¬
ciently armed, was in a bad state. This created suitable conditions for
the Ottoman expansion into central Europe. Young and belligerent,
Sultan
Belgrade
lessons from the earlier sieges,
conquering Srem, thereby severing links with Hungary. Under the
Sultan's command from his camp in
pletely encircled Belgrade by the end of July
The main assault was launched upon the considerably weaker
riverside fortification. The Turkish left wing attacked the northeast
rampart of the Lower Town. The defenders offered strong resistance
from the
August. A Turkish chronicler noted that »the spine of the infidel was
broken« when the
right wing attacked the Western Outer City. Deployed on the
ostrvo (War Isle), the Turkish centre battered the weak riverfront
rampart. On the 8th of August Turkish forces stormed into the
Lower Town through the breaches and after a day-long battle the
riverside fortifications were taken. The defenders were forced to
withdraw to the Upper Town and hold on until help arrived from
Hungary. Violent Turkish attacks continued on the remainder of the
fortification. In order to sap the castle ramparts and towers, the
Turks started digging a tunnel from the Lower Town. It was only
after the destruction of these towers that the defenders were forced
to surrender. Finally, on
Belgrade, the town they had been trying to conquer for a century.
The fall of Belgrade meant the collapse of the entire southern
frontier which Hungary was unable to prevent. The Hungarian king
was unable to raise a relief army and the defenders of Belgrade were
left to themselves. Established in the early fifteenth century, the town's
system of defence was strengthened with outworks and artillery
towers, but the initial concept of defence was not modified. It was
still believed that the Turks would attack from land and that the
Hungarian fleet, retaining control over the rivers, would ensure the
defenders undisturbed assistance. The result of such assessments
was that Belgrade was not strongly fortified towards the rivers. As
clearly shown by the outcome of the
a thus conceived defence of Belgrade to be successful was the proper
functioning of the entire system on the southern border.
IN THE REAR OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
The Ottoman conquest in
ment of Belgrade. For the first time in many centuries the Belgrade
fortress lost its primary military function as a strategic frontier for¬
tification. With the theatre of war moved far to the north, it assumed
a different role. It became an
plies to the Ottoman armies campaigning in central Europe. In this
period of peaceful development, until the last decades of the seven¬
teenth century, there was no need to extend and modernize its for¬
tifications. Instead of walls and towers, large food and arms store¬
houses were built. A cannon foundry was erected in close proximity
to the town walls on the Sava-facing slope, and a gunpowder works
rose in the environs of Belgrade.
Peaceful development of the town was disrupted by the abortive
siege of Vienna in
Ottoman rule in central Europe. After a succession of Turkish defeats,
major military operations were rapidly approaching Belgrade. As a
result, it recovered its former strategic importance and became the
key Turkish strongpoint expected to curb the advance of Austrian
forces. However, Belgrade was ill-equipped for such a role. Its forti¬
fications were neither extended nor reinforced since the end of the
15th century. Meanwhile, the European art of fortification had under¬
gone tremendous change. Systems of artillery fortifications were
being constantly improved in response to the changing techniques
of warfare. With its medieval fortifications, Belgrade was almost two
centuries behind. This diminished the chances of successful defence
despite the favourable geographical position and called for an urgent
strengthening of the old fortifications. For that there was neither
time nor money, and Belgrade had to await the Austrian siege of
1688
Having inflicted several defeats to the Ottomans, an Austrian
army of some
early summer of
gathering at Petrovaradin. The main body of troops was commanded
by the Bavarian electoral Maximilian
along the
were preparing their defence under the direction of Yegen
Pasha. He had about
rison of equal strength within the walls of Belgrade.
Early in August, the Austrians crossed the
and entered the city of Belgarde despite a resistance offered by the
Turks. The siege started by establishing the contravallation line
opposite the Upper Town south-eastern rampart, and the circum-
vallation line whose purpose was to protect the rear of siege troops.
The contravallation line included four approaches, as well as cannon
emplacements. The Austrians mounted the main assault upon the
Upper Town, still defended by its old medieval ramparts. Their can¬
non fire levelled part of the rampart on the easily accessible side to
open the way for the infantry to storm into the Fortress. It was in that
direction that the main assault was launched on
The Lower Town was attacked simultaneously in order to engage
part of the garrison and weaken the defence of the main section.
While the Austrians were advancing into the Upper Town, the Lower
:]327[:
Town was taken. The surviving defenders, who had retreated into
the castle, were forced to surrender.
