Verfügbarkeit: Archeologia Polski wczesnośredniowiecznej

Archeologia Polski wczesnośredniowiecznej: odkrycia, hipotezy, interpretacje

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Bibliographische Detailangaben
1. Verfasser:	Buko, Andrzej 1947- (VerfasserIn)
Format:	Buch
Sprache:	Polish
Veröffentlicht:	Warszawa Wydawn. Trio 2005
Ausgabe:	Wyd. 1.
Schlagworte:	Geschichte Anfänge-1100 Funde Geschichte Archaeology, Medieval > Poland Excavations (Archaeology) > Poland Mittelalter Mittelalterliche Archäologie Polen Poland > Antiquities Poland > History
Online-Zugang:	Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract
Beschreibung:	Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: The archaeology of early medieval Poland
Beschreibung:	446 S., [10] Bl. Ill., Kt.
ISBN:	8374360232

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Datensatz im Suchindex

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adam_text	Spis Wstęp Rozdział POCZĄTKI ZAINTERESOWAŃ, NARODZINY I ROZWÓJ Początki najdawniejsze Wiek Narodziny i powolny wzrost: pierwsze dwudziestolecie Lata trzydzieste: archeologia wczesnego średniowiecza w natarciu sporu o Słowian ciąg dalszy i systematyczne prace wykopaliskowe obiektów wczesnośredniowiecznych Dwie dekady powojenne: zbliżające się milenium i badania nad początkami państwa polskiego Lata siedemdziesiąte i osiemdziesiąte: udane pokłosie badań milenijnych Ostatnia dekada odpowiedzi Archeologia Polski wczesnośredniowiecznej: archeologia regionów czy archeologia bez granic? Rozdział Stanowisko archeologiczne Stratyfikacje, warstwy, obiekty Wczesnośredniowieczne stanowiska archeologiczne i ich stratyfikacje: problemy eksploracji Stratyfikacje stanowisk wczesnomiejskich Stratyfikacje osad typu wiejskiego Stratyfikacje obiektów sakralnych i pogańskich miejsc kultu Stratyfikacje cmentarzysk wielowarstwowych Warstwy i ich zawartość ruchoma: znaleziska masowe Ceramika jako źródło do badania dawnych społeczności Szczątki archeozoologiczne i Zabytki wydzielone Gleba i jej komponenty przyrodnicze Pozostałe grupy danych Pozostałe grupy danych (II): przedstawienia ikonograficzne Rozdział „Autochtoniści , „allochtoniści i inni: długie dzieje sporu o pochodzenie Słowian Między starożytnością a wczesnym średniowieczem ziem polskich: przerwa czy kontynuacja? Jeden czy wiele wzorców kultury materialnej Słowian? Słowiański fenomen: jak go wytłumaczyć? Rozdział „Geografìa Najstarsze grody wczesnośredniowieczne: kiedy powstawały? Wielość czy jedność obrządku pogrzebowego? Wiele pytań i mało odpowiedzi Rozdział W kręgu wielkich ośrodków kultu okresu plemiennego: Łysa Góra na wschodniej krawędzi Łysogór (Góry Świętokrzyskie) Tajemnice góry Ślęży Inne góry Zagadkowe Żmigrody Rozdział Świątynie pod gołym niebem Stary cmentarz i nowe problemy Zapomniana czy żywa tradycja? Rozdział Monumentalizm, który zadziwiał od dawna Kopiec Przemysława (Tatarski) w Przemyślu Domniemane monumentalne kopce w Przemyskiem Sandomierski kopiec Krakowskie kopce Krakusa i Wandy Pozostałe wielkie kopce w Małopolsce Kontekst europejski Kopce małopolskie: kiedy i dlaczego je wznoszono? Rozdział Odkrycie, które budzi emocje Co odkryto na tabliczkach z Podeblocia? Powrót do tematu: tabliczki w świetle najnowszych badań Rozdział Między archeologią, tradycją dynastyczną a legendą Tam, gdzie narodziła się Polska: Wielkopolska u progu przełomu państwowego Skąd pochodzili Piastowie? Z Wielkopolski do Małopolski: piastowskie wyjście na zewnątrz Kierunek północny: Piastowie nad Zatoką Gdańską „Zapomniane Mazowsze czy strategiczna rezerwa terytorialna? Od Bałtyku po Sudety: Śląsk i Pomorze Zachodnie Śląsk „czeski czy „piastowski ? Pomorze Zachodnie: „republiki miejskie i dawne terytoria plemienne Ziemia krakowska: ostatni etap budowy państwa polskiego Próba bilansu Rozdział Stolice państwa gnieźnieńskiego: rywalizacja o prymat pierwszeństwa Od legendarnego Lecha do Mieszka I ЅДпу Gród na bursztynowym szlaku Miasto o dwunastu bramach Gdańsk wczesnopaństwowy czy plemienny? Początki Płocka ciągle poznawane Pierwsza wielka inwestycja piastowska w Małopolsce? Intrygujący rywal Sandomierza Tajemnice Góry Katedralnej w Chełmie Centrum na peryferii W cieniu pogańskiego księcia Kraków, Wawel i archeologia Kto wybudował najstarszy Rozdział Ostrów Lednicki: rezydencjonalny ośrodek pierwszych Piastów czy najstarsze na ziemiach polskich episcopium? Niesfinalizowana wielka inwestycja Chełmiński sedes Gród pod zamkiem Kamienna wieża i grodek w Stołpiu: wczesnośredniowieczne baptysterium, grodek strażniczy czy wieżowy monastyr na wschodniej rubieży państwa? Rozdział Na uboczu zainteresowań Osady wiejskie: jak je postrzegamy? Niewykorzystany Wsie nieodgadnione Rozdział ZESPOŁÓW KLASZTORNYCH Najstarsze klasztory i archeologia U progu chrystianizacji: pierwsze opactwa benedyktyńskie W cieniu Wzgórza Wawelskiego: archeologia w badaniach opactwa oo. benedyktynów św. Piotra i Pawła w Tyńcu pod Krakowem Kościół i klasztor na osadzie grodowej Podwójna fundacja i spór o pochówek książęcy Archeologia w badaniach najstarszych fundacji cysterskich Łekneński „klasztorek Klasztor na ruinach palatium? Klasztory ciągle poznawane Rozdział Długa historia badań i niejednoznaczne wyniki Znaki na dnach naczyń z Kalisza i Ostrowa Lednickiego: obfitość nowych jakościowo źródeł archeologicznych Znaki, jakich mało Skąd ten zwyczaj i dlaczego znakowano naczynia? Rozdział Od kremacji do inhumacji: cmentarze okresu wczesnopaństwowego Pomorzanie i Wieleci w Wielkopolsce? Groby wikingów? Wielka nekropola wojowników Nie tylko wojownicy Kogo chowano w mazowieckich grobach z konstrukcjami kamiennymi? Obcy na południu Kim byli, co ich łączyło? Bibliografia Summary Indeks nazw geograficznych i miejscowych Summaiy The Archaeology of Early Medieval Poland. Discoveries Introduction The book presents the most interesting archaeological discoveries, hypotheses and interpretations concerning the archaeology of the Polish lands between the sixth and middle of the thirteenth century. These concern the stages of the settlement of these areas by Slavic peoples, the transition from tribal organization to early state ones, the rise of towns, rural centres and ecclesiastical organization. The work also provides an overview of the archaeology of Polish lands in the Early Medieval period, illustrated by discoveries, the interpretation of which sometimes has divided the scientific milieu. The geographical scope of the book covers the area of today s Poland, excepting the territories occupied by Bait peoples of therefore an area which is roughly the same as the Poland which was occupied in the times of the early monarchy of the the tenth century in which the stage of the formation and consolidation of state structures ended in western Europe, but in Poland was marked by the beginnings of Christianisation and the building of the structure of the This is why the book considers the processes of the chartering Polish towns on German Law which was initiated about the middle of the thirteenth century. The book is addressed to students of archaeology, archae¬ ologists, historians as well as to a wider readership interested in the archaeology of the Early Middle Ages. Each chapter is accompanied by a list of the most important literature. Chapter Beginnings of Interest, Birth and Development This chapter describes the most important periods connected with the begin¬ nings of interest in Early Medieval sites and objects, beginning in the Later Middle Ages when attention was first paid to elements of the landscape 408 connected with legendary events (for example the monumental barrows of country) through to the nineteenth century, when the distant roots of a Slavic identity were being sought and the first archaeological scientific institutions were bom. The first decades of the twentieth century may be defined as a period of the birth and slow growth of archaeology as a scientific discipline. It was in this period that the first academic centres at Cracow, Warsaw and created, centres which in subsequent decades played an important role in Poland. In this period, we observe a large number of field investigations carried out. These tendencies, which were favourable for the growth of Early Medieval archaeology in Poland, intensified in the the Slavs and Germans took on a greater significance in the run-up to the Second World War and in the confrontation with the so-called ethnic school of G. Kossinna, After the end of the Second World War, the study of the archaeology of Polish lands experienced an unprecedented development connected with the approach of the also a period of the methodological revolution (though one unwanted by the scientific milieu) which aimed to adapt scientific methodology to the needs of the new Marxist ideology. But at the same time, the scale of the programme of fieldwork initiated created favourable conditions for the development of interdisciplinary co-operation and international contacts. The successful development of the gains of the Millennium Project period. It was in these decades that we meet the first large synthetic publications of the sites excavated earlier. The origin of the Slavs remained a topic of considerable interest (though a problem which remained unresolved by the organization of many conferences and discussions). The last decade of the twentieth century was also an exceptionally fruitful period for the archaeological study of the Early Medieval period. Due to the wider use of dendrochronology, many earlier ideas about the chronology of the construction of strongholds in the tribal and early state period underwent considerable modification. A new impulse to the undertaking of research was found in the preparations for the 1000th anniversary in the year programmes of scientific investigation carried out on this occasion led to the critical verification of many earlier conclusions. A new element of research in the last decade has been the carrying out of investigations (abandoned after the Millennium Project period) of early centres in Poland s borderlands. From the very beginning, they have revealed the complexities, but also richness, of the Russian-Byzantine culture of frontier communities. The last decade of the twentieth century saw above all a stiffening of positions of investigators engaged in the (already traditional) conflicts over the origins of the Slavs. SUMMARY An indicator of the good condition of Early Medieval archaeology at the beginning of the third millennium is the increasingly closer collaboration with Medieval historians, which symbolises a return to the inspiration of its origins and development. These connections have born fruit in increasing numbers of joint research initiatives and consequent publications. Chapter This chapter characterises the most important types of evidence used in this research: material from excavations, including their context (broadly under¬ stood), the records of chroniclers, preserved sacral and secular architecture and data from other disciplines. Much space is devoted to the definition of the concept of an archaeological site. These include both historical spatial organi¬ zations in Polish towns, the remains of ancient fortifications, sites of pagan cult practices, sacral architecture, deserted settlements, former production sites, communication routes, cemeteries and also surviving elements of the primeval landscape. Each of these types of site is presented in the context of their stratification, manner of using them as sources of evidence and the characteristics of fieldwork on them (Plates Special attention is paid to archaeological layers, the manner of their investigation, the stratigraphical method (Figs and contents of layers are discussed, including mass finds (pottery, animal bone) and small finds (Plate archaeozoological investigation and the use of the methods of the natural sciences (Figs of written sources and cance for the study of the Early Medieval period are indicated (Figs Chapter The title of this chapter makes reference to the debates which have been going on in Poland for many years concerning the origin of the Slavs. The effect of these discussions has so far been a polarisation of positions between the two main options which have been formulated. The first is the concept of a western origin of the Slavs, that is as autochthonous to the Polish lands, while the alternative is that which proposes an eastern (allochthonous) origin of the Slavs. In the first, the cradle of the Slavs is located most frequently in the watersheds of the Vistula and Oder, and thus in the territory of today s Poland, while the second proposes the ancient homeland would have lain mainly in modern Ukraine and partly Belarussia. An intermediate concept exists, in which the genesis of the Slavs has been linked with both the western and eastern territories (between the Oder-Vistula and homeland of the Slavs in completely different areas of Europe and Asia. The 410 author presents the arguments for the basic hypotheses in the context of the so-called Early Slav cultural model . He suggests that it is difficult to speak of a single cultural pattern, since in different areas of Europe the material remains are so different. From the eastern part of the Mediterranean Basin, we have written sources which tell us of the presence of Slavs, while most frequently there is a total lack of material evidence of their presence. A similar picture emerges in the case of the western Balkans (Croatia), where the Slavs arrived during the first phase of their expansion southwards. What differentiates those areas from others? Above all, the fact that they belong to the zone of the so-called Roman-Byzantine culture. Further to the north, in the territories along the Danube, the situation is more differentiated. We find here both the material evidence of the presence of nomads, as well as the autochthonous peoples but also the Slavs. Among the southern neighbours of Poland pottery vessels of the Prague type (Plate logically advanced type, including wheelmade vessels Ipoteşti-Cindeşti-Ciurel Slav graves seems not to be reflected by the early Medieval cemetery with over 1500 originally belonging to the former Roman province of by intense mixing of cultural elements of Roman and barbarian civilization; in the latter case this concerns Germans, Slavs, groups of autochthonous peoples and nomadic groups. A model area for the study of the material culture of the Early Slavs are the territories lying to the north of the arc of the Carpathians, including the area of modem Poland. How can one explain the selectivity of the material evidence of the cultures that are ascribed to them? One of the possible answers is as follows: in the areas where there were the greater number of civilizing influences to be assimilated (Mediterranean region), the Slavs rapidly and willingly resigned from their unprepossessing cultural pattern , and became absorbed into the local environment (here one is reminded of the they invaded Italy). Further to the north, and thus in areas where we encounter enclaves of people with a heterogeneous level of civilization, their choices were more selective. This is the reason why the pattern of Early Slav culture seen through its material correlates is equivocal in its message. Only in the territories to the north of the Carpathians, demographically depleted by the population movements of the fifth century - This includes sunken floored huts with corner ovens (Fig. type (Plate strongholds (Plates frequently connected with later periods. This raises the question, why the Slavs of this earliest phase remained so culturally unlike their neighbours? The author is of the opinion that, in considerations of this question, not enough attention SUMMARY has been paid to the fact frequently emphasised by Byzantine writers concerning the surprising mobility of the Slavs who in a few generations were visible throughout almost all of Europe. This factor, characteristic for the social models of the nomads, and not agriculturalists and livestock herders as were the Slavs, meant the material conditions of their existence, especially in the period of seeking new areas to settle, became similar to that of the nomads. While for nomads, wandering was a permanent and normal situation, it was one which was forced upon these agriculturalists and livestock herders. The Slavs however did not become nomads because of their long and enforced material culture of the earliest phase is not only surprisingly impoverished, but also comprises a unique phenomenon in this part of the continent. The source of the poverty and simplification of the material cultural inventory in this phase of the settlement of Europe might, therefore, be the lack of conditions for the creation of material goods requiring a more considerable expenditure of work, in the unstable economic conditions. An important obstacle might have been both the frequency of wandering, as well as the scattered settlement pattern of the oldest settlement (Fig. lack among the oldest Slavs in central Europe a developed tools in the material culture, including the potter s wheel, and the only sporadic finds (though not lack!) of ornament (Plate material culture, so characteristic of other sedentary societies of the period. In the opinion of the author, in the phase of migration, the occupation and bringing into use (sometimes only temporarily) of new territories, the settlers confined themselves to producing the most simple and basic objects indispensable for daily life. This is the model which is suggested by, for example, pots of the Prague type. These were products of the most simple form possible, undeco- rated, handmade without the use of the wheel, out of generally available local materials. In the opinion of the author, one might imagine this simplified cultural assemblage to be similar to the situation of the American pioneers of the Wild West in the period when they were seeking new lands to settle down. It would be difficult to compare the quality of the material culture during their wanderings with the culture of the inhabitants of the towns of the East Coast. The simplified instrumentarium Slavic culture would therefore be a reflection of the period of economic instability in the phase of the search for and occupation of new settlement habitats. But the Slavs, seen in the context of their own migrations not on a regional basis but in the context of developments over the whole of Europe - ideology of unpretentiousness . In the opinion of the author, this was a society above all of considerable creative inventiveness and adaptive capabilities. Agriculturalists and livestock herders, but mobile like nomads: accepting in the phase of settling new territories an unprepossessing level of material culture , but at the same time wherever this was possible, making use of the civilisational 412 benefits they encountered on their way. It was this which eventually decided their historical role as the co-creators of Early Medieval Europe. Chapter About the middle of the seventh century, the peoples inhabiting today s Polish lands entered the phase of the consolidation of settlement. This is a period of slow (extending into the eighth and even to the beginning of the ninth century) disappearance of the relatively egalitarian material culture of the early Medieval period, at the same time the creation of a tribal structure of a new type. Alongside the open settlements, strongholds became an element of the land¬ scape, and it was around them that clusters of open settlements developed. The names of peoples such as the were known already to the Byzantine and Frankish writers who associated some of these tribes with certain political episodes in the history of Europe of these times. The author analyses the tribal structures of the peoples known from the written sources, and then confronts this information with the archaeological evidence. He feels that, although the term tribe is used in the book, a more suitable one would be ethnic group in the sense