Verfügbarkeit: Handbook of physics

Handbook of physics:

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Format:	Buch
Sprache:	English German
Veröffentlicht:	New York [u.a.] Springer 2006
Ausgabe:	[Nachdr.]
Schlagworte:	Physics > Handbooks, manuals, etc Physik
Online-Zugang:	Inhaltsverzeichnis
Beschreibung:	XXV, 1181 S. graph. Darst.
ISBN:	0387952691

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Datensatz im Suchindex

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adam_text	Contents Preface v Contributors xxiii Part I Mechanics 1 1 Kinematics 3 1.1 Description of motion .......................... 3 1.1.1 Reference systems ....................... 3 1.1.2 Time .............................. 8 1.1.3 Length, area, volume ..................... 9 1.1.4 Angle ............................. 11 1.1.5 Mechanical systems ...................... 12 1.2 Motion in one dimension ........................ 14 1.2.1 Velocity ............................ 14 1.2.2 Acceleration .......................... 17 1.2.3 Simple motion in one dimension ............... 19 1.3 Motion in several dimensions ...................... 22 1.3.1 Velocity vector ........................ 23 1.3.2 Acceleration vector ...................... 25 1.3.3 Free-fall and projectile motion ................. 28 1.4 Rotational motion ............................ 31 1.4.1 Angular velocity ........................ 32 1.4.2 Angular acceleration ...................... 33 1.4.3 Orbital velocity ........................ 34 2 Dynamics 37 2.1 Fundamental laws of dynamics ..................... 37 2.1.1 Mass and momentum ..................... 37 2.1.2 Newton s laws ......................... 40 2.1.3 Orbital angular momentum .................. 48 2.1.4 Torque ............................. 50 2.1.5 The fundamental law of rotational dynamics ......... 52 Contents 2.2 Forces.................................. 53 2.2.1 Weight............................. 53 2.2.2 Spring torsion forces ..................... 54 2.2.3 Frictional forces ........................ 56 2.3 Inerţial forces in rotating reference systems ............... 59 2.3.1 Centripetal and centrifugal forces ............... 60 2.3.2 Coriolis force ......................... 62 2.4 Work and energy ............................ 63 2.4.1 Work ............................. 63 2.4.2 Energy ............................. 65 2.4.3 Kinetic energy ......................... 66 2.4.4 Potential energy ........................ 67 2.4.5 Frictional work ........................ 70 2.5 Power .................................. 70 2.5.1 Efficiency ........................... 71 2.6 Collision processes ........................... 72 2.6.1 Elastic straight-line central collisions ............. 74 2.6.2 Elastic off-center central collisions .............. 76 2.6.3 Elastic non-central collision with a body at rest ........ 76 2.6.4 Inelastic collisions ....................... 78 2.7 Rockets ................................. 79 2.7.1 Thrust ............................. 79 2.7.2 Rocket equation ........................ 81 2.8 Systems of point masses ........................ 82 2.8.1 Equations of motion ...................... 82 2.8.2 Momentum conservation law ................. 84 2.8.3 Angular momentum conservation law ............. 85 2.8.4 Energy conservation law .................... 86 2.9 Lagrange s and Hamilton s equations .................. 86 2.9.1 Lagrange s equations and Hamilton s principle ........ 86 2.9.2 Hamilton s equations ..................... 89 Rigid bodies 93 3.1 Kinematics ............................... 93 3.1.1 Density ............................ 93 3.1.2 Center of mass ......................... 94 3.1.3 Basic kinematic quantities ................... 96 3.2 Statics .................................. 97 3.2.1 Force vectors ......................... 98 3.2.2 Torque ............................. 100 3.2.3 Couples ............................ 101 3.2.4 Equilibrium conditions of statics ............... 103 3.2.5 Technical mechanics ...................... 104 3.2.6 Machines ........................... 106 3.3 Dynamics ................................ Ill 3.4 Moment of inertia and angular momentum ............... Ill 3.4.1 Moment of inertia ....................... Ill 3.4.2 Angular momentum ...................... 