After the siege of less than a month, the Austrians took Belgrade
rather effortlessly and without significant losses. The Turkish garrison,
though strong and well supplied, failed to defend Belgrade primarily
due to the weak and obsolete system of defences. The siege made it
clear that Belgrade could no longer be protected by the medieval
system of fortifications.
BETWEEN THE WARRING EMPIRES
Conflict between the two great powers in the region of which
Belgrade was the centre determined the city's fate. It regained its
military function as a strategic frontier stronghold, which it main¬
tained throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. There¬
fore both empires, the Austrian and the Ottoman, did their best to
fortify the town as strongly as possible. In the first decades of the
eighteenth century construction of the most advanced fortifications
made Belgrade the strongest fortress of south-eastern Europe.
The first improvements, though only provisional, were made
during the short-lived Austrian occupation. On orders from Vienna,
the town commander Count
prepare the newly-captured fortress for defence and ensure protection
against siege artillery. Attention was focused on the badly damaged
south-eastern rampart. Breaches were provisionally blocked and a new
gate was built (known as the
glacis with a covert way and a ravelin in the direction of the new
gate. The East and West gates of the Upper Town Were reinforced
with two bastions. At the same time preparations were being made
for a thorough reconstruction of fortifications.
But in the autumn of
the following year went on with what the Austrians had started. In
the course of the battle for Belgrade, the engineer directing the for¬
tification works and Starenberg's aide Andrea Cornaro had been
captured. It was to this Venetian of Cretan origin that the Turks,
lacking in military engineers, entrusted the reconstruction of the
fortress. At first with the status of a war prisoner, he later was set free
and directed the works in his capacity as mimarbasha (chief engineer)
until his death in
Comaro's original project for the reconstruction of the Belgrade
Fortress has not survived, but its copy is known from a plan drawn
by
an assistant to the Turkish collaborator
over to the Austrians. Based on these drawings,
that is now kept in the Vienna War Archive. Focused on fortifying the
Upper Town, Cornaro's project designed new ramparts according to
the principles of artillery fortifications. The main defence was to
rest upon new outworks on the South-eastern front, concentrated in
the direction of the easiest approach,
assaults upon the Fortress in earlier sieges. These fortifications
included two flanking two-horned bastions with a ravelin between
them aligned with the main line of communication. In front of the
Upper Town side ramparts a glacis with covert way was planned,
while the bastions in front of the gates, built in
as they were. Cornaro's project for the Lower Town envisaged minor
alterations as well as bastions before the East Gate and at the
entrance to the old port.
The works continued for the whole last decade of the seventeenth
century, occasionally supervised by Sultan Mustafa II. It was recorded
that the Sultan personally directed the fortification of the entrance
to the old port at the
in
Cornaro's project had not been fully carried out. The Upper Town
was enclosed with new ramparts on three sides, while the north¬
eastern one remained protected by the old medieval wall. Heavily
damaged during the siege and unsuitable for the new conditions of
warfare, the castle was torn down. The south-eastern outer line of de¬
fences remained unfinished. Only one of the two hornwark bastions
was built. The Lower Town received a new riverfront rampart, and
the existing south-eastern one was strengthened with an earthen
embankment. Its flanks were reinforced with glacises and palisades.
A contemporary accompanying the French emissary
in
high quality of construction, especially of the Upper Town ramparts,
but he found the latter too high. On the other hand, he thought that
the outworks with the two-horned bastion were too low and the ditch
too shallow. So he concluded that successful defence could only be
achieved with a strong garrison backed by an army. Similar criticism
came from an Austrian general, Count Haresch, who came to Bel¬
grade a few years later on an intelligence mission.
The contemporary observers' criticism seems to have been quite
justified. The bastioned line in front of the Upper Town, designed
according to the principles of the Dutch fortification school set in
the first half of the seventeenth century, was already outdated. In the
second half of the seventeenth century, the design of European for¬
tresses became much more sophisticated. Such were fortification
techniques of the famous French Marshal
tary architecture at the time of Cornaro's Belgrade works and into
the eighteenth century. And yet, Cornaro made use of obsolete solu¬
tions. The reason is difficult to find, but his lack of knowledge does
not seems a likely explanation. Cornaro's deliberate sabotage cannot
be ruled out, given that the Turks lacked skill in designing modern
bastioned fortifications. Forced to work for the enemy, he may have
found his own way of supporting the Christian cause. However, the
fortifications of Belgrade had other weaknesses too. As Cornaro's
project was not carried through, the bastioned fronts remained
inadequately connected and too weak to shield the main fortress
wall from direct artillery fire. Some of these shortcomings became
conspicuous at the Austrian siege of
:]328[:
A new war between Austria and Turkey broke in the spring of
1716.