that it is used in contemporary anthropology. The adjective tribal is thus used mainly to refer to settlement communities inhabiting various regions of Polish lands in the period directly preceding the formation of a state. A difficulty arises in that the written sources do not give the names of some of the tribes and archaeological investigations suggest different pictures, of the settlement of the Polish lands (Figs A fundamental question of the archaeology of the tribal period are the beginnings and stages of development of stronghold construction. Already in the period of Early Slav culture, in the Polish lands the Slavs were building defensive structures (see Chapter identified is surprisingly small in relation to the overall number of archaeological sites of the period. It would be difficult to say what the reason was for the decidedly rare use which was made of this possibility in the earliest phases. A specific feature of the construction of strongholds in against the background of other regions are the so-called Great Strongholds of the mostly located on heights or the slopes of hills. They have varying forms and plans, though they all have timber ramparts. They are distinguished from other strongholds of the period primarily by their size. They are as a rule large sites (with a surface area of the ramparts in many cases there is a lack of traces of internal structures, though in some cases huts has been identified. From that point of view however these sites do not form a homogeneous group. In the south of the country there are also SUMMARY strongholds with ramparts with a stone facing (Fig. systems of defences with linear earthworks (Fig. A subject of wide discussion is the date of and circumstances in which the oldest barrow cemeteries appear. While it is true that Early Medieval barrow burial has a beginning in the Late Roman period, the span of time which separates the two phases is a considerable one, a period of about years. An important element of investigations into the burial rituals of the tribal period is the evidence from the monumental barrows of investigation and analysis of the most impressive of them demonstrates a similarity of symbolism and their probable association with the attributes of tribal authority (Chapter Krzna burials, sometimes with internal constructions of a type not met anywhere else in Poland. In the regions of of the Alt The beginnings of the rite of inhumation in the Polish lands are also analysed. These are often assigned to the second half of the tenth century, though in the opinion of some, they had a completely different chronology. In this context it is worth drawing attention to the graves of Magyar nomads (Figs 4.11, 4.12) The author recapitulates the discussions on the subject of the possibilities of the earlier reception of Christianity which were animated after the Second World War by the discoveries in some so-called tablets with what is thought to be traces of writing from the tribal period at the penetration of Polish lands by settlers from the Christian south and their taking root in the local tribal environments. The transition between cremation to inhumation, the abandonment of barrow burials for flat graves and the western orientation of the bodies and the progressive reduction of the burial equipment generally associated with great ideological changes in the period of transition from paganism to Christianity. In this context the probably Czech origin of Cracow and Wroclaw are mentioned. At the same time, the author draws attention to the fact that so far neither any inhumation graves can be with certainly assigned to the period before the end of the tenth century, or any churches connected with the Czech episode of Polish history. Chapter Łysa Góra 5.2, 5.3) associated with many legends The former lies on the eastern edge of the Holy Cross Mountains and the latter 414 been the subject of archaeological investigations, and although many interdis¬ ciplinary studies have been carried out and new evidence obtained, not all the fundamental questions have been examined and definitively resolved. These and other hilltop sites (Plate A separate topic in the discussion of former cult places is occupied by the places called with these associations occur in southern Poland and characteristically in connection with frontier zones (Plate puzzles surrounding these sites have yet to bring satisfactory results. Some authors have drawn attention to their situation on communication routes, but at the same time there is a lack of firm evidence to confirm the existence of a stronghold, for example in investigations of the evidence of its association with the nomad Avars. More evidence links it with the world of former belief systems. In this context we may refer to the motifs of folklore connected with the motif of the hearth and with control over the lightening, patron of fertility, and combating aquatic monsters. This motif is especially vivid in the mythology of the South Slavs, where this being was the guardian of the most important elements of the homestead: water and the harvest. In this meaning one may treat a sacral enclosed area breaking taboos. The fact that these sites are restricted to southern Poland might indicate a regional variant of a belief in the Most of the hilltop cult sites are situated in two zones, southern and northern Poland. There are considerably fewer in A specific feature of their toponymy is the relatively frequent appearance of the term this phenomenon is identified. But none of these sites has attracted as much attention as isolated and widely separated from each other, the differentiating factor in the case of the great mountains is that in their nearest vicinity there are several similar centres. Despite the time which has passed since investigations of these sites began, it still remains unclear why, at whose bidding, or whether at the same time and for what purpose these sites were built. Chapter The cemetery in the forest at identified at the beginning of the the subject of discussions due to the survival for over and oval barrows despite being situated in the deforested loess uplands. Fourteen of the SUMMARY augering (Fig. 6.2). mostly between In the context of the discussed phenomenon, an interesting circumstance is the presence of an empty area among the mounds (Fig. the traditional meeting place for the local inhabitants at Whitsun: a procession here was the culmination of the religious festivities. The barrows are in the forest which is the only enclave of greenery in the totally deforested loess plateau. What was the reason for the inhabitants of this area saving this fragment of greenery? Was it the zone? Maybe the woodland owed its existence throughout the years because it contained barrows? There is also one other feature worthy of note. Below the woodland, on its south side are very prolific springs which today feed fishponds situated in this place. Perhaps in the early Medieval period these springs (Fig. 6.5) additional element defining the sacrum of the terrain. Could the woodland, the barrows within it and the springs flowing below it qualify as a Slavic holy grove? In the opinion of the author, this thesis, formulated recently, seems quite probable in the light of the evidence, including other evidence of the practice of pagan cult (Fig. Chapter A specific feature of the tribal period of the south of Poland (but also in this part of Europe) are monumental mounds. They are distinguished by their dimensions, exceeding served height of from afar and thus constitute a dominating landmark in the landscape. These mounds occur in the vicinity of former centres of tribal power. The author presents in this chapter the results of investigations of three of these mounds: the and the Salve Attention has been drawn in the literature to the similarities between the monumental mounds of known from Scandinavia. Equally the internal constructions discovered in the Krakus find parallels in those barrows (Western Mound at Old Uppsala, South Mound at Jelling). Also the manner of construction, first the building of a small mound and then erecting a larger one over it, is very similar to that used to construct the Chernaya Sandomierz, complex. Apart from local tradition (and it is unclear when this originated), there is a lack of evidence for its Early Medieval origin. It is true that there is a link in the legends with the Tartars, but there is a lack of material evidence 4l6 SUMMARY to define the period of origin of the mound. The slopes have been shaped to make them steeper and to give the mound the form of a regular pyramid (Plate case of Cracow, it is situated in a region where we have evidence of significant centres of tribal authority and of the early state. We meet a different situation in the case of the Tartar Mound (or Mound of Przemysław) are equally complicated matters. The oldest Early Medieval material recovered so far from its body can be dated at the earliest to the second half of the twelfth century, and thus to a period considerably later than researchers were expecting. But this material was found just below the surface. The context of their discovery - were lit on the side of a mound existing from some unknown time prior to this, and it was in the remains of these fires that the broken pottery was found. Equally complex is the question of the construction of the feature. The outer layers of the mound contain a large amount of rock fragments, and on its slopes, solid rock appears just under the turf (Fig. mound we are dealing with a type of construction which is somewhere between that of the Cracow mound mound, created by reshaping a natural feature. The other feature in common with the form, while the Cracow mound has a more oval shape. The monumental mounds of chambers under them. In the case of the example from Cracow this is because of the central post and wattle-work constructions, at is a natural loess hill, and in with an earthen mound on top. Theoretically, all of these mounds could have been monumental barrows with burials on, rather than under, the mound, as in the case of many met over a wide area of Slavic territory. In such cases, the burnt remains of the deceased are placed on the summit of the mound. This model of burial widespread in the Slavic world had at its basis the idea of Any military intervention would have led to the profanation and destruction of the remains of even the most famous leader. It cannot be excluded however that these mounds fulfilled a symbolic function, for example as cenotaphs. In the chapter other examples of monumental mounds of the region are dis¬ cussed, including those examined in the past at on the Bug (Fig. In the first case this was an Early Medieval structure dug into a Roman one. Other earthworks (Plates Early Medieval date have not yet been the subject of archaeological investigation. It is difficult to explain why there is a lack of evidence for a similar phenomenon in other regions of Poland (Fig. SUMMARY Wielkopolska, reason, the author regards the phenomena observed in the regional oddities among the formation of tribal structures in wide areas of Europe. It is unclear whether we should seek traces of outsiders in the genesis of this phenomenon, or maybe this was a local tradition, or an attempt to imitate something seen earlier elsewhere and remembered? Each of these options seems possible at the present state of research. Chapter The a stronghold and settlements and a cemetery (Plate in history because of the scholarly storm which erupted around the discovery of three fragments of fired clay, called conventionally the (Plates of the tribal period , dated to the ninth century (see Fig. one feature in common: on their surface they have signs resembling writing. These inscriptions have been read as Turkish runes or Greek writing; in the second case the inscription would have read Jesus Christ conquer , or as has been recently suggested been the monogram of Christ (Fig. been suggested that the inscription was made by a person who could not in fact write. If these hypotheses could be positively verified, we would be dealing not only with the traces of the earliest writing in the Polish lands, but also traces of the presence of Christians at least acceptance of Christianity by Poland. of the tablets were made of local clay, while the raw material of the third, described as terra In the same context as the tablets were found ceramic vessels dated to the ninth century with interesting solar ornament and zoomorphic motifs. Similar decoration on ceramics from Poland are unique (Figs questions concerning the discovery itself as well as their wider context require ■further critical analysis, the described finds place the most fascinating archaeological discoveries of the last century. Chapter The first description of the rise of the Polish state appears in the twelfth century chronicle of predecessors of Mieszko. The chronicler states that the version given there of the oldest history was that which was preserved by as he put it faithful memory . The thesis of the evolutionary beginnings of the state has dominated the majority of the interpretations for many years. More recent archaeological investigations however, carried out in different regions of the country (Figs 9.2) 418 . of events took place in the tenth century. As a result there was a rapid, sometimes even catastrophic, collapse of many of the pre-existing tribal centres. These events were accompanied by permanent or temporary depopulation of former areas of settlement. Within a short time new centres of the arose on new sites, beginning the thousand year history of the Polish nation and state. A problem which is more widely discussed by the author is the origin of the creators of the assigned both a local as well as foreign (Varangian) origin. Archaeologists however have not earlier considered this problem in much detail, but the author feels that certain archaeological evidence suggest that the birthplace of the new dynasty might have been southeast area shows a lack of the traces of the destruction of tribal centres so characteristic for other parts of the region. On the contrary, here we see traces of investment of considerable resources in stronghold construction and other evidence of the growth of the What is more, pre-state strongholds, not only survived, but also developed successfully after the rise of the state. Thus, in the opinion of the author, it was precisely here that the best conditions existed for the beginning of the the archaeological traces of which are the destroyed tribal strongholds and the construction of new political centres in new locations. The effects of the regions of the country. The process is most clearly visible in Mazovia and the eastern parts of was the latest to become part of the Polish state, we see more often than other regions of the country the occupation of older tribal centres either temporarily (e.g., Naszacowice or In Silesia however a specific feature of the area is the rise of the chief centres before into the Polish state. This may show the annexation of these lands in the 980s, and thus a few years before their formal incorporation into the In centres. They were built in new locations, replacing earlier settlement patterns (Fig. tribal centres, which is characteristic of western brzeg, In the light of current research, one may be tempted to sketch the stages of the formation of the territorial foundations of the Polish state. In the light of the newest archaeological data and dendrochronological analyses, we may accept that until the end of the 960s the Piasts were organizing the core of the state of tenth century?), they had also occupied the western part of Mazovia. Such SUMMARY an interpretation would explain the catastrophe which affected the tribal centres in this area. Perhaps this was the result of a rapid and co-ordinated reaction of the rulers of the power of their eastern neighbours. Even if this were the case, it did not lead to the permanent involvement of the Piasts in the process of the creation of a state organization in the region, which is indirectly indicated by the lack of any traces whatsoever of the construction of their strongholds in the area. On the contrary, the beginnings of on a previously unoccupied site at the end of the tenth century. If this hypothesis is valid, it means that until the end of the century, in the eyes of the policies of the Piasts of a territorial backwater. It is not known if any attempt was made in this early period to protect the region against the pagan Prussians which might be the reason behind the construction of the linear earthwork defences, traces of which survive in the landscape of the northern periphery of the region (Fig. Mazovia was the region which was for the longest bereft of any traces of early urbanization, and in the case of its eastern regions Christianisation also. Perhaps this hypothesis explains the reasons for the differences between the different cultural development of Mazovia from other regions of the country, and above all the intriguingly long survival in daily life of the long-term mixing of different cultural which is demonstrated by the results of archaeological investigations. The second a state occurred in the 970s. This should be related to the activities of the Piasts on the eastern bulwark of the state formed by the territories of eastern Małopolska that a group of the oldest towns of all in existence. was either annexed or built. In this manner, already by the end of the tenth century, the expansion of the Piasts extended along the Vistula river from its source to its mouth. In the light of the available archaeological information, in both eastern justified to see this expansion as having above all a military dimension. In the light of the available information, the 980s were the period of the building of the western bulwark of the state (Fig. results of dendrochronological analysis, in the middle of the decade, there was investment of labour in the strongholds of Western brzeg) conducting of military actions on a large scale, which are mentioned in the written sources of the period. In the case of the centres of Western a specific trait was the attempt to fit them into the area already occupied by existing centres, and in the case of Silesia, building totally new main centres for the region. 