116 3.5 Work, energy and power ........................ 118 3.5.1 Kinetic energy ......................... 119 3.5.2 Torsionai potential energy ................... 120 Contents ix 3.6 Theory of the gyroscope ........................ 121 3.6.1 Tensor of inertia ........................ 121 3.6.2 Nutation and precession .................... 124 3.6.3 Applications of gyroscopes .................. 127 4 Gravitation and the theory of relativity 129 4.1 Gravitational field ............................ 129 4.1.1 Law of gravitation ....................... 129 4.1.2 Planetary motion ....................... 131 4.1.3 Planetary system ........................ 133 4.2 Special theory of relativity ....................... 137 4.2.1 Principle of relativity ..................... 137 4.2.2 Lorentz transformation .................... 140 4.2.3 Relativistic effects ....................... 144 4.2.4 Relativistic dynamics ..................... 145 4.3 General theory of relativity and cosmology ............... 148 4.3.1 Stars and galaxies ....................... 150 5 Mechanics of continuous media 153 5.1 Theory of elasticity ........................... 153 5.1.1 Stress ............................. 153 5.1.2 Elastic deformation ...................... 156 5.1.3 Plastic deformation ...................... 167 5.2 Hydrostatics, aerostatics ........................ 171 5.2.1 Liquids and gases ....................... 172 5.2.2 Pressure ............................ 172 5.2.3 Buoyancy ........................... 180 5.2.4 Cohesion, adhesion, surface tension .............. 183 5.3 Hydrodynamics, aerodynamics ..................... 186 5.3.1 Flow field ........................... 186 5.3.2 Basic equations of ideal flow ................. 187 5.3.3 Real flow ........................... 197 5.3.4 Turbulent flow ......................... 203 5.3.5 Scaling laws .......................... 206 5.3.6 Flow with density variation .................. 209 6 Nonlinear dynamics, chaos and fractals 211 6.1 Dynamical systems and chaos ..................... 212 6.1.1 Dynamical systems ...................... 212 6.1.2 Conservative systems ..................... 217 6.1.3 Dissipative systems ...................... 219 6.2 Bifurcations ............................... 221 6.2.1 Logistic mapping ....................... 222 6.2.2 Universality .......................... 225 6.3 Fractals ................................. 225 Formula symbols used in mechanics 229 7 Tables on mechanics 231 7.1 Density ................................. 231 7.1.1 Solids ............................. 231 7.1.2 Fluids ............................. 237 7.1.3 Gases ............................. 238 Contents 7.2 Elastic properties ............................ 239 7.3 Dynamical properties .......................... 243 7.3.1 Coefficients of friction ..................... 243 7.3.2 Compressibility ........................ 244 7.3.3 Viscosity ............................ 248 7.3.4 Flow resistance ........................ 250 7.3.5 Surface tension ........................ 251 Part II Vibrations and Waves 253 8 Vibrations 255 8.1 Free undamped vibrations ....................... 257 8.1.1 Mass on a spring ........................ 258 8.1.2 Standard pendulum ...................... 260 8.1.3 Physical pendulum ...................... 263 8.1.4 Torsionai vibration ...................... 265 8.1.5 Liquid pendulum ....................... 266 8.1.6 Electric circuit ......................... 267 8.2 Damped vibrations ........................... 268 8.2.1 Friction ............................ 269 8.2.2 Damped electric oscillator circuit ............... 273 8.3 Forced vibrations ............................ 275 8.4 Superposition of vibrations ....................... 277 8.4.1 Superposition of vibrations of equal frequency ........ 277 8.4.2 Superposition of vibrations of different frequencies ...... 279 8.4.3 Superposition of vibrations in different directions and with different frequencies ........... 280 8.4.4 Fourier analysis, decomposition into harmonics ........ 282 8.5 Coupled vibrations ........................... 283 9 Waves 287 9.1 Basic features of waves ......................... 287 9.2 Polarization ............................... 293 9.3 Interference ............................... 294 9.3.1 Coherence ........................... 