Savoy crossed the Danube the following year and besieged Belgrade.
The besiegers' camp was enclosed with the contravallation and cir-
cumvallation lines designed by well-known Austrian engineers. After
the conquest of the Turkish-held town of
positioned on the river bank and the cannons aimed at the Lower
Town. The goal of the Turkish garrison was to hold on until the
arrival of the main forces from the south commanded by
Pasha. The Austrians, on the other hand, wanted to seize Belgrade
before the engagement with the main body of Turkish troops. With
the construction of siege positions still underway, bombing of the low
ramparts of the Lower Town began. In mid August, a large building
where gunpowder was stored was hit and the blast destroyed almost
all Lower Town structures. But despite frequent bombing campaigns
and massive destruction within the walls, the Austrians made no
assault on the Fortress. In the meantime, in early August, Turkish re¬
lief forces reached Belgrade and were deployed towards the Austrian
circumvallation line in the area of modern Mali
became obvious that the decisive battle for Belgrade was going to be
fought on the battlefield rather than in an assault on the Fortress.
On
beaten and forced to retreat, pursued by a Serbian volunteer corps.
This victory decided Belgrade's destiny. Two days later, the Turkish
commander of the Fortress signed the capitulation treaty.
The course of the siege revealed flaws in the defence system of the
Belgrade Fortress as established by the fortifications constructed at
the end of the seventeenth century. The artillery attacks showed the
shortcomings of the Lower Town new fortifications which, conse¬
quently, suffered the heaviest damage. An important factor was also
the fact that the Turks did not have modern and well-secured facilities
for gunpowder storage in the Fortress, a prerequisite for the success
of defence. It also became clear that the Fortress could no longer be
defended without outworks on the opposite banks of the
Danube rivers. It is interesting to note that the criticism by
Ferriole's companion proved justified, namely that given the state of
its defences the Belgrade Fortress could only be protected by a
strong garrison, with strong external forces in support. The Turks
seem to have been aware of that while choosing defensive strategies
in their attempt to keep Belgrade.
ONE OF THE STRONGEST FORTRESSES IN EUROPE
The conquest of Belgrade in
great victory and, in a broader sense, as a victory of Christendom in
its centuries-long confrontation with Islam. Incorporated into the
Habsburg
and as such
Europe it became, between
fence against the Ottoman Empire and a base for the re-conquest of
its European territories. In its eastward expansion the Catholic
monarchy intended for Belgrade the role of an influential cultural,
political and economic base for Catholic expansion and German
colonization. These goals drew Belgrade, though briefly, into the
orbit of European urban developments. The existing Oriental town
with its fortress, an outdated fortification despite attempts at mo¬
dernization, was in stark contrast to this new function and the pre¬
vailing urban and fortification concepts of a Baroque Europe. To
make Belgrade into a fortified European city of the Baroque epoch
required a complete reconstruction. The reconstruction programme
envisaged the fortress as an exclusively military structure, a town
laid out on a grid pattern and protected by bastioned fortifications,
as well as outworks on the opposite bank of the
rivers as an integral part of the system of defence. Such an ambitious
programme required extensive preparations, from organizing the
administration of the occupied territory and drawing reconstruc¬
tion projects to providing funds for the works.
Temporary military government established after the conquest
of northern Serbia and Belgrade was replaced by the so-called Ser¬
bian Administration headed by Carl Alexander of
department for fortress construction was founded, which was
responsible to the
problem, which at first slowed down the works. The problem was
partially solved by levying taxes on the imperial provinces; for
example, the Italian provinces of Naples, Sicily and
plied
ceived of as »the bulwark of Christendom«, the Catholic Church
also gave its contribution.
Many original documents relating to construction and recon¬
struction works in Belgrade during the Austrian occupation
-1739)
prints make it possible to follow their course almost step by step and
to analyze the designs employed. According to this documentation,
the work was planned in two phases, the first being preparatory and
completed in
The construction works at first were directed by a well-known
military engineer, Colonel
ceeded by Major
Belgrade's new fortifications, the realization of which seems to have
begun as early as the second half of
repair and extension of Cornaro's Upper and Lower Town ramparts,
as well as the building of Suly's large powder magazine on the
Danube-facing slope in the Lower Town. This well-preserved building
consists of two rock-cut halls, each with nine columns, intercon¬
nected by a vaulted access corridor. Technically sophisticated, this
design offered a functional solution and may be considered a signifi¬
cant achievement of contemporary military architecture. Among
other important structures built in the Upper Town was a large, about
60
:]329[:
The realization of Suly's project was discontinued as early as the
beginning of
satisfaction. Many objections were raised against his project and
accusations of embezzlement brought. The search for the best design
began all over again and various projects were submitted, some by
well-known contemporary engineers such as Colonel
of the Military Academy in Vienna. Finally, in the middle of
Aulic
Démoret),
According to
Belgrade Fortress as the heart of a system consisting of the town for¬
tifications and the outworks on the opposite side of the river. All the
earlier outworks were to be pulled down and the fortified core of the
Belgrade Fortress, its Upper and Lower Towns, enclosed with new
bastioned traces. Special attention was given to the South-eastern
front defending the easiest access to the Fortress, where construc¬
tion of two half bastions with orillons and receded flanks for six
cannon batteries was planned. Both half bastions were connected
with the main Fortress gate (present-day Stambol Gate) by a curtain
with a large ravelin in front. In the Lower Town, construction of a
similar bastion front was planned for the old port, which was to
become a closed naval port. An outer line of defences, consisting of
counterguards with lunettes and glacises with a covert way, was
planned before the main bastion fronts and the fortification on the
inland side.
The city was to be defended by a new bastioned trace from the
bank of the
Republic. The trace was to consist of eight bastions connected by
curtains and an outer line of works similar to the one defending the
Fortress. Outworks were planned on the left bank of the
confluence with the Danube and on the opposite bank of the Danube.
On the whole, Doxat offered an enhanced fortification design,
while fully observing the basic intention of making Belgrade into a
fortified Baroque city with multiple functions such as military, econo¬
mic, administrative and other. His project drew on Marshal Vauban's
First System, the acme of the European art of fortification at the time.
This new system offered excellent potentials for defence against attack
coming both from the inland and river sides. The shortcomings
observed during the
of outworks at the confluence of the rivers.
The realization of
went on for nearly
de Fortress works, the main bastioned line around the city and the
outworks on the
left the outer line of city defences unfinished, while the construction
of the Danube outworks had not even begun. Even so, the Fortress of
Belgrade was brought to its acme both in terms of the area it cove¬
red and the models of defence employed. The strongest fortification
in the southeast of Europe at the time, it promised success in resisting
siege, such as the one laid by the Ottomans in
Having defeated the Austrians at Grocka on
Turks reached Belgrade. The dispirited Austrian commanders were
unwilling to defend the city despite good chances of success, and
peace negotiations began. The truce was signed at the very moment
the defence began to produce results. According to the truce, the
Austrians ceded Belgrade to Turkey, with the proviso that all fortifi¬
cations built after
works on the left bank of the
outer city was to be torn down in three months time, and the new
fortifications of the Belgrade Fortress within six months. So it was
almost without resistance that Belgrade was surrendered, a city that
had for twenty years been fortified and developed to become the
Habsburg
spite of Belgrade's strong defences, Austria was unable to safeguard
it. Other factors played a decisive role.
OTTOMAN FRONTIER STRONGHOLD
Under Ottoman rule Belgrade retained its strategic importance,
becoming the key stronghold on which the preservation of the
Empire's European possessions depended. But acutely aware of its
actual strength and the international balance of power, the Porte
was compelled to abandon all ambition to regain the lost northern
territories. Not a base for conquest any more, Belgrade assumed
solely the role of a defensive frontier fortification, and the Turks put
much effort into making the Fortress ready for that task. But the
Ottoman Empire, with its weakened central power and exhausted by
internal strife, was incapable of undertaking so extensive a project as
the
The demolition of the Austrian fortifications had reduced the
Belgrade Fortress to its basic form: the Upper and Lower Town for¬
tifications built or renovated prior to
lines the Fortress was highly vulnerable, so refortifying was the task
of the hour. Apparently the choice of the design was not a matter of
dispute. As the Turkish idea of an impregnable and well-constructed
fortress appears to have coincided with the state of affairs prior to
the demolition, the new defences were to be constructed in the same
manner and according to the same design as the pulled-down
Austrian fortifications.
Construction works began towards the end of
for twenty years, with much difficulty and frequent interruptions.
When they were completed, the Fortress had the shape it has pre¬
served till this day. The newly-built fortifications in fact were a very
simplified version of the previous Austrian ones. Like the Austrians
before them, the Turks basically followed the patterns of Vauban's
school of fortification. But compared to the Austrian bastioned
traces, which had their merits in the development of European for¬
tifications, the Ottoman had many shortcomings; for example, the
outworks with lunettes and counterguards beyond the main bastion
:]33O[=
front were left out and the latter remained unprotected, which weake¬
ned its defensive function. Moreover, the whole purpose of following
the previous fortification patterns may be brought into question.
Belgrade's geopolitical position became fundamentally different
after the peace settlement of
man frontier fortress on the right bank of the
the opposite bank was not under Ottoman rule and no outworks
could be built on it, which in turn made the defence of the Lower
Town much more difficult. This fact should have generated a different
approach to its system of defence, but it obviously was not given
careful consideration. The only relevant contribution in that sense
was the building of a strong rampart around the gunpowder maga¬
zine in the Lower Town to shield it against potential cannon fire from
the left bank of the
The bastioned line of defence around the city was not restored,
and a palisade of little defensive significance was built in its place.
Thus the defence of Belgrade became reduced again to the Fortress,
in contrast with the earlier period, when it had been but the heart of
a larger system of defence.
A new war and the short-lived Austrian occupation
left no trace on the fortifications of Belgrade. To judge from the sur¬
viving documents, plans in particular, the Austrians intended to
enhance the system of defences, but Belgrade changed hands once
more.
IN THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES
The Peace of Sistova in
Turkey fought with one another. The Belgrade Fortress remained an
Ottoman frontier fortification, but this was not its primary func¬
tion. The situation in the pashalik of Belgrade was rapidly changing.
The Sultan's authority was no longer challenged by the external
enemy but by internal strife. In the 1790s armed conflicts between
the rebelling Janissaries and the imperial army were frequent and
the time was ripe for the Serbs to rise up. Under the circumstances
Belgrade became a military and administrative centre of the Otto¬
man authorities struggling against the Serbs and their aspirations
for independence. Even as outdated as it was in comparison with
European fortifications, but reconstructed in the previous period,
the Belgrade Fortress played the role of an important Ottoman
stronghold.
The last siege the Fortress saw was laid towards the end of
After the great victories at
gent army led by Karadjordje reached Belgrade. The Turks were
forced to surrender after a few weeks of fighting with the poorly
equipped insurgent troops. For the first time in four centuries, the
liberated city became the capital of Serbia and its Fortress the main
Serbian stronghold. The Serbian garrison remained in the Fortress
until the uprising was crushed in
was undertaken. Nor were they extended or significantly repaired
during the last period of Ottoman rule that followed.
By the time the Serbian troops replated the Turkish garrison, in
1867,
cance. All European fortifications of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries had lost importance with the advent of high-explosive
artillery shells. The Serbian troops merely used the Belgrade Fortress
as an enclosed complex of barracks and storehouses.
The Fortress suffered heavy damage in World War One. Although
long-obsolete by then, it was held and protected as an important
stronghold in the system of defence of Belgrade and the borders of the
Kingdom of Serbia. In the violent bombing from heavy howitzers in
1914
within the Fortress were destroyed and its walls severely damaged.
The Belgrade Fortress kept falling into decay in the interwar
period. The development of a modern city was at odds with the old
Fortress. A new traffic artery cut its way through the Lower Town,
little by little the outworks became covered with park lanes, and a
Zoo grew leaning against the ramparts. At the same time, however,
there was a growing awareness of the need for the Fortress to be pre¬
served as the most significant monument to the city's past. Some
sections of the ramparts were renovated; the Zindan Towers
received new battlements; and the
City was completely reconstructed. Damaged in
tower of the Upper Town, next to the East Gate, was also reconstruc¬
ted. War wounds inflicted to the walls of the
Lower Town were also healed.
A new era in the long history of the Belgrade Fortress has begun
in the aftermath of World War Two. It irrevocably lost all defensive
significance and the army left its ramparts. Extensive archaeological
excavations have been initiated and followed by major conservation
works. Pieces of information about the once famous fortification
have been rescued from oblivion and its ramparts and towers
restored to their former shape. The nearly two-millennia-old
Fortress has been adjusting to the new age and the needs of modern
man by being both a large museum of Belgrade's history and a
favourite venue of its citizens.
LISTE
Fig.
Fig.
Bologna University)
Fig.
64/954)
Fig.
Istanbul)
Fig.
(Belgrade City Museum)
CONTENTS
САДРЖАЈ
УВОД
MctopífjcKti
ÀpxeonOuiká
ПОЛОЖА)
АМТИЧКО
Ѓимски легијски
Рановизантијско утврђење
СРЕДЊОВЕКОВНА УТВРТ>ЕЊА БЕОГРАДСКОГ
Настакак
Визактмјско
Угарско-српско
Српски утврђени
Угарско
Београдски
БАСТИОНА
Прва реконструкнија
Друга
ípeha
БЕОГР
ЗАВРШНАРЕЧ
РЕЧНИК
ИЗВОРИ
THÈ |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| any_adam_object_boolean | 1 |
| author | Popović, Marko 1944-2020 |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1117560651 |
| author_facet | Popović, Marko 1944-2020 |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Popović, Marko 1944-2020 |
| author_variant | m p mp |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV022402787 |
| callnumber-first | D - World History |
| callnumber-label | DR2124 |
| callnumber-raw | DR2124.5.B4 |
| callnumber-search | DR2124.5.B4 |
| callnumber-sort | DR 42124.5 B4 |
| callnumber-subject | DR - Balkan Peninsula |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)642202049 (DE-599)BVBBV022402787 |
| edition | 2., dop. izd. |
| era | Geschichte gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte |
| format | Book |
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| geographic_facet | Belgrade (Serbia) Buildings, structures, etc Belgrade Fortress (Belgrade, Serbia) Belgrad Festung Kalemegdan Belgrad |
| id | DE-604.BV022402787 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T17:18:57Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T20:56:49Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 8690842705 |
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| physical | 334 S. zahlr. Ill., Kt. |
| publishDate | 2006 |
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| publisher | Javno Preduzeće "Beogradska Tvrđava" |
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| spelling | Popović, Marko 1944-2020 Verfasser (DE-588)1117560651 aut Beogradska tvrdava = The fortress of Belgrade Marko Popović The fortress of Belgrade 2., dop. izd. Beograd Javno Preduzeće "Beogradska Tvrđava" 2006 334 S. zahlr. Ill., Kt. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier In kyrill. Schr., serb. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache Geschichte gnd rswk-swf Architektur Befestigung (DE-588)4069225-5 gnd rswk-swf Belgrade (Serbia) Buildings, structures, etc Belgrade Fortress (Belgrade, Serbia) Belgrad (DE-588)4005411-1 gnd rswk-swf Festung Kalemegdan Belgrad (DE-588)4241131-2 gnd rswk-swf 1\p (DE-588)4113937-9 Hochschulschrift gnd-content Belgrad (DE-588)4005411-1 g Befestigung (DE-588)4069225-5 s Geschichte z DE-604 Festung Kalemegdan Belgrad (DE-588)4241131-2 g 2\p DE-604 Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015611396&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract Digitalisierung BSBMuenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015611396&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis 1\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk 2\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk |
| spellingShingle | Popović, Marko 1944-2020 Beogradska tvrdava = The fortress of Belgrade Architektur Befestigung (DE-588)4069225-5 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4069225-5 (DE-588)4005411-1 (DE-588)4241131-2 (DE-588)4113937-9 |
| title | Beogradska tvrdava = The fortress of Belgrade |
| title_alt | The fortress of Belgrade |
| title_auth | Beogradska tvrdava = The fortress of Belgrade |
| title_exact_search | Beogradska tvrdava = The fortress of Belgrade |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Beogradska tvrdava = The fortress of Belgrade |
| title_full | Beogradska tvrdava = The fortress of Belgrade Marko Popović |
| title_fullStr | Beogradska tvrdava = The fortress of Belgrade Marko Popović |
| title_full_unstemmed | Beogradska tvrdava = The fortress of Belgrade Marko Popović |
| title_short | Beogradska tvrdava |
| title_sort | beogradska tvrdava the fortress of belgrade |
| title_sub | = The fortress of Belgrade |
| topic | Architektur Befestigung (DE-588)4069225-5 gnd |
| topic_facet | Architektur Befestigung Belgrade (Serbia) Buildings, structures, etc Belgrade Fortress (Belgrade, Serbia) Belgrad Festung Kalemegdan Belgrad Hochschulschrift |
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