420 The climax of the process of the building of the state was the annexation by the Piasts at the end of the 980s of Cracow and the surrounding region from the hands of the Czechs. The most suitable starting point for the carry¬ ing out of this task was undoubtedly the centre, the Piasts. A phenomenon worth noting in this context is the lack in west¬ ern Mazovia of traces of the destruction of the older settlement centres, which is so characteristic of other areas of the country. The archaeological data show that the most important centres of this region were of a type, with Cracow at the forefront, which were still developing after their occupation by the Piasts. Poland of the times of Mieszko I was, in today s terminology, a country undergoing deep structural changes. The processes of the fortification of the country and the germs of early urbanisation were inevitably accompanied by demographic changes. The scale of changes which were occurring at this time is a reflection of the position of a leader in charge of a well-trained and professional army, in which immigrant Scandinavians (among others) played an important role. This is suggested by the investigation of certain cemeteries, like Łubowo, Lutomiersk Scandinavian warriors (see Chapter in Polish lands in the times of Mieszko I, were part of the processes of state formation which were taking place all over central Europe. The major structural transformations and political and ideological reconstruction of tribal organiza¬ tions lie at the basis of the preservation of cultural and ethnic identification of the Lechitic tribes Chapter The buildings of the territorial foundations of a state were accompanied by the rise of central or local centres of regional authority. In the strongholds which fulfilled leading roles were built, and the foundations laid for the administrative structure of the Church. During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the stronghold complexes founded in the times of the first Piasts took on the characteristics of centres of early- urban character. The latest research has shown that in the great majority of cases, the beginnings of Polish towns go back to the times of the origins of the state, that is the second half of the tenth century (Fig. of this time played a key role in the process of the creation and strengthening of the state: and have retained their importance to our times. Not all, however, Piast them had in the first monarchy is undeniable. We know of examples of centres which retained such a key role from the period of the rise of the state until modem times. SUMMARY In the further parts of the chapter, the author also presents the most important discoveries made in the early urban centres, and which still give researchers the basis for much controversy and interpretive problems. We start with the dispute which took place in the past about the primacy of two centres, In the case of stressed, assigning it the role of the holy centre of a local community, which was taken over by the Piasts of From the earliest phase of the use of the Hill (before feature on the highest point of the Hill, a mound stones with a diameter of about cathedral, as well as the church of St George stand on the remains of these features (Fig. of the first Piasts. In recent years the hypothesis has been formulated that the oldest church at were added. It is in this church (Fig. thought to have been interred immediately after his tragic death among the Prussians. In residence of Jordan, the first missionary bishop past few years has been the palatium of Mieszko I, which has been dated to the second half of the tenth century. Further investigations have shown that adjacent to this building there probably was a chapel in the form of a rotunda with an apse. The entire complex was therefore similar to that known from Ostrów controversy for many years is the so-called baptistery from a structure with a central post identified under the cathedral (Figs This is regarded by some investigators as the remains of a mortar-mixer, others reject that interpretation, demonstrating that around this structure stood a rec¬ tangular structure. Even however if this was so, it still remains unclear whether this supposed baptistery functioned beside a church already in existence (and if so, what kind of church?). No trace of such a structure has been found. Equally puzzling is the question of the elaborate tombs, the remains of which, identified by some scholars as the graves of the first in the nave of An interesting phenomenon from the period of the beginnings of the Polish state is the ring of dozens of strongholds around beginning of Polish statehood (see Fig. pied sites, they were settled by people brought in from the outside. In the Zawodzie remains of a stronghold, dated to the second half of the ninth century, have been discovered (Figs 422 are the remains of a wooden sacral building from the beginning of the eleventh century which have been identified in the interior of the twelfth century collegiate church of St Paul (Figs according to the hypothesis of the author Chapter The development of the centres on the Baltic coast followed other patterns. Their genesis, which was earlier than any other such sites in the rest of the country, resulted from the existence in this region, already in the tribal period of a broad zone of exchange around the Baltic and linked with exchange across the rest of Europe. Among these sites, a special place was occupied by It is here that Scandinavian traditions locate the Jomsvikings, doing heroic deeds in the Baltic Sea zone, the results of investigations done so far indicate that Wolin Shortly afterwards, in the ninth century, it existed as an urban republic, with its own council. It also became an important emporium on the routes leading in the direction of Prussia, Novgorod and in the west to Hedeby and Starigard (Figs The interpretation of the oldest centres of eastern complicated. An illustration of this might be the discussions of the origins of Gdańsk dated to the 970s and was ascribed to the activities of the first Piasts. Currently its beginnings are the subject of debate. Its earlier ( tribal ) origin is now one of the options being considered, as is the possibility that it came into being only at the beginning of the eleventh century. A key to understanding the chronology of events taking place in this region remains the definition of the (independent?) sequence of events occurring within each of the three separate centres of settlement activity: the so-called ducal stronghold on the River, the settlement zone around the Town Hall and the concentration of settlement around the churches of St Nicholas and St Catherine (Fig. Mazovia does not supply very many examples of towns created in the period of state formation. In the case of is drawn to its relatively late genesis, the turn of the tenth and eleventh centuries. One of the results of recent investigations is among other things, a new picture of the topography of Turn Hill town had its beginnings (Figs connecting the hill with a place of pagan worship has been disproved. The beginnings of mous as a unique set of chessmen made of red deer antler (Fig. why there were two towns of high rank region, and from the beginning of Polish statehood? In the opinion of the author, this can be justified by the fact that the creation of connected with the political expansion into this region of the first Piasts, SUMMARY including the resettlement here in the 970s of settlers from (Fig. , The place is regarded by Medieval historians as a supplement to An enigmatic mention in the work of caput terrae tribal centre preceding (Fig. Romanesque building found so far in Zawichost, are the remains of a church built on the plan of a tetraconchos (Figs chronology and function are still under discussion. In the light of the current state of research on the excavated material, the context of the tetraconchos should be seen in the context of the finds of eastern origin dated no earlier than the twelfth century contemporary cemeteries. The origins of a Romanesque church discovered in the crypt of the church of the BVM in Zawichost in recent years also remains unresolved (Fig. from the point of view of their material culture are not very similar to each other. We identify in a direct form (that is traceable in the archaeological material) a connection between the material culture of Early Medieval domierz Zawichost influences from eastern milieux. The reasons for the clear cultural frontier which appears between these two towns is unclear. Other problems are involved in the interpretation of on the eastern frontier of the siting on Cathedral Hill herein the first half of the thirteenth century by duke Daniel Romanovich of what was in fact the capital of his western the diocesan seat of a bishop of the Greek rite. At this time, as the results of the latest excavations show, the town and it material culture took on clear Russo-Byzantine churches on Cathedral Hill (Figs Below it, there was a rich residential district and craftsmen s workshops (Fig, probably the houses of the elite. Remains of similar buildings can be found in the central places of thirteenth century Russia. On the settlements and Cathedral Hill there have been frequent finds of fragments of glazed pottery vessels, and also very many other valuable finds belonging to the zone (Plate The town of state border. Just as in the case of cannot be matched anywhere else in Poland. The significance of the Gate (Pass) in long-distance trade, including with the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic world is clear already in the tribal period. It was here that one of the 424 large monumental mounds discussed in Chapter was discovered a cemetery of nomadic Magyars, dated to the first half of the tenth century. According to its excavator s opinion, the oldest pre-state strong¬ hold (Plate Krzyży). of the monumental buildings which have survived to our times. The stone-built palatium together with a rotunda, which were constructed on Castle Hill most probably in the reign of century), recalls the plan of the constructions known from the main centres of the be mentioned a potters settlement discovered many years ago in the Zasanie region of the town. The uniqueness of this find is due to the fact that it is one of only a few archaeologically together with its production hinterland from the Polish lands. Among the products which it produced were korczagi types of finds are objects linked with the Byzantine cultural zone (Plate the beginning of the eleventh century from of which was Rurik Rostislavovich. In the topography of the town appeared increasing numbers of buildings with analogies from the eastern cultural circles. Wiślica been the subject of an especial interest of Polish medievalists. A long time ago it was suggested that this place had been the tribal capital of the to many other areas of the country, we see here an unexpected richness of archaeological features: two strongholds (Figs with accompanying rotundas (Fig. as evidence of the the ninth century (Fig. esque churches preserved in the crypt of the collegiate church A special feature of one of them is the floor, dated to the second half of the twelfth century, with the representation of is still the subject of many scientific debates (Fig. other discoveries from supposed baptismal font near the church of St Nicholas opinion that there was here in the tribal period a centre is now opposed by the twelfth century dating of the stronghold. The arguments that have been presented by both sides of this debate are not conclusive. In the opinion of the author, the centre of Cracow had an early origin, in tribal times. In time it became the chief centre of the medieval state (Fig. of centres which had an unbroken chain of development from before the middle of the tenth century and which retained an important position in the structures of the SUMMARY to the question of the origins concerns its significance in the period of the formation of the Polish state. It was Cracow which was regarded as the chief stronghold of the so-called Wiślanie are sited (see Chapter foot of four tonnes) dated to the second half of the ninth century. Archaeological investigations have produced examples of imports which show the connections between Cracow in the pre-state period and the Avar khanate and the cultural zone of the Magyars. Cracow is differentiated from the other centres of the country by the unparallelled number of stone buildings connected with the early phases of the functioning of the state. On of the pre-Romanesque period (Fig. buildings on the hill and dated to the early Medieval period is therefore impressive. It is not comparable to any other town in the Polish lands. But at the same time, not very much is known about the topography of in the period of the formation of the Polish state. In the case of has revolved around three questions in recent years. The first is the question of the beginnings and oldest phases of the occupation of the stronghold, remains of which have been identified on interpretation of the evidence is that it was founded in the middle of the 980s and thus at a time when formally Silesia was still under Czech rule. The second question which has been widely discussed are the newest investigations in the crypt of Wroclaw cathedral, which have revealed the remains of previously unknown sacral buildings. The oldest is a structure on the plan of a cross (Fig. 10.45), hands in the second half of the tenth century. The precise date of its erection as well as its (Czech) analogies are still a mater of heated discussion. And finally the discovery which has drawn the attention of scholars, are the timber elements of the construction of a pagan temple, which was still in use into the eleventh century (Fig. seat of one of the four bishoprics erected in Is this building the traces of a small scale and insignificant episode, or is it as some scholars mink Christianisation of the region? If so, it would be an important argument against Wrocław a Christian state since the beginning of the tenth century. These examples of the investigations of the beginnings of Polish towns illustrate a selection of the problems to which in the past few years a relatively large amount of attention has been paid. The massive growth in the amount of archaeological information has meant that this picture is a dynamic one and 426 together with progress in the investigations will inevitably undergo the process of critical verification. Chapter Not all strongholds became towns. The fate of many, known from written sources was episodic and limited to the early stages of the functioning of the state. A substantial portion of those strongholds existing today in the landscape are anonymous, but among them, especially in the Russian-Polish borderlands are some which it may be suspected were those mentioned in the written sources (Plates which have for years attracted especial attention. Ostrów exceptional features. Here, within the circuit of the stronghold on the island, in its central part, was situated a residential complex of the first Piasts. This consisted of a two-part structure, identified as a palatium and accompanying centrally-planned chapel (or baptistery). The form of the palace shows and southern influences (Figs nearby aisleless masonry church, around which was a small cemetery (Figs 11.6). archaeological sensation was the discovery in the interior of the church the skeleton of a boy who died at an age of only a few years, and with a gold ring on his finger. In the opinion of some researchers, this was the body of a member of the ruling dynasty, though we cannot name the boy. The unique¬ ness of function for the first Polish rulers, at the beginning of statehood, it became an important place for baptisms, a necropolis of the the elite of the princely retinue gathered, as well as an example of engineering ability collections of archaeological finds of the highest rank. It is also, probably, one of the best archaeologically documented places ■where an ethnically-different military force was stationed, most likely the bodyguards of the duke. Giecz, situated forty kilometres south of Polish historical record in a mention by may assume that the stronghold fulfilled an important military role in the early Piast a palatium building with a rotunda, as well as the remains of a church of St John the Baptist situated in the north part of the stronghold (Fig. foundation of the palatium has been ascribed to Mieszko II, and the cessation of the construction explained by the invasion of the Bohemian prince at the end of the drawn by the discovery in the northwest part of the courtyard of the stronghold of the remains of the church of John the Baptist which was SUMMARY of the eleventh century. This church is distinguished (apart from its setting) by its surprising composed of two semicircular side towers (probable stair towers) and the quadrangular central tower. Investigators have linked the form of the structure with Carolingian-Ottonian influences. Who built such a building here and for what purpose questions which at the moment have no answer. A significant event of the past few years has been the beginning of excavations at Kaldus in the the uncovering of the remains of a large stone-built structure of aisled basilican form with semicircular apses (Fig. Kaldus is similar to the plans of contemporary cathedrals at and thus representing the architectural plan of Carolingian buildings. The church at Kaldus is the most northerly of the sacral buildings in the early From the cemetery sited near the stronghold unusual which has been investigated to date in the region of eastern - Chapter In the with great attention, although in this case the reasons for this were completely different ones. The discoveries made here made a great impression, it is rare to find the archaeological material of an early urban centre in such a good state of preservation (Plate not only a rare case of building construction, but also a bishop s stronghold which arose in the last phases of the early Middle Ages and also at the end of the period of stronghold construction in the Polish lands. The well-preserved remains of the medieval buildings found in the archaeological investigations under of detail they offered. In the south of the country in the place called Stolpie near mysterious five-storey stone tower attached to its base (Plates of a Greek cross and the original entrance to the tower was on the fourth floor. There are no similar buildings in this part of Europe. There is a theory which is being tested that this complex had a monastic-hermitage function. The archaeological context of the finds which have so far been obtained from the layers lying against the base of the tower and especially the glazed and slipped pottery like that known from including the presence of a church on its upper floor (with a rich decoration with glazed floor tiles duke Daniel of of the tower building was of Rus-Byzantine inspiration, and that it was constructed probably already before the end of the twelfth century. 428 Chapter The rural landscape of the pre-state period has not been the subject of any larger research projects in Poland. While residential and ancillary buildings are frequently examined, their wider context in the settlement network has only sporadically been analysed (Figs case of rural settlements, ideas such as Early Medieval , Late Medieval and Post-Medieval have a different meaning. In rural cemeteries and settlements, there is frequently a lack of the reflection in the material culture of the passing from one epoch to another. In the early state period, the most frequent group of settlements are those which developed spontaneously, and thus with scattered buildings (Fig. They are characterised by existing for a long period, sometimes going back to tribal times and also a pattern of spatial development which is difficult to categorise. Another group is formed by villages with the buildings in rows. These are situated on the slopes of rises, along river valleys and streams, sometimes along existing communication routes. Settlements adjacent to strong¬ holds often had such a form. Even rarer are villages arranged around a central open space (Fig. In the case of settlements with a long period of existence (from tribal times), the possibilities of recognition of the original property divisions and buildings are limited. The frequent divisions of property and rebuilding of structures have meant that the properties of the same owners have sometimes been located in different places. This hindered not only their use, but also the collection of rent and tithes. For this reason in the twelfth and thirteenth century, in a period when there was a considerable growth in the number of rural settlements, an amalgamation was carried out in order to facilitate this. Only in the case of Church property, together with the establishment and development of parishes, were the newly-created settlements decidedly bigger. A specific group of settlements are the so-called service settlements . These should be treated as the result of the rise of early urban centres and their economic hinterland. In the opinion of many authors, this type of settlement was an imported idea in the Polish lands, and its beginnings should be sought in the Carolingian world. In central Europe they were implanted earlier in Bohemia, from where the idea spread to Hungary. Their appearance in Poland should be dated to the period from the second half of the tenth century to the beginning of the eleventh century. From the twelfth century, settlements of this type passed out of the hands of the ruler, mainly (though no only) as donations to the Church. It is thought that the collapse of the system of service villages occurred in the thirteenth century and finally disappeared at the turn of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. A significant number survived in the vicinity of the main centres of the state, SUMMARY for nearly Their names are connected mostly with livestock rearing, hunting, fishing, services to the court, and also a broad range of other services (Fig. of these settlements has so far been the subject of a dedicated project of archaeological Newer investigations have also produced examples of settlements which do not fit into the old interpretive schemes. As an illustration of this, the author describes the results of his own investigations of a settlement of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries carried out at Kaczyce (Fig. differentiated from others of the same period by the number of rich finds, collected in a single, and in addition atypical context (Fig. also occurred objects made of high quality that the pottery from the site could compete in qualitative terms with that from Sandomierz, region. Also in the oldest features of the site (eleventh century) it was determined that there were twice as many bones of small ruminants (sheep/goat) as those of other animals. This is a feature which is exceptional in Early Medieval Poland and only a few sites are comparable. The remains of horses also are many times more frequent here than in other cases. Who were the inhabitants of this site? Was the investigated area the eastern edge of a prosperous knightly estate? If so, how to explain the nomadic consumption habits of its inhabitants in the eleventh century phase? The lack of later medieval material on the site is notable, it presumably did not continue to be used. In the opinion of the author, in Polish lands, we have considerably more examples of this type of surprise similar to the settlement described above. Their recognition will require the acceptance of a new philosophy of investigation, in which rural settlements will find the position they deserve. Chapter of the Oldest Monastic Complexes This chapter considers the oldest monastic communities in the Polish lands the Benedictines and Cistercians. Among the earliest of their foundations is the Benedictine Abbey at the middle of the eleventh century (Plates excavations have been conducted in this complex over the past fifty years. Further archaeological and conservation investigations carried out in the mid 1990s buildings to be determined. The building of the abbey church was begun at the end of the 1050s. Among the most spectacular discoveries were the graves containing what are thought to be the remains of the first abbot successor Anchora. The deceased were laid in stone sarcophagi with pastorals and, in two cases, also with liturgical vessels (Figs 430 found of the oldest sacral building. In the phase dated to the last quarter of the eleventh or twelfth century, in this place a complete Romanesque monastery was built over the site. The Benedictine house in from the turn of the eighth and ninth centuries there had been an intensive development of settlement. The beginnings of the monastery are dated to the 1040s. The construction of the monastic church was a long drawn-out proc¬ ess. In its style, the oldest building recalled a reduced form of Carolingian architecture. It was determined that in the earliest phase, the western crypt fulfilled the function of a Chapter House (Figs the thirteenth century, on the site of the timber and earthwork defences of the former settlement, was built the first masonry circuit wall. It is one of the oldest examples of brick built defensive walls in Poland. Other results came from the investigation of the former Benedictine house at Silesia. The first (failed) foundation dates to the second half of the eleventh century. In the second phase (first half of the twelfth century) the original building plan was abandoned. One could say therefore that in reality it was a new foundation, and in addition, one realised after a long break (Fig. Two graves here are worthy of especial note. While in a grave chapel, discovered on the north side of the chancel, the remains of a man were found a metre below the floor. The body was placed in bottomless chamber of wood. It is suggested that the remains belonged to duke [Laskonogi] (Fig. complex was the discovery of a settlement associated with the construction of the monastery. It was established that the majority of this settlement was cleared after the construction of the monastery in the second half of the thirteenth century. Some parts of it however remained in use and buildings were still being erected there, connected with the use of this area by people providing services for the monastery. From the twelfth century, the Cistercians and their foundations constitute and increasingly numerous group of monasteries in the landscape of early Medieval Poland (Fig. daughter house of the of this group are the abbey at Łekno. The latter has been the subject of intensive investigations in recent years. Among other things, the foundations and lower parts of the walls of the monastic church in the form of a rotunda, dated to the period before the middle of the eleventh century (Fig. significance in the process of Christianisation of northeast adjacent territories, especially Prussia and SUMMARY In Wachock in the emotion in the scholarly milieu. These were the relics of a sacral structure interpreted as a palace chapel as a palatium. Both buildings were thought to be earlier than the walls of the abbey (Fig. as well as their context, the construction of the complex was defined as the period to the middle of the eleventh century. But the material evidence arouses much controversy and is difficult to interpret unequivocally. In the eleventh century, many Canonical Orders came into being, with whom are connected many collegiate churches (see Chapter half of the twelfth century, the Augustine canons were particularly active. It is with them that the projected (for more recent investigations have shown that it was never finished) monastery on the peak of linked (see Chapter Trzemeszno Poland was the Norbertans, who in the first decades of the thirteenth century already had in Poland over a dozen abbeys. At the thirteenth centuries the Norbertan monastery of The Virgin Mary and the Holy Cross was founded as well as the rotunda of St Procopius in Strzelno (Figs the aisles with very rare the oldest orders should also be mentioned the Joannites [Hospitallers of the Knights of St John of Jerusalem] a military order founded in Jerusalem during the Crusades, in order to look after pilgrims and the sick. Their first seat in Poland was at Crusades, duke Henry of church of John the Baptist. Chapter The marks which are found on the base of pottery vessels are an unrecognised element of the material culture of the Slavic countries of the Early Middle Ages. They were placed on the exterior of the base, and are only rarely found elsewhere. Another important feature was the way the symbol was created: they are most frequently an impression of a negative mark cut into the potter s wheel, only rarely were these marks made with a stamp or incised into the clay. Attention is drawn by the variety of form of the signs, even on the same site (Fig. marks could be linked with solar themes (wheel, crosses, swastikas and their variants), although the semantic content of many others remains unknown. These marks occur in a particular chronological horizon, most often from the second half of the tenth to the middle of the thirteenth centuries, though they are also met in earlier and later periods (Fig. 432 sporadically. The marks have been interpreted as having many functions, in economical terms (ownership marks, workshop marks, control marks) as well as in magical terms (protection against evil forces). None of these hypotheses however have led to a resolution of the problem. The ceramics analysed recently from in detail by the author, have produced interesting information for discussion on the topic of the function of these potters marks. This concerns especially the rarer incised marks (Figs (Fig. (magical) marking of both the potter s wheel, as well as the products. The most frequent group are marks impressed by the wheel. In many cases the impres¬ sions are illegible or very poorly legible. This suggests the hypothesis that the marks had an atropaic effect directed at the wheel and protected it from evil, while the marks placed on the pots by inscribing or by the use of stamps were connected functionally with the product. The author considers the degree to which these marks are a distinguishing characteristic of Slavic pottery. Both the chronological and geographical contexts of the finds of pottery bases with such marks shows that they were an inter-regional phenomenon, known also among other European peoples, both however, do these pottery marks occur in such concentrations as in Slav lands (the example of an Early Medieval site on the Rhone mentioned in the text is rather an exception to this general rule). It is difficult to give an unequivocal answer to the question about the circumstances, when and why the Slavs began on such a large scale to put these marks on the wheel and vessels. There are no such marks on Early Slav vessels. The oldest marks appear on Slav pottery made in the eighth century in the regions south of the Carpathians. This may show that it was in this region that this custom became accepted by the Slavs. It is highly probable that familiarity with the ideology of marks and its acceptance in the Slavic culture took place as a result of the contact between the Slavs and the nomadic peoples (Avars, Protobulgars) who knew the practice earlier. In the Slavic milieu it was not however simply an adoption of this custom, which is shown by its variety and scale. One may presume that the Slavs adapted the practices already known among various European peoples to give rise to a new clearer expression of symbolic culture, recognisable in the archaeological material until the end of the Early Medieval period. Chapter A great change which occurred at the beginning of the early state period in the Polish lands was the transition from cremation to inhumation which was brought about by the introduction of Christianity in the second half of the tenth century. In general, scholars are sceptical both about the possibility of a rapid and general religious conversion as well as the thesis concerning the spread of inhumation SUMMARY in the Polish lands already by the end of the tenth century. Many biritual cemeteries existed into the eleventh and twelfth centuries. This concerns principally those areas where paganism lasted longer or those places where people of a different cultural tradition were buried (Fig. was the non-churchyard row-cemetery (sometimes called rural cemeteries), situated away from residential areas. These cemeteries have only shallow stratigraphy and contain from a few dozen to a few hundred, and sometimes more, burials. The graves are flat as opposed to the earlier type under barrows. These row-graves retain some of the characteristics of the pagan rites, such as burying the dead with weapons, ornaments, amulets and objects of daily use. There are graves there with a western orientation (the dead look to the east ) or with an eastern one, the latter is regarded as a survival of pre-Christian ritual. The location of cemeteries away from habitation was due to a fear of the dead who were in this manner isolated from the world of the living. This fear also found expression in the anti-vampire practices which are attested by some of the archaeological remains. During the twelfth century, there were changes both in the location of cemeteries as well as their form. This occurs in connection with the rise of churches in early urban centres, at first stronghold churches, and with time becoming parochial churches. Around these churches, in ground which had been conseaated by the priest, the dead were buried. In this manner the next ideological change took place, as a result of which the world of the dead came into contact with that of the living, as a result of the cemeteries entering the towns. These changes in the funeral rite were accompanied by a successive disappearance of grave goods. At the end of the Early medieval period, graves were as a rule without any grave goods. In the later parts of the chapter are presented examples of cemeteries in which it has been possible to identify the alien (non-local) origin of some of the deceased. In the biritual cemetery at Piaski-Rochy basis of the form of the burials and their contents the origins of the deceased have been sought among the Pomeranians and Wieleti (Wiltzi) resettled to this region (Fig. in a previously uninhabited area at the end of the tenth century. Similar evidence has been identified at a few other cemeteries in the Polish lands. An increasing number of burials dated to the period between the end of the tenth century and middle of the eleventh century is being identified where there is a suspicion that they contain the bodies of people of Scandinavian origin. There is an interesting pattern, while the finds in graves before the tenth century typically suggest a status of settler for the dead, graves of immigrants of the period of the early state, dated from the end of the tenth to the middle of the eleventh century are distinguished by their containing weapons. The author discusses the examples of such cemeteries as 434 Łubowo, Luboń, Sowinki the presence in the local Slavic milieu of representatives of the warrior elite from the north, in some kind of relationship with the local Slavic elites. In Łubowo ducal residence (members of the personal retinue of the duke?). Evidence of the presence of Scandinavians in the Polish lands is found on both settlement sites as well as cemeteries. Although these traces are legible over large areas of that in no place was there evidence that they were dominant, nor in any way having any power to organize the life of the native societies. Some of the Scandinavian elements which appear together in these graves, such as scales and swords, suggest that the basis for the daily life of the deceased had been trade and the military arts. Graves with Scandinavian grave goods differ from others in the cemeteries of the early state period. They are more richly-furnished, with visible traces of coffins, and above all contain an exceptionally large number of luxury items and Europe. Most frequently they are imports from the areas of Middle Sweden, Gotland, Oland, and The situation is somewhat different in the case of the complex at Bardy- Świelubie probably coming from Middle Sweden (Fig. cemetery at Lutomiersk near was identified, it was shown that a large proportion of the grave equipment was of Scandinavian origin (Fig. graves of of members of the retinue of the in Russia in near in form and their rich furnishings from the rest (Fig. these were the graves of immigrants, from among whom members of the Church elite and the court were drawn. In Mazovia, a specific feature of the funeral ritual are the so-called graves with stone constructions (Fig. constructions varies across the region, they always have a number of features in common. They have a row-grave layout, they have shallow stratigraphy, with the graves aligned east-west, and the burials within them are richly-furnished (Figs of dress, many objects of daily use and weapons (Fig. it was thought that graves with stone kerbs were the only form of burial in Mazovia in the early state period, but, now that cemeteries of graves without stone elements have been discovered, the question arises about the relationship between the two characteristic but diametrically different characteristics of the burial ritual of early Medieval Mazovia. It has not yet been possible to determine SUMMARY what lies behind these customs: Scandinavian influence, local pagan traditions, or connections with the Baltic milieu. In the light of the current lack of knowledge, there is no basis on which to argue either for a local evolution of this burial ritual. In the south of Poland, attention is drawn to elements of the funeral rite which have clear eastern connections. As an example may be cited the rich burials in stone sarcophagi including those from Trepcza near (Plate of the strategic centres on the eastern periphery of and the radiocarbon dates which go back to the eleventh century, suggest the significance of this centre in the process of the Christianisation of this part of the Carpathian region. In Silesia the cemetery at Niemcza (Site Niemcza 15.13), around which he graves are laid out, but above all for the possibility that it was founded under the Czechs, already before Poland had accepted Christianity. If so, it would be the oldest inhumation cemetery of peoples living in the Polish lands. An important element of research over the past few years has been consideration of the social aspects of the analysis of Early Medieval cemeteries. This approach was pioneered in the investigation of the cemetery at Dzieka- nowice in the hinterland of Radom the investigation of a rural cemetery located near the parish church at near was compared with those of modern times. The cemetery supplies an example of a rural population, in which the influence of settlers from the outside remained limited during the seven centuries over which the cemetery was in use. This may explain the large degree of stability in the characteristics of the discovered skeletal remains over a long period of time. In recent years attempts have been made to describe the blood relationships of the deceased by archaeological and anthropological means. Investigations of cemeteries such as is possible to recreate the specific rules which governed the burials of the dead. These include hypotheses concerning the blood relationships between the people buried there and also concerning the influx of people of in Early Medieval In the light of the analyses carried out, from the second half of the tenth century, a considerable component of the population in the cemeteries of was made up of people of populations. The consideration of the mortal remains surviving in the soil of the Early Medieval population 43б presentation of the key problems of Polish Early Medieval archaeology. The author notes that the discovery and study of the past is inevitably accompanied by the dilemma of the interpretation of many of the discoveries. Because of this, it is necessary to consider that the conclusions presented in this book will themselves inevitably undergo the process of critical verification. Translation by Paul Barford
adam_txt	Spis Wstęp Rozdział POCZĄTKI ZAINTERESOWAŃ, NARODZINY I ROZWÓJ Początki najdawniejsze Wiek Narodziny i powolny wzrost: pierwsze dwudziestolecie Lata trzydzieste: archeologia wczesnego średniowiecza w natarciu sporu o Słowian ciąg dalszy i systematyczne prace wykopaliskowe obiektów wczesnośredniowiecznych Dwie dekady powojenne: zbliżające się milenium i badania nad początkami państwa polskiego Lata siedemdziesiąte i osiemdziesiąte: udane pokłosie badań milenijnych Ostatnia dekada odpowiedzi Archeologia Polski wczesnośredniowiecznej: archeologia regionów czy archeologia bez granic? Rozdział Stanowisko archeologiczne Stratyfikacje, warstwy, obiekty Wczesnośredniowieczne stanowiska archeologiczne i ich stratyfikacje: problemy eksploracji Stratyfikacje stanowisk wczesnomiejskich Stratyfikacje osad typu wiejskiego Stratyfikacje obiektów sakralnych i pogańskich miejsc kultu Stratyfikacje cmentarzysk wielowarstwowych Warstwy i ich zawartość ruchoma: znaleziska masowe Ceramika jako źródło do badania dawnych społeczności Szczątki archeozoologiczne i Zabytki wydzielone Gleba i jej komponenty przyrodnicze Pozostałe grupy danych Pozostałe grupy danych (II): przedstawienia ikonograficzne Rozdział „Autochtoniści", „allochtoniści" i inni: długie dzieje sporu o pochodzenie Słowian Między starożytnością a wczesnym średniowieczem ziem polskich: przerwa czy kontynuacja? Jeden czy wiele wzorców kultury materialnej Słowian? Słowiański fenomen: jak go wytłumaczyć? Rozdział „Geografìa Najstarsze grody "wczesnośredniowieczne: kiedy powstawały? Wielość czy jedność obrządku pogrzebowego? "Wiele pytań i mało odpowiedzi Rozdział W kręgu wielkich ośrodków kultu okresu plemiennego: Łysa Góra na wschodniej krawędzi Łysogór (Góry Świętokrzyskie) Tajemnice góry Ślęży Inne góry Zagadkowe Żmigrody Rozdział Świątynie pod gołym niebem Stary cmentarz i nowe problemy Zapomniana czy żywa tradycja? Rozdział Monumentalizm, który zadziwiał od dawna Kopiec Przemysława (Tatarski) w Przemyślu Domniemane monumentalne kopce w Przemyskiem Sandomierski kopiec Krakowskie kopce Krakusa i Wandy Pozostałe wielkie kopce w Małopolsce Kontekst europejski Kopce małopolskie: kiedy i dlaczego je wznoszono? Rozdział Odkrycie, które budzi emocje Co odkryto na tabliczkach z Podeblocia? Powrót do tematu: tabliczki w świetle najnowszych badań Rozdział Między archeologią, tradycją dynastyczną a legendą Tam, gdzie narodziła się Polska: Wielkopolska u progu przełomu państwowego Skąd pochodzili Piastowie? Z Wielkopolski do Małopolski: piastowskie wyjście na zewnątrz Kierunek północny: Piastowie nad Zatoką Gdańską „Zapomniane" Mazowsze czy strategiczna rezerwa terytorialna? Od Bałtyku po Sudety: Śląsk i Pomorze Zachodnie Śląsk „czeski" czy „piastowski"? Pomorze Zachodnie: „republiki miejskie" i dawne terytoria plemienne Ziemia krakowska: ostatni etap budowy państwa polskiego Próba bilansu Rozdział Stolice państwa gnieźnieńskiego: rywalizacja o prymat pierwszeństwa Od legendarnego Lecha do Mieszka I ЅДпу Gród na bursztynowym szlaku Miasto o dwunastu bramach Gdańsk wczesnopaństwowy czy plemienny? Początki Płocka ciągle poznawane Pierwsza wielka inwestycja piastowska w Małopolsce? Intrygujący rywal Sandomierza Tajemnice Góry Katedralnej w Chełmie Centrum na peryferii W cieniu pogańskiego księcia Kraków, Wawel i archeologia Kto wybudował najstarszy Rozdział Ostrów Lednicki: rezydencjonalny ośrodek pierwszych Piastów czy najstarsze na ziemiach polskich episcopium? Niesfinalizowana wielka inwestycja Chełmiński sedes Gród pod zamkiem Kamienna wieża i grodek w Stołpiu: wczesnośredniowieczne baptysterium, grodek strażniczy czy wieżowy monastyr na wschodniej rubieży państwa? Rozdział Na uboczu zainteresowań Osady wiejskie: jak je postrzegamy? Niewykorzystany Wsie nieodgadnione Rozdział ZESPOŁÓW KLASZTORNYCH Najstarsze klasztory i archeologia U progu chrystianizacji: pierwsze opactwa benedyktyńskie W cieniu Wzgórza Wawelskiego: archeologia w badaniach opactwa oo. benedyktynów św. Piotra i Pawła w Tyńcu pod Krakowem Kościół i klasztor na osadzie grodowej Podwójna fundacja i spór o pochówek książęcy Archeologia w badaniach najstarszych fundacji cysterskich Łekneński „klasztorek" Klasztor na ruinach palatium? Klasztory ciągle poznawane Rozdział Długa historia badań i niejednoznaczne wyniki Znaki na dnach naczyń z Kalisza i Ostrowa Lednickiego: obfitość nowych jakościowo źródeł archeologicznych Znaki, jakich mało Skąd ten zwyczaj i dlaczego znakowano naczynia? Rozdział Od kremacji do inhumacji: cmentarze okresu wczesnopaństwowego Pomorzanie i "Wieleci w Wielkopolsce? Groby wikingów? Wielka nekropola wojowników Nie tylko wojownicy Kogo chowano w mazowieckich grobach z konstrukcjami kamiennymi? Obcy na południu Kim byli, co ich łączyło? Bibliografia Summary Indeks nazw geograficznych i miejscowych Summaiy The Archaeology of Early Medieval Poland. Discoveries Introduction The book presents the most interesting archaeological discoveries, hypotheses and interpretations concerning the archaeology of the Polish lands between the sixth and middle of the thirteenth century. These concern the stages of the settlement of these areas by Slavic peoples, the transition from tribal organization to early state ones, the rise of towns, rural centres and ecclesiastical organization. The work also provides an overview of the archaeology of Polish lands in the Early Medieval period, illustrated by discoveries, the interpretation of which sometimes has divided the scientific milieu. The geographical scope of the book covers the area of today's Poland, excepting the territories occupied by Bait peoples of therefore an area which is roughly the same as the Poland which was occupied in the times of the early monarchy of the the tenth century in which the stage of the formation and consolidation of state structures ended in western Europe, but in Poland was marked by the beginnings of Christianisation and the building of the structure of the This is why the book considers the processes of the chartering Polish towns on German Law which was initiated about the middle of the thirteenth century. The book is addressed to students of archaeology, archae¬ ologists, historians as well as to a wider readership interested in the archaeology of the Early Middle Ages. Each chapter is accompanied by a list of the most important literature. Chapter Beginnings of Interest, Birth and Development This chapter describes the most important periods connected with the begin¬ nings of interest in Early Medieval sites and objects, beginning in the Later Middle Ages when attention was first paid to elements of the landscape 408 connected with legendary events (for example the monumental barrows of country) through to the nineteenth century, when the distant roots of a Slavic identity were being sought and the first archaeological scientific institutions were bom. The first decades of the twentieth century may be defined as a period of the birth and slow growth of archaeology as a scientific discipline. It was in this period that the first academic centres at Cracow, Warsaw and created, centres which in subsequent decades played an important role in Poland. In this period, we observe a large number of field investigations carried out. These tendencies, which were favourable for the growth of Early Medieval archaeology in Poland, intensified in the the Slavs and Germans took on a greater significance in the run-up to the Second World War and in the confrontation with the so-called 'ethnic school' of G. Kossinna, After the end of the Second World War, the study of the archaeology of Polish lands experienced an unprecedented development connected with the approach of the also a period of the methodological revolution (though one unwanted by the scientific milieu) which aimed to adapt scientific methodology to the needs of the new Marxist ideology. But at the same time, the scale of the programme of fieldwork initiated created favourable conditions for the development of interdisciplinary co-operation and international contacts. The successful development of the gains of the Millennium Project period. It was in these decades that we meet the first large synthetic publications of the sites excavated earlier. The origin of the Slavs remained a topic of considerable interest (though a problem which remained unresolved by the organization of many conferences and discussions). The last decade of the twentieth century was also an exceptionally fruitful period for the archaeological study of the Early Medieval period. Due to the wider use of dendrochronology, many earlier ideas about the chronology of the construction of strongholds in the tribal and early state period underwent considerable modification. A new impulse to the undertaking of research was found in the preparations for the 1000th anniversary in the year programmes of scientific investigation carried out on this occasion led to the critical verification of many earlier conclusions. A new element of research in the last decade has been the carrying out of investigations (abandoned after the Millennium Project period) of early centres in Poland's borderlands. From the very beginning, they have revealed the complexities, but also richness, of the Russian-Byzantine culture of frontier communities. The last decade of the twentieth century saw above all a stiffening of positions of investigators engaged in the (already traditional) conflicts over the origins of the Slavs. SUMMARY An indicator of the good condition of Early Medieval "archaeology at the beginning of the third millennium is the increasingly closer collaboration with Medieval historians, which symbolises a return to the inspiration of its origins and development. These connections have born fruit in increasing numbers of joint research initiatives and consequent publications. Chapter This chapter characterises the most important types of evidence used in this research: material from excavations, including their context (broadly under¬ stood), the records of chroniclers, preserved sacral and secular architecture and data from other disciplines. Much space is devoted to the definition of the concept of an archaeological site. These include both historical spatial organi¬ zations in Polish towns, the remains of ancient fortifications, sites of pagan cult practices, sacral architecture, deserted settlements, former production sites, communication routes, cemeteries and also surviving elements of the primeval landscape. Each of these types of site is presented in the context of their stratification, manner of using them as sources of evidence and the characteristics of fieldwork on them (Plates Special attention is paid to archaeological layers, the manner of their investigation, the stratigraphical method (Figs and contents of layers are discussed, including mass finds (pottery, animal bone) and "small finds" (Plate archaeozoological investigation and the use of the methods of the natural sciences (Figs of written sources and cance for the study of the Early Medieval period are indicated (Figs Chapter The title of this chapter makes reference to the debates which have been going on in Poland for many years concerning the origin of the Slavs. The effect of these discussions has so far been a polarisation of positions between the two main options which have been formulated. The first is the concept of a "western" origin of the Slavs, that is as autochthonous to the Polish lands, while the alternative is that which proposes an "eastern" (allochthonous) origin of the Slavs. In the first, the cradle of the Slavs is located most frequently in the watersheds of the Vistula and Oder, and thus in the territory of today's Poland, while the second proposes the ancient homeland would have lain mainly in modern Ukraine and partly Belarussia. An "intermediate" concept exists, in which the genesis of the Slavs has been linked with both the western and eastern territories (between the Oder-Vistula and homeland of the Slavs in completely different areas of Europe and Asia. The 410 author presents the arguments for the basic hypotheses in the context of the so-called 'Early Slav cultural model'. He suggests that it is difficult to speak of a single cultural pattern, since in different areas of Europe the material remains are so different. From the eastern part of the Mediterranean Basin, we have written sources which tell us of the presence of Slavs, while most frequently there is a total lack of material evidence of their presence. A similar picture emerges in the case of the western Balkans (Croatia), where the Slavs arrived during the first phase of their expansion southwards. "What differentiates those areas from others? Above all, the fact that they belong to the zone of the so-called Roman-Byzantine culture. Further to the north, in the territories along the Danube, the situation is more differentiated. We find here both the material evidence of the presence of nomads, as well as the autochthonous peoples but also the Slavs. Among the southern neighbours of Poland pottery vessels of the 'Prague' type (Plate logically advanced type, including wheelmade vessels Ipoteşti-Cindeşti-Ciurel Slav graves seems not to be reflected by the early Medieval cemetery with over 1500 originally belonging to the former Roman province of by intense "mixing" of cultural elements of Roman and barbarian civilization; in the latter case this concerns Germans, Slavs, groups of autochthonous peoples and nomadic groups. A model area for the study of the material culture of the Early Slavs are the territories lying to the north of the arc of the Carpathians, including the area of modem Poland. How can one explain the selectivity of the material evidence of the cultures that are ascribed to them? One of the possible answers is as follows: in the areas where there were the greater number of civilizing influences to be assimilated (Mediterranean region), the Slavs rapidly and willingly resigned from their "unprepossessing cultural pattern", and became absorbed into the local environment (here one is reminded of the they invaded Italy). Further to the north, and thus in areas where we encounter enclaves of people with a heterogeneous level of civilization, their choices were more selective. This is the reason why the pattern of Early Slav culture seen through its material correlates is equivocal in its message. Only in the territories to the north of the Carpathians, demographically depleted by the population movements of the fifth century - This includes sunken floored huts with corner ovens (Fig. type (Plate strongholds (Plates frequently connected with later periods. This raises the question, why the Slavs of this earliest phase remained so culturally unlike their neighbours? The author is of the opinion that, in considerations of this question, not enough attention SUMMARY has been paid to the fact frequently emphasised by Byzantine writers concerning the surprising mobility of the Slavs who in a few generations were visible throughout almost all of Europe. This factor, characteristic for the social models of the nomads, and not agriculturalists and livestock herders as were the Slavs, meant the material conditions of their existence, especially in the period of seeking new areas to settle, became similar to that of the nomads. While for nomads, wandering was a permanent and normal situation, it was one which was forced upon these agriculturalists and livestock herders. The Slavs however did not become nomads because of their long and enforced material culture of the earliest phase is not only surprisingly impoverished, but also comprises a unique phenomenon in this part of the continent. The source of the poverty and simplification of the material cultural inventory in this phase of the settlement of Europe might, therefore, be the lack of conditions for the creation of material goods requiring a more considerable expenditure of work, in the unstable economic conditions. An important obstacle might have been both the frequency of wandering, as well as the scattered settlement pattern of the oldest settlement (Fig. lack among the oldest Slavs in central Europe a developed tools in the material culture, including the potter's wheel, and the only sporadic finds (though not lack!) of ornament (Plate material culture, so characteristic of other sedentary societies of the period. In the opinion of the author, in the phase of migration, the occupation and bringing into use (sometimes only temporarily) of new territories, the settlers confined themselves to producing the most simple and basic objects indispensable for daily life. This is the model which is suggested by, for example, pots of the 'Prague' type. These were products of the most simple form possible, undeco- rated, handmade without the use of the wheel, out of generally available local materials. In the opinion of the author, one might imagine this simplified cultural assemblage to be similar to the situation of the American pioneers of the Wild West in the period when they were seeking new lands to settle down. It would be difficult to compare the quality of the material culture during their wanderings with the culture of the inhabitants of the towns of the East Coast. The simplified instrumentarium Slavic culture would therefore be a reflection of the period of economic instability in the phase of the search for and occupation of new settlement habitats. But the Slavs, seen in the context of their own migrations not on a regional basis but in the context of developments over the whole of Europe - ideology of "unpretentiousness". In the opinion of the author, this was a society above all of considerable creative inventiveness and adaptive capabilities. Agriculturalists and livestock herders, but mobile like nomads: accepting in the phase of settling new territories an "unprepossessing level of material culture", but at the same time wherever this was possible, making use of the civilisational 412 benefits they encountered on their way. It was this which eventually decided their historical role as the co-creators of Early Medieval Europe. Chapter About the middle of the seventh century, the peoples inhabiting today's Polish lands entered the phase of the consolidation of settlement. This is a period of slow (extending into the eighth and even to the beginning of the ninth century) disappearance of the relatively egalitarian material culture of the early Medieval period, at the same time the creation of a tribal structure of a new type. Alongside the open settlements, strongholds became an element of the land¬ scape, and it was around them that clusters of open settlements developed. The names of peoples such as the were known already to the Byzantine and Frankish writers who associated some of these tribes with certain political episodes in the history of Europe of these times. The author analyses the tribal structures of the peoples known from the written sources, and then confronts this information with the archaeological evidence. He feels that, although the term "tribe" is used in the book, a more suitable one would be "ethnic group" in the sense that it is used in contemporary anthropology. The adjective "tribal" is thus used mainly to refer to settlement communities inhabiting various regions of Polish lands in the period directly preceding the formation of a state. A difficulty arises in that the written sources do not give the names of some of the tribes and archaeological investigations suggest different pictures, of the settlement of the Polish lands (Figs A fundamental question of the archaeology of the "tribal" period are the beginnings and stages of development of stronghold construction. Already in the period of Early Slav culture, in the Polish lands the Slavs were building defensive structures (see Chapter identified is surprisingly small in relation to the overall number of archaeological sites of the period. It would be difficult to say what the reason was for the decidedly rare use which was made of this possibility in the earliest phases. A specific feature of the construction of strongholds in against the background of other regions are the so-called Great Strongholds of the mostly located on heights or the slopes of hills. They have varying forms and plans, though they all have timber ramparts. They are distinguished from other strongholds of the period primarily by their size. They are as a rule large sites (with a surface area of the ramparts in many cases there is a lack of traces of internal structures, though in some cases huts has been identified. From that point of view however these sites do not form a homogeneous group. In the south of the country there are also SUMMARY strongholds with ramparts with a stone facing (Fig. systems of defences with linear earthworks (Fig. A subject of wide discussion is the date of and circumstances in which the oldest barrow cemeteries appear. While it is true that Early Medieval barrow burial has a beginning in the Late Roman period, the span of time which separates the two phases is a considerable one, a period of about years. An important element of investigations into the burial rituals of the "tribal period" is the evidence from the monumental barrows of investigation and analysis of the most impressive of them demonstrates a similarity of symbolism and their probable association with the attributes of tribal authority (Chapter Krzna burials, sometimes with internal constructions of a type not met anywhere else in Poland. In the regions of of the Alt The beginnings of the rite of inhumation in the Polish lands are also analysed. These are often assigned to the second half of the tenth century, though in the opinion of some, they had a completely different chronology. In this context it is worth drawing attention to the graves of Magyar nomads (Figs 4.11, 4.12) The author recapitulates the discussions on the subject of the possibilities of the earlier reception of Christianity which were animated after the Second World War by the discoveries in some so-called tablets with what is thought to be traces of writing from the tribal period at the penetration of Polish lands by settlers from the Christian south and their taking root in the local tribal environments. The transition between cremation to inhumation, the abandonment of barrow burials for flat graves and the western orientation of the bodies and the progressive reduction of the burial equipment generally associated with great ideological changes in the period of transition from paganism to Christianity. In this context the probably Czech origin of Cracow and Wroclaw are mentioned. At the same time, the author draws attention to the fact that so far neither any inhumation graves can be with certainly assigned to the period before the end of the tenth century, or any churches connected with the Czech episode of Polish history. Chapter Łysa Góra 5.2, 5.3) associated with many legends The former lies on the eastern edge of the Holy Cross Mountains and the latter 414 been the subject of archaeological investigations, and although many interdis¬ ciplinary studies have been carried out and new evidence obtained, not all the fundamental questions have been examined and definitively resolved. These and other hilltop sites (Plate A separate topic in the discussion of former cult places is occupied by the places called with these associations occur in southern Poland and characteristically in connection with frontier zones (Plate puzzles surrounding these sites have yet to bring satisfactory results. Some authors have drawn attention to their situation on communication routes, but at the same time there is a lack of firm evidence to confirm the existence of a stronghold, for example in investigations of the evidence of its association with the nomad Avars. More evidence links it with the world of former belief systems. In this context we may refer to the motifs of folklore connected with the motif of the hearth and with control over the lightening, patron of fertility, and combating aquatic monsters. This motif is especially vivid in the mythology of the South Slavs, where this being was the guardian of the most important elements of the homestead: water and the harvest. In this meaning one may treat a sacral enclosed area breaking taboos. The fact that these sites are restricted to southern Poland might indicate a regional variant of a belief in the Most of the hilltop cult sites are situated in two zones, southern and northern Poland. There are considerably fewer in A specific feature of their toponymy is the relatively frequent appearance of the term this phenomenon is identified. But none of these sites has attracted as much attention as isolated and widely separated from each other, the differentiating factor in the case of the great mountains is that in their nearest vicinity there are several similar centres. Despite the time which has passed since investigations of these sites began, it still remains unclear why, at whose bidding, or whether at the same time and for what purpose these sites were built. Chapter The cemetery in the forest at identified at the beginning of the the subject of discussions due to the survival for over and oval barrows despite being situated in the deforested loess uplands. Fourteen of the SUMMARY augering (Fig. 6.2). mostly between In the context of the discussed phenomenon, an interesting circumstance is the presence of an empty area among the mounds (Fig. the traditional meeting place for the local inhabitants at "Whitsun: a procession here was the culmination of the religious festivities. The barrows are in the forest which is the only enclave of greenery in the totally deforested loess plateau. What was the reason for the inhabitants of this area saving this fragment of greenery? Was it the zone? Maybe the woodland owed its existence throughout the years because it contained barrows? There is also one other feature worthy of note. Below the woodland, on its south side are very prolific springs which today feed fishponds situated in this place. Perhaps in the early Medieval period these springs (Fig. 6.5) additional element defining the sacrum of the terrain. Could the woodland, the barrows within it and the springs flowing below it qualify as a Slavic holy grove? In the opinion of the author, this thesis, formulated recently, seems quite probable in the light of the evidence, including other evidence of the practice of pagan cult (Fig. Chapter A specific feature of the tribal period of the south of Poland (but also in this part of Europe) are monumental mounds. They are distinguished by their dimensions, exceeding served height of from afar and thus constitute a dominating landmark in the landscape. These mounds occur in the vicinity of former centres of tribal power. The author presents in this chapter the results of investigations of three of these mounds: the and the Salve Attention has been drawn in the literature to the similarities between the monumental mounds of known from Scandinavia. Equally the internal constructions discovered in the Krakus find parallels in those barrows (Western Mound at Old Uppsala, South Mound at Jelling). Also the manner of construction, first the building of a small mound and then erecting a larger one over it, is very similar to that used to construct the Chernaya Sandomierz, complex. Apart from local tradition (and it is unclear when this originated), there is a lack of evidence for its Early Medieval origin. It is true that there is a link in the legends with the Tartars, but there is a lack of material evidence 4l6 SUMMARY to define the period of origin of the mound. The slopes have been shaped to make them steeper and to give the mound the form of a regular pyramid (Plate case of Cracow, it is situated in a region where we have evidence of significant centres of tribal authority and of the early state. We meet a different situation in the case of the Tartar Mound (or Mound of Przemysław) are equally complicated matters. The oldest Early Medieval material recovered so far from its body can be dated at the earliest to the second half of the twelfth century, and thus to a period considerably later than researchers were expecting. But this material was found just below the surface. The context of their discovery - were lit on the side of a mound existing from some unknown time prior to this, and it was in the remains of these fires that the broken pottery was found. Equally complex is the question of the construction of the feature. The outer layers of the mound contain a large amount of rock fragments, and on its slopes, solid rock appears just under the turf (Fig. mound we are dealing with a type of construction which is somewhere between that of the Cracow mound mound, created by reshaping a natural feature. The other feature in common with the form, while the Cracow mound has a more oval shape. The monumental mounds of chambers under them. In the case of the example from Cracow this is because of the central post and wattle-work constructions, at is a natural loess hill, and in with an earthen mound on top. Theoretically, all of these mounds could have been monumental barrows with burials on, rather than under, the mound, as in the case of many met over a wide area of Slavic territory. In such cases, the burnt remains of the deceased are placed on the summit of the mound. This model of burial widespread in the Slavic world had at its basis the idea of Any military intervention would have led to the profanation and destruction of the remains of even the most famous leader. It cannot be excluded however that these mounds fulfilled a symbolic function, for example as cenotaphs. In the chapter other examples of monumental mounds of the region are dis¬ cussed, including those examined in the past at on the Bug (Fig. In the first case this was an Early Medieval structure dug into a Roman one. Other earthworks (Plates Early Medieval date have not yet been the subject of archaeological investigation. It is difficult to explain why there is a lack of evidence for a similar phenomenon in other regions of Poland (Fig. SUMMARY Wielkopolska, reason, the author regards the phenomena observed in the regional oddities among the formation of tribal structures in wide areas of Europe. It is unclear whether we should seek traces of outsiders in the genesis of this phenomenon, or maybe this was a local tradition, or an attempt to imitate something seen earlier elsewhere and remembered? Each of these options seems possible at the present state of research. Chapter The a stronghold and settlements and a cemetery (Plate in history because of the scholarly storm which erupted around the discovery of three fragments of fired clay, called conventionally "the (Plates of the "tribal period", dated to the ninth century (see Fig. one feature in common: on their surface they have signs resembling writing. These inscriptions have been read as Turkish runes or Greek writing; in the second case the inscription would have read "Jesus Christ conquer", or as has been recently suggested been the monogram of Christ (Fig. been suggested that the inscription was made by a person who could not in fact write. If these hypotheses could be positively verified, we would be dealing not only with the traces of the earliest writing in the Polish lands, but also traces of the presence of Christians at least acceptance of Christianity by Poland. of the tablets were made of local clay, while the raw material of the third, described as terra In the same context as the tablets were found ceramic vessels dated to the ninth century with interesting solar ornament and zoomorphic motifs. Similar decoration on ceramics from Poland are unique (Figs questions concerning the discovery itself as well as their wider context require ■further critical analysis, the described finds place the most fascinating archaeological discoveries of the last century. Chapter The first description of the rise of the Polish state appears in the twelfth century chronicle of predecessors of Mieszko. The chronicler states that the version given there of the oldest history was that which was preserved by as he put it "faithful memory". The thesis of the evolutionary beginnings of the state has dominated the majority of the interpretations for many years. More recent archaeological investigations however, carried out in different regions of the country (Figs 9.2) 418 . of events took place in the tenth century. As a result there was a rapid, sometimes even catastrophic, collapse of many of the pre-existing tribal centres. These events were accompanied by permanent or temporary depopulation of former areas of settlement. Within a short time new centres of the arose on new sites, beginning the thousand year history of the Polish nation and state. A problem which is more widely discussed by the author is the origin of the creators of the assigned both a local as well as foreign (Varangian) origin. Archaeologists however have not earlier considered this problem in much detail, but the author feels that certain archaeological evidence suggest that the birthplace of the new dynasty might have been southeast area shows a lack of the traces of the destruction of tribal centres so characteristic for other parts of the region. On the contrary, here we see traces of investment of considerable resources in stronghold construction and other evidence of the growth of the What is more, pre-state strongholds, not only survived, but also developed successfully after the rise of the state. Thus, in the opinion of the author, it was precisely here that the best conditions existed for the beginning of the the archaeological traces of which are the destroyed tribal strongholds and the construction of new political centres in new locations. The effects of the regions of the country. The process is most clearly visible in Mazovia and the eastern parts of was the latest to become part of the Polish state, we see more often than other regions of the country the occupation of older tribal centres either temporarily (e.g., Naszacowice or In Silesia however a specific feature of the area is the rise of the chief centres before into the Polish state. This may show the annexation of these lands in the 980s, and thus a few years before their formal incorporation into the In centres. They were built in new locations, replacing earlier settlement patterns (Fig. tribal centres, which is characteristic of western brzeg, In the light of current research, one may be tempted to sketch the stages of the formation of the territorial foundations of the Polish state. In the light of the newest archaeological data and dendrochronological analyses, we may accept that until the end of the 960s the Piasts were organizing the core of the state of tenth century?), they had also occupied the western part of Mazovia. Such SUMMARY an interpretation would explain the catastrophe which affected the tribal centres in this area. Perhaps this was the result of a rapid and co-ordinated reaction of the rulers of the power of their eastern neighbours. Even if this were the case, it did not lead to the permanent involvement of the Piasts in the process of the creation of a state organization in the region, which is indirectly indicated by the lack of any traces whatsoever of the construction of their strongholds in the area. On the contrary, the beginnings of on a previously unoccupied site at the end of the tenth century. If this hypothesis is valid, it means that until the end of the century, in the eyes of the policies of the Piasts of a territorial backwater. It is not known if any attempt was made in this early period to protect the region against the pagan Prussians which might be the reason behind the construction of the linear earthwork defences, traces of which survive in the landscape of the northern periphery of the region (Fig. Mazovia was the region which was for the longest bereft of any traces of early urbanization, and in the case of its eastern regions Christianisation also. Perhaps this hypothesis explains the reasons for the differences between the different cultural development of Mazovia from other regions of the country, and above all the intriguingly long survival in daily life of the long-term mixing of different cultural which is demonstrated by the results of archaeological investigations. The second a state occurred in the 970s. This should be related to the activities of the Piasts on the "eastern bulwark" of the state formed by the territories of eastern Małopolska that a group of the oldest towns of all in existence. was either annexed or built. In this manner, already by the end of the tenth century, the expansion of the Piasts extended along the Vistula river from its source to its mouth. In the light of the available archaeological information, in both eastern justified to see this expansion as having above all a military dimension. In the light of the available information, the 980s were the period of the building of the "western bulwark" of the state (Fig. results of dendrochronological analysis, in the middle of the decade, there was investment of labour in the strongholds of Western brzeg) conducting of military actions on a large scale, which are mentioned in the written sources of the period. In the case of the centres of Western a specific trait was the attempt to fit them into the area already occupied by existing centres, and in the case of Silesia, building totally new main centres for the region. 420 The climax of the process of the building of the state was the annexation by the Piasts at the end of the 980s of Cracow and the surrounding region from the hands of the Czechs. The most suitable starting point for the carry¬ ing out of this task was undoubtedly the centre, the Piasts. A phenomenon worth noting in this context is the lack in west¬ ern Mazovia of traces of the destruction of the older settlement centres, which is so characteristic of other areas of the country. The archaeological data show that the most important centres of this region were of a type, with Cracow at the forefront, which were still developing after their occupation by the Piasts. Poland of the times of Mieszko I was, in today's terminology, a country undergoing deep structural changes. The processes of the fortification of the country and the germs of early urbanisation were inevitably accompanied by demographic changes. The scale of changes which were occurring at this time is a reflection of the position of a leader in charge of a well-trained and professional army, in which immigrant Scandinavians (among others) played an important role. This is suggested by the investigation of certain cemeteries, like Łubowo, Lutomiersk Scandinavian warriors (see Chapter in Polish lands in the times of Mieszko I, were part of the processes of state formation which were taking place all over central Europe. The major structural transformations and political and ideological reconstruction of tribal organiza¬ tions lie at the basis of the preservation of cultural and ethnic identification of the Lechitic tribes Chapter The buildings of the territorial foundations of a state were accompanied by the rise of central or local centres of regional authority. In the strongholds which fulfilled leading roles were built, and the foundations laid for the administrative structure of the Church. During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the stronghold complexes founded in the times of the first Piasts took on the characteristics of centres of early- urban character. The latest research has shown that in the great majority of cases, the beginnings of Polish towns go back to the times of the origins of the state, that is the second half of the tenth century (Fig. of this time played a key role in the process of the creation and strengthening of the state: and have retained their importance to our times. Not all, however, Piast them had in the first monarchy is undeniable. We know of examples of centres which retained such a key role from the period of the rise of the state until modem times. SUMMARY In the further parts of the chapter, the author also presents the most important discoveries made in the early urban centres, and which still give researchers the basis for much controversy and interpretive problems. We start with the dispute which took place in the past about the primacy of two centres, In the case of stressed, assigning it the role of the holy centre of a local community, which was taken over by the Piasts of From the earliest phase of the use of the Hill (before feature on the highest point of the Hill, a mound stones with a diameter of about cathedral, as well as the church of St George stand on the remains of these features (Fig. of the first Piasts. In recent years the hypothesis has been formulated that the oldest church at were added. It is in this church (Fig. thought to have been interred immediately after his tragic death among the Prussians. In residence of Jordan, the first missionary bishop past few years has been the palatium of Mieszko I, which has been dated to the second half of the tenth century. Further investigations have shown that adjacent to this building there probably was a chapel in the form of a rotunda with an apse. The entire complex was therefore similar to that known from Ostrów controversy for many years is the so-called 'baptistery' from a structure with a central post identified under the cathedral (Figs This is regarded by some investigators as the remains of a mortar-mixer, others reject that interpretation, demonstrating that around this structure stood a rec¬ tangular structure. Even however if this was so, it still remains unclear whether this supposed baptistery functioned beside a church already in existence (and if so, what kind of church?). No trace of such a structure has been found. Equally puzzling is the question of the elaborate tombs, the remains of which, identified by some scholars as the graves of the first in the nave of An interesting phenomenon from the period of the beginnings of the Polish state is the ring of dozens of strongholds around beginning of Polish statehood (see Fig. pied sites, they were settled by people brought in from the outside. In the Zawodzie remains of a stronghold, dated to the second half of the ninth century, have been discovered (Figs 422 are the remains of a wooden sacral building from the beginning of the eleventh century which have been identified in the interior of the twelfth century collegiate church of St Paul (Figs according to the hypothesis of the author Chapter The development of the centres on the Baltic coast followed other patterns. Their genesis, which was earlier than any other such sites in the rest of the country, resulted from the existence in this region, already in the tribal period of a broad zone of exchange around the Baltic and linked with exchange across the rest of Europe. Among these sites, a special place was occupied by It is here that Scandinavian traditions locate the Jomsvikings, doing heroic deeds in the Baltic Sea zone, the results of investigations done so far indicate that Wolin Shortly afterwards, in the ninth century, it existed as an urban republic, with its own council. It also became an important emporium on the routes leading in the direction of Prussia, Novgorod and in the west to Hedeby and Starigard (Figs The interpretation of the oldest centres of eastern complicated. An illustration of this might be the discussions of the origins of Gdańsk dated to the 970s and was ascribed to the activities of the first Piasts. Currently its beginnings are the subject of debate. Its earlier ('tribal') origin is now one of the options being considered, as is the possibility that it came into being only at the beginning of the eleventh century. A key to understanding the chronology of events taking place in this region remains the definition of the (independent?) sequence of events occurring within each of the three separate centres of settlement activity: the so-called ducal stronghold on the River, the settlement zone around the Town Hall and the concentration of settlement around the churches of St Nicholas and St Catherine (Fig. Mazovia does not supply very many examples of towns created in the period of state formation. In the case of is drawn to its relatively late genesis, the turn of the tenth and eleventh centuries. One of the results of recent investigations is among other things, a new picture of the topography of Turn Hill town had its beginnings (Figs connecting the hill with a place of pagan worship has been disproved. The beginnings of mous as a unique set of chessmen made of red deer antler (Fig. why there were two towns of high rank region, and from the beginning of Polish statehood? In the opinion of the author, this can be justified by the fact that the creation of connected with the political expansion into this region of the first Piasts, SUMMARY including the resettlement here in the 970s of settlers from (Fig. , The place is regarded by Medieval historians as a "supplement to An enigmatic mention in the work of caput terrae tribal centre preceding (Fig. Romanesque building found so far in Zawichost, are the remains of a church built on the plan of a tetraconchos (Figs chronology and function are still under discussion. In the light of the current state of research on the excavated material, the context of the tetraconchos should be seen in the context of the finds of eastern origin dated no earlier than the twelfth century contemporary cemeteries. The origins of a Romanesque church discovered in the crypt of the church of the BVM in Zawichost in recent years also remains unresolved (Fig. from the point of view of their material culture are not very similar to each other. We identify in a direct form (that is traceable in the archaeological material) a connection between the material culture of Early Medieval domierz Zawichost influences from eastern milieux. The reasons for the clear cultural frontier which appears between these two towns is unclear. Other problems are involved in the interpretation of on the eastern frontier of the siting on Cathedral Hill herein the first half of the thirteenth century by duke Daniel Romanovich of what was in fact the capital of his western the diocesan seat of a bishop of the Greek rite. At this time, as the results of the latest excavations show, the town and it material culture took on clear Russo-Byzantine churches on Cathedral Hill (Figs Below it, there was a rich residential district and craftsmen's workshops (Fig, probably the houses of the elite. Remains of similar buildings can be found in the central places of thirteenth century Russia. On the settlements and Cathedral Hill there have been frequent finds of fragments of glazed pottery vessels, and also very many other valuable finds belonging to the zone (Plate The town of state border. Just as in the case of cannot be matched anywhere else in Poland. The significance of the Gate (Pass) in long-distance trade, including with the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic world is clear already in the tribal period. It was here that one of the 424 large monumental mounds discussed in Chapter was discovered a cemetery of nomadic Magyars, dated to the first half of the tenth century. According to its excavator's opinion, the oldest pre-state strong¬ hold (Plate Krzyży). of the monumental buildings which have survived to our times. The stone-built palatium together with a rotunda, which were constructed on Castle Hill most probably in the reign of century), recalls the plan of the constructions known from the main centres of the be mentioned a potters' settlement discovered many years ago in the Zasanie region of the town. The uniqueness of this find is due to the fact that it is one of only a few archaeologically together with its production hinterland from the Polish lands. Among the products which it produced were 'korczagi types of finds are objects linked with the Byzantine cultural zone (Plate the beginning of the eleventh century from of which was Rurik Rostislavovich. In the topography of the town appeared increasing numbers of buildings with analogies from the eastern cultural circles. Wiślica been the subject of an especial interest of Polish medievalists. A long time ago it was suggested that this place had been the tribal capital of the to many other areas of the country, we see here an unexpected richness of archaeological features: two strongholds (Figs with accompanying rotundas (Fig. as evidence of the the ninth century (Fig. esque churches preserved in the crypt of the collegiate church A special feature of one of them is the floor, dated to the second half of the twelfth century, with the representation of is still the subject of many scientific debates (Fig. other discoveries from supposed baptismal font near the church of St Nicholas opinion that there was here in the tribal period a centre is now opposed by the twelfth century dating of the stronghold. The arguments that have been presented by both sides of this debate are not conclusive. In the opinion of the author, the centre of Cracow had an early origin, in tribal times. In time it became the chief centre of the medieval state (Fig. of centres which had an unbroken chain of development from before the middle of the tenth century and which retained an important position in the structures of the SUMMARY to the question of the origins concerns its significance in the period of the formation of the Polish state. It was Cracow which was regarded as the chief stronghold of the so-called Wiślanie are sited (see Chapter foot of four tonnes) dated to the second half of the ninth century. Archaeological investigations have produced examples of imports which show the connections between Cracow in the pre-state period and the Avar khanate and the cultural zone of the Magyars. Cracow is differentiated from the other centres of the country by the unparallelled number of stone buildings connected with the early phases of the functioning of the state. On of the pre-Romanesque period (Fig. buildings on the hill and dated to the early Medieval period is therefore impressive. It is not comparable to any other town in the Polish lands. But at the same time, not very much is known about the topography of in the period of the formation of the Polish state. In the case of has revolved around three questions in recent years. The first is the question of the beginnings and oldest phases of the occupation of the stronghold, remains of which have been identified on interpretation of the evidence is that it was founded in the middle of the 980s and thus at a time when formally Silesia was still under Czech rule. The second question which has been widely discussed are the newest investigations in the crypt of Wroclaw cathedral, which have revealed the remains of previously unknown sacral buildings. The oldest is a structure on the plan of a cross (Fig. 10.45), hands in the second half of the tenth century. The precise date of its erection as well as its (Czech) analogies are still a mater of heated discussion. And finally the discovery which has drawn the attention of scholars, are the timber elements of the construction of a pagan temple, which was still in use into the eleventh century (Fig. seat of one of the four bishoprics erected in Is this building the traces of a small scale and insignificant episode, or is it as some scholars mink Christianisation of the region? If so, it would be an important argument against Wrocław a Christian state since the beginning of the tenth century. These examples of the investigations of the beginnings of Polish towns illustrate a selection of the problems to which in the past few years a relatively large amount of attention has been paid. The massive growth in the amount of archaeological information has meant that this picture is a dynamic one and 426 together with progress in the investigations will inevitably undergo the process of critical verification. Chapter Not all strongholds became towns. The fate of many, known from written sources was episodic and limited to the early stages of the functioning of the state. A substantial portion of those strongholds existing today in the landscape are anonymous, but among them, especially in the Russian-Polish borderlands are some which it may be suspected were those mentioned in the written sources (Plates which have for years attracted especial attention. Ostrów exceptional features. Here, within the circuit of the stronghold on the island, in its central part, was situated a residential complex of the first Piasts. This consisted of a two-part structure, identified as a palatium and accompanying centrally-planned chapel (or baptistery). The form of the palace shows and southern influences (Figs nearby aisleless masonry church, around which was a small cemetery (Figs 11.6). archaeological sensation was the discovery in the interior of the church the skeleton of a boy who died at an age of only a few years, and with a gold ring on his finger. In the opinion of some researchers, this was the body of a member of the ruling dynasty, though we cannot name the boy. The unique¬ ness of function for the first Polish rulers, at the beginning of statehood, it became an important place for baptisms, a necropolis of the the elite of the princely retinue gathered, as well as an example of engineering ability collections of archaeological finds of the highest rank. It is also, probably, one of the best archaeologically documented places ■where an ethnically-different military force was stationed, most likely the bodyguards of the duke. Giecz, situated forty kilometres south of Polish historical record in a mention by may assume that the stronghold fulfilled an important military role in the early Piast a palatium building with a rotunda, as well as the remains of a church of St John the Baptist situated in the north part of the stronghold (Fig. foundation of the palatium has been ascribed to Mieszko II, and the cessation of the construction explained by the invasion of the Bohemian prince at the end of the drawn by the discovery in the northwest part of the courtyard of the stronghold of the remains of the church of John the Baptist which was SUMMARY of the eleventh century. This church is distinguished (apart from its setting) by its surprising composed of two semicircular side towers (probable stair towers) and the quadrangular central tower. Investigators have linked the form of the structure with Carolingian-Ottonian influences. Who built such a building here and for what purpose questions which at the moment have no answer. A significant event of the past few years has been the beginning of excavations at Kaldus in the the uncovering of the remains of a large stone-built structure of aisled basilican form with semicircular apses (Fig. Kaldus is similar to the plans of contemporary cathedrals at and thus representing the architectural plan of Carolingian buildings. The church at Kaldus is the most northerly of the sacral buildings in the early From the cemetery sited near the stronghold unusual which has been investigated to date in the region of eastern - Chapter In the with great attention, although in this case the reasons for this were completely different ones. The discoveries made here made a great impression, it is rare to find the "archaeological material" of an early urban centre in such a good state of preservation (Plate not only a rare case of building construction, but also a bishop's stronghold which arose in the last phases of the early Middle Ages and also at the end of the period of stronghold construction in the Polish lands. The well-preserved remains of the medieval buildings found in the archaeological investigations under of detail they offered. In the south of the country in the place called Stolpie near mysterious five-storey stone tower attached to its base (Plates of a Greek cross and the original entrance to the tower was on the fourth floor. There are no similar buildings in this part of Europe. There is a theory which is being tested that this complex had a monastic-hermitage function. The archaeological context of the finds which have so far been obtained from the layers lying against the base of the tower and especially the glazed and slipped pottery like that known from including the presence of a church on its upper floor (with a rich decoration with glazed floor tiles duke Daniel of of the tower building was of Rus-Byzantine inspiration, and that it was constructed probably already before the end of the twelfth century. 428 Chapter The rural landscape of the pre-state period has not been the subject of any larger research projects in Poland. While residential and ancillary buildings are frequently examined, their wider context in the settlement network has only sporadically been analysed (Figs case of rural settlements, ideas such as "Early Medieval", "Late Medieval" and "Post-Medieval" have a different meaning. In rural cemeteries and settlements, there is frequently a lack of the reflection in the material culture of the passing from one epoch to another. In the early state period, the most frequent group of settlements are those which developed spontaneously, and thus with scattered buildings (Fig. They are characterised by existing for a long period, sometimes going back to tribal times and also a pattern of spatial development which is difficult to categorise. Another group is formed by villages with the buildings in rows. These are situated on the slopes of rises, along river valleys and streams, sometimes along existing communication routes. Settlements adjacent to strong¬ holds often had such a form. Even rarer are villages arranged around a central open space (Fig. In the case of settlements with a long period of existence (from tribal times), the possibilities of recognition of the original property divisions and buildings are limited. The frequent divisions of property and rebuilding of structures have meant that the properties of the same owners have sometimes been located in different places. This hindered not only their use, but also the collection of rent and tithes. For this reason in the twelfth and thirteenth century, in a period when there was a considerable growth in the number of rural settlements, an amalgamation was carried out in order to facilitate this. Only in the case of Church property, together with the establishment and development of parishes, were the newly-created settlements decidedly bigger. A specific group of settlements are the so-called 'service settlements'. These should be treated as the result of the rise of early urban centres and their economic hinterland. In the opinion of many authors, this type of settlement was an 'imported idea' in the Polish lands, and its beginnings should be sought in the Carolingian world. In central Europe they were 'implanted' earlier in Bohemia, from where the idea spread to Hungary. Their appearance in Poland should be dated to the period from the second half of the tenth century to the beginning of the eleventh century. From the twelfth century, settlements of this type passed out of the hands of the ruler, mainly (though no only) as donations to the Church. It is thought that the collapse of the system of service villages occurred in the thirteenth century and finally disappeared at the turn of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. A significant number survived in the vicinity of the main centres of the state, SUMMARY for nearly Their names are connected mostly with livestock rearing, hunting, fishing, services to the court, and also a broad range of other services (Fig. of these settlements has so far been the subject of a dedicated project of archaeological Newer investigations have also produced examples of settlements which do not fit into the old interpretive schemes. As an illustration of this, the author describes the results of his own investigations of a settlement of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries carried out at Kaczyce (Fig. differentiated from others of the same period by the number of 'rich' finds, collected in a single, and in addition atypical context (Fig. also occurred objects made of high quality that the pottery from the site could compete in qualitative terms with that from Sandomierz, region. Also in the oldest features of the site (eleventh century) it was determined that there were twice as many bones of small ruminants (sheep/goat) as those of other animals. This is a feature which is exceptional in Early Medieval Poland and only a few sites are comparable. The remains of horses also are many times more frequent here than in other cases. Who were the inhabitants of this site? Was the investigated area the eastern edge of a prosperous knightly estate? If so, how to explain the "nomadic" consumption habits of its inhabitants in the eleventh century phase? The lack of later medieval material on the site is notable, it presumably did not continue to be used. In the opinion of the author, in Polish lands, we have considerably more examples of this type of surprise similar to the settlement described above. Their recognition will require the acceptance of a new philosophy of investigation, in which rural settlements will find the position they deserve. Chapter of the Oldest Monastic Complexes This chapter considers the oldest monastic communities in the Polish lands the Benedictines and Cistercians. Among the earliest of their foundations is the Benedictine Abbey at the middle of the eleventh century (Plates excavations have been conducted in this complex over the past fifty years. Further archaeological and conservation investigations carried out in the mid 1990s buildings to be determined. The building of the abbey church was begun at the end of the 1050s. Among the most spectacular discoveries were the graves containing what are thought to be the remains of the first abbot successor Anchora. The deceased were laid in stone sarcophagi with pastorals and, in two cases, also with liturgical vessels (Figs 430 found of the oldest sacral building. In the phase dated to the last quarter of the eleventh or twelfth century, in this place a complete Romanesque monastery was built over the site. The Benedictine house in from the turn of the eighth and ninth centuries there had been an intensive development of settlement. The beginnings of the monastery are dated to the 1040s. The construction of the monastic church was a long drawn-out proc¬ ess. In its style, the oldest building recalled a reduced form of Carolingian architecture. It was determined that in the earliest phase, the western crypt fulfilled the function of a Chapter House (Figs the thirteenth century, on the site of the timber and earthwork defences of the former settlement, was built the first masonry circuit wall. It is one of the oldest examples of brick built defensive walls in Poland. Other results came from the investigation of the former Benedictine house at Silesia. The first (failed) foundation dates to the second half of the eleventh century. In the second phase (first half of the twelfth century) the original building plan was abandoned. One could say therefore that in reality it was a new foundation, and in addition, one realised after a long break (Fig. Two graves here are worthy of especial note. While in a grave chapel, discovered on the north side of the chancel, the remains of a man were found a metre below the floor. The body was placed in bottomless chamber of wood. It is suggested that the remains belonged to duke [Laskonogi] (Fig. complex was the discovery of a settlement associated with the construction of the monastery. It was established that the majority of this settlement was cleared after the construction of the monastery in the second half of the thirteenth century. Some parts of it however remained in use and buildings were still being erected there, connected with the use of this area by people providing services for the monastery. From the twelfth century, the Cistercians and their foundations constitute and increasingly numerous group of monasteries in the landscape of early Medieval Poland (Fig. daughter house of the of this group are the abbey at Łekno. The latter has been the subject of intensive investigations in recent years. Among other things, the foundations and lower parts of the walls of the monastic church in the form of a rotunda, dated to the period before the middle of the eleventh century (Fig. significance in the process of Christianisation of northeast adjacent territories, especially Prussia and SUMMARY In Wachock in the emotion in the scholarly milieu. These were the relics of a sacral structure interpreted as a palace chapel as a palatium. Both buildings were thought to be earlier than the walls of the abbey (Fig. as well as their context, the construction of the complex was defined as the period to the middle of the eleventh century. But the material evidence arouses much controversy and is difficult to interpret unequivocally. In the eleventh century, many Canonical Orders came into being, with whom are connected many collegiate churches (see Chapter half of the twelfth century, the Augustine canons were particularly active. It is with them that the projected (for more recent investigations have shown that it was never finished) monastery on the peak of linked (see Chapter Trzemeszno Poland was the Norbertans, who in the first decades of the thirteenth century already had in Poland over a dozen abbeys. At the thirteenth centuries the Norbertan monastery of The Virgin Mary and the Holy Cross was founded as well as the rotunda of St Procopius in Strzelno (Figs the aisles with very rare the oldest orders should also be mentioned the Joannites [Hospitallers of the Knights of St John of Jerusalem] a military order founded in Jerusalem during the Crusades, in order to look after pilgrims and the sick. Their first seat in Poland was at Crusades, duke Henry of church of John the Baptist. Chapter The marks which are found on the base of pottery vessels are an unrecognised element of the material culture of the Slavic countries of the Early Middle Ages. They were placed on the exterior of the base, and are only rarely found elsewhere. Another important feature was the way the symbol was created: they are most frequently an impression of a negative mark cut into the potter's wheel, only rarely were these marks made with a stamp or incised into the clay. Attention is drawn by the variety of form of the signs, even on the same site (Fig. marks could be linked with solar themes (wheel, crosses, swastikas and their variants), although the semantic content of many others remains unknown. These marks occur in a particular chronological horizon, most often from the second half of the tenth to the middle of the thirteenth centuries, though they are also met in earlier and later periods (Fig. 432 sporadically. The marks have been interpreted as having many functions, in economical terms (ownership marks, workshop marks, control marks) as well as in magical terms (protection against evil forces). None of these hypotheses however have led to a resolution of the problem. The ceramics analysed recently from in detail by the author, have produced interesting information for discussion on the topic of the function of these potters' marks. This concerns especially the rarer incised marks (Figs (Fig. (magical) marking of both the potter's wheel, as well as the products. The most frequent group are marks impressed by the wheel. In many cases the impres¬ sions are illegible or very poorly legible. This suggests the hypothesis that the marks had an atropaic effect directed at the wheel and protected it from evil, while the marks placed on the pots by inscribing or by the use of stamps were connected functionally with the product. The author considers the degree to which these marks are a distinguishing characteristic of Slavic pottery. Both the chronological and geographical contexts of the finds of pottery bases with such marks shows that they were an inter-regional phenomenon, known also among other European peoples, both however, do these pottery marks occur in such concentrations as in Slav lands (the example of an Early Medieval site on the Rhone mentioned in the text is rather an exception to this general rule). It is difficult to give an unequivocal answer to the question about the circumstances, when and why the Slavs began on such a large scale to put these marks on the wheel and vessels. There are no such marks on Early Slav vessels. The oldest marks appear on Slav pottery made in the eighth century in the regions south of the Carpathians. This may show that it was in this region that this custom became accepted by the Slavs. It is highly probable that familiarity with the "ideology of marks" and its acceptance in the Slavic culture took place as a result of the contact between the Slavs and the nomadic peoples (Avars, Protobulgars) who knew the practice earlier. In the Slavic milieu it was not however simply an adoption of this custom, which is shown by its variety and scale. One may presume that the Slavs adapted the practices already known among various European peoples to give rise to a new clearer expression of symbolic culture, recognisable in the archaeological material until the end of the Early Medieval period. Chapter A great change which occurred at the beginning of the early state period in the Polish lands was the transition from cremation to inhumation which was brought about by the introduction of Christianity in the second half of the tenth century. In general, scholars are sceptical both about the possibility of a rapid and general religious conversion as well as the thesis concerning the spread of inhumation SUMMARY in the Polish lands already by the end of the tenth century. Many biritual cemeteries existed into the eleventh and twelfth centuries. This concerns principally those areas where paganism lasted longer or those places where people of a different cultural tradition were buried (Fig. was the non-churchyard row-cemetery (sometimes called rural cemeteries), situated away from residential areas. These cemeteries have only shallow stratigraphy and contain from a few dozen to a few hundred, and sometimes more, burials. The graves are flat as opposed to the earlier type under barrows. These row-graves retain some of the characteristics of the pagan rites, such as burying the dead with weapons, ornaments, amulets and objects of daily use. There are graves there with a western orientation (the dead "look to the east") or with an eastern one, the latter is regarded as a survival of pre-Christian ritual. The location of cemeteries away from habitation was due to a fear of the dead who were in this manner isolated from the world of the living. This fear also found expression in the anti-vampire practices which are attested by some of the archaeological remains. During the twelfth century, there were changes both in the location of cemeteries as well as their form. This occurs in connection with the rise of churches in early urban centres, at first stronghold churches, and with time becoming parochial churches. Around these churches, in ground which had been conseaated by the priest, the dead were buried. In this manner the next ideological change took place, as a result of which the world of the dead came into contact with that of the living, as a result of the cemeteries 'entering' the towns. These changes in the funeral rite were accompanied by a successive disappearance of grave goods. At the end of the Early medieval period, graves were as a rule without any grave goods. In the later parts of the chapter are presented examples of cemeteries in which it has been possible to identify the alien (non-local) origin of some of the deceased. In the biritual cemetery at Piaski-Rochy basis of the form of the burials and their contents the origins of the deceased have been sought among the Pomeranians and Wieleti (Wiltzi) resettled to this region (Fig. in a previously uninhabited area at the end of the tenth century. Similar evidence has been identified at a few other cemeteries in the Polish lands. An increasing number of burials dated to the period between the end of the tenth century and middle of the eleventh century is being identified where there is a suspicion that they contain the bodies of people of Scandinavian origin. There is an interesting pattern, while the finds in graves before the tenth century typically suggest a status of "settler" for the dead, graves of immigrants of the period of the early state, dated from the end of the tenth to the middle of the eleventh century are distinguished by their containing weapons. The author discusses the examples of such cemeteries as 434 Łubowo, Luboń, Sowinki the presence in the local Slavic milieu of representatives of the warrior elite from the north, in some kind of relationship with the local Slavic elites. In Łubowo ducal residence (members of the personal retinue of the duke?). Evidence of the presence of Scandinavians in the Polish lands is found on both settlement sites as well as cemeteries. Although these traces are legible over large areas of that in no place was there evidence that they were dominant, nor in any way having any power to organize the life of the native societies. Some of the Scandinavian elements which appear together in these graves, such as scales and swords, suggest that the basis for the daily life of the deceased had been trade and the military arts. Graves with Scandinavian grave goods differ from others in the cemeteries of the early state period. They are more richly-furnished, with visible traces of coffins, and above all contain an exceptionally large number of luxury items and Europe. Most frequently they are imports from the areas of Middle Sweden, Gotland, Oland, and The situation is somewhat different in the case of the complex at Bardy- Świelubie probably coming from Middle Sweden (Fig. cemetery at Lutomiersk near was identified, it was shown that a large proportion of the grave equipment was of Scandinavian origin (Fig. graves of of members of the retinue of the in Russia in near in form and their rich furnishings from the rest (Fig. these were the graves of immigrants, from among whom members of the Church elite and the court were drawn. In Mazovia, a specific feature of the funeral ritual are the so-called 'graves with stone constructions' (Fig. constructions varies across the region, they always have a number of features in common. They have a row-grave layout, they have shallow stratigraphy, with the graves aligned east-west, and the burials within them are richly-furnished (Figs of dress, many objects of daily use and weapons (Fig. it was thought that graves with stone kerbs were the only form of burial in Mazovia in the early state period, but, now that cemeteries of graves without stone elements have been discovered, the question arises about the relationship between the two characteristic but diametrically different characteristics of the burial ritual of early Medieval Mazovia. It has not yet been possible to determine SUMMARY what lies behind these customs: Scandinavian influence, local pagan traditions, or connections with the Baltic milieu. In the light of the current lack of knowledge, there is no basis on which to argue either for a local evolution of this burial ritual. In the south of Poland, attention is drawn to elements of the funeral rite which have clear eastern connections. As an example may be cited the rich burials in stone sarcophagi including those from Trepcza near (Plate of the strategic centres on the eastern periphery of and the radiocarbon dates which go back to the eleventh century, suggest the significance of this centre in the process of the Christianisation of this part of the Carpathian region. In Silesia the cemetery at Niemcza (Site Niemcza 15.13), around which he graves are laid out, but above all for the possibility that it was founded under the Czechs, already before Poland had accepted Christianity. If so, it would be the oldest inhumation cemetery of peoples living in the Polish lands. An important element of research over the past few years has been consideration of the social aspects of the analysis of Early Medieval cemeteries. This approach was pioneered in the investigation of the cemetery at Dzieka- nowice in the hinterland of Radom the investigation of a rural cemetery located near the parish church at near was compared with those of modern times. The cemetery supplies an example of a rural population, in which the influence of settlers from the outside remained limited during the seven centuries over which the cemetery was in use. This may explain the large degree of "stability" in the characteristics of the discovered skeletal remains over a long period of time. In recent years attempts have been made to describe the blood relationships of the deceased by archaeological and anthropological means. Investigations of cemeteries such as is possible to recreate the specific rules which governed the burials of the dead. These include hypotheses concerning the blood relationships between the people buried there and also concerning the influx of people of in Early Medieval In the light of the analyses carried out, from the second half of the tenth century, a considerable component of the population in the cemeteries of was made up of people of populations. The consideration of the mortal remains surviving in the soil of the Early Medieval population 43б presentation of the key problems of Polish Early Medieval archaeology. The author notes that the discovery and study of the past is inevitably accompanied by the dilemma of the interpretation of many of the discoveries. Because of this, it is necessary to consider that the conclusions presented in this book will themselves inevitably undergo the process of critical verification. Translation by Paul Barford
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publisher	Wydawn. Trio
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spelling	Buko, Andrzej 1947- Verfasser (DE-588)1065254288 aut Archeologia Polski wczesnośredniowiecznej odkrycia, hipotezy, interpretacje Andrzej Buko Wyd. 1. Warszawa Wydawn. Trio 2005 446 S., [10] Bl. Ill., Kt. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: The archaeology of early medieval Poland Geschichte Anfänge-1100 gnd rswk-swf Funde Geschichte Archaeology, Medieval Poland Excavations (Archaeology) Poland Mittelalter (DE-588)4129108-6 gnd rswk-swf Mittelalterliche Archäologie (DE-588)4138633-4 gnd rswk-swf Polen Poland Antiquities Poland History Polen (DE-588)4046496-9 gnd rswk-swf Polen (DE-588)4046496-9 g Mittelalterliche Archäologie (DE-588)4138633-4 s DE-604 Geschichte Anfänge-1100 z 1\p DE-604 Mittelalter (DE-588)4129108-6 s 2\p DE-604 Digitalisierung BSBMuenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015510103&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015510103&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract 1\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk 2\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk
spellingShingle	Buko, Andrzej 1947- Archeologia Polski wczesnośredniowiecznej odkrycia, hipotezy, interpretacje Funde Geschichte Archaeology, Medieval Poland Excavations (Archaeology) Poland Mittelalter (DE-588)4129108-6 gnd Mittelalterliche Archäologie (DE-588)4138633-4 gnd
subject_GND	(DE-588)4129108-6 (DE-588)4138633-4 (DE-588)4046496-9
title	Archeologia Polski wczesnośredniowiecznej odkrycia, hipotezy, interpretacje
title_auth	Archeologia Polski wczesnośredniowiecznej odkrycia, hipotezy, interpretacje
title_exact_search	Archeologia Polski wczesnośredniowiecznej odkrycia, hipotezy, interpretacje
title_exact_search_txtP	Archeologia Polski wczesnośredniowiecznej odkrycia, hipotezy, interpretacje
title_full	Archeologia Polski wczesnośredniowiecznej odkrycia, hipotezy, interpretacje Andrzej Buko
title_fullStr	Archeologia Polski wczesnośredniowiecznej odkrycia, hipotezy, interpretacje Andrzej Buko
title_full_unstemmed	Archeologia Polski wczesnośredniowiecznej odkrycia, hipotezy, interpretacje Andrzej Buko
title_short	Archeologia Polski wczesnośredniowiecznej
title_sort	archeologia polski wczesnosredniowiecznej odkrycia hipotezy interpretacje
title_sub	odkrycia, hipotezy, interpretacje
topic	Funde Geschichte Archaeology, Medieval Poland Excavations (Archaeology) Poland Mittelalter (DE-588)4129108-6 gnd Mittelalterliche Archäologie (DE-588)4138633-4 gnd
topic_facet	Funde Geschichte Archaeology, Medieval Poland Excavations (Archaeology) Poland Mittelalter Mittelalterliche Archäologie Polen Poland Antiquities Poland History
url	http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015510103&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=015510103&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
work_keys_str_mv	AT bukoandrzej archeologiapolskiwczesnosredniowiecznejodkryciahipotezyinterpretacje

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