294 9.3.2 Interference .......................... 295 9.3.3 Standing waves ........................ 296 9.3.4 Waves with different frequencies ............... 299 9.4 Doppler effect ............................. 300 9.4.1 Mach waves and Mach shock waves .............. 302 9.5 Refraction ................................ 302 9.6 Reflection ................................ 304 9.6.1 Phase relations ......................... 304 9.7 Dispersion ............................... 305 9.8 Diffraction ............................... 305 9.8.1 Diffraction by a slit ...................... 306 9.8.2 Diffraction by a grating .................... 307 9.9 Modulation of waves .......................... 308 9.10 Surface waves and gravity waves .................... 309 Contents xi 10 Acoustics 311 10.1 Sound waves .............................. 311 10.1.1 Sound velocity ......................... 311 10.1.2 Parameters of sound ...................... 313 10.1.3 Relative quantities ....................... 317 10.2 Sources and receivers of sound ..................... 319 10.2.1 Mechanical sound emitters .................. 319 10.2.2 Electro-acoustic transducers .................. 321 10.2.3 Sound absorption ....................... 324 10.2.4 Sound attenuation ....................... 327 10.2.5 Flow noise ........................... 328 10.3 Ultrasound ............................... 328 10.4 Physiological acoustics and hearing ................... 329 10.4.1 Perception of sound ...................... 330 10.4.2 Evaluated sound levels .................... 331 10.5 Musical acoustics ............................ 331 11 Optics 335 11.1 Geometric optics ............................ 337 11.1.1 Optical imaging — fundamental concepts ........... 338 11.1.2 Reflection ........................... 341 11.1.3 Refraction ........................... 345 11.2 Lenses ................................. 358 11.2.1 Thick lenses .......................... 358 11.2.2 Thin lenses .......................... 364 11.3 Lens systems .............................. 364 11.3.1 Lenses with diaphragms .................... 365 11.3.2 Image defects ......................... 366 11.4 Optical instruments ........................... 368 11.4.1 Pinhole camera ........................ 369 11.4.2 Camera ............................ 369 11.4.3 Eye .............................. 370 11.4.4 Eye and optical instruments .................. 372 11.5 Wave optics ............................... 376 11.5.1 Scattering ........................... 376 11.5.2 Diffraction and limitation of resolution ............ 377 11.5.3 Refraction in the wave picture ................. 379 11.5.4 Interference .......................... 380 11.5.5 Diffracti ve optical elements .................. 384 11.5.6 Dispersion ........................... 389 11.5.7 Spectroscopic apparatus .................... 390 11.5.8 Polarization of light ...................... 391 11.6 Photometry ............................... 395 11.6.1 Photometric quantities ..................... 396 11.6.2 Photometric quantities ..................... 403 Symbols used in formulae on vibrations, waves, acoustics and optics 407 12 Tables on vibrations, waves, acoustics and optics 409 12.1 Tables on vibrations and acoustics ................... 409 12.2 Tables on optics ............................. 414 xii Contents Part III Electricity 419 13 Charges and currents 421 13.1 Electric charge ............................. 421 13.1.1 Coulomb s law ........................ 423 13.2 Electric charge density ......................... 424 13.3 Electric current ............................. 426 13.3.1 Ampere s law ......................... 428 13.4 Electric current density ......................... 428 13.4.1 Electric current flow field ................... 430 13.5 Electric resistance and conductance ................... 431 13.5.1 Electric resistance ....................... 431 13.5.2 Electric conductance ...................... 432 13.5.3 Resistivity and conductivity .................. 432 13.5.4 Mobility of charge carriers .................. 433 13.5.5 Temperature dependence of the resistance ........... 434 13.5.6 Variable resistors ....................... 435 13.5.7 Connection of resistors .................... 436 14 Electric and magnetic fields 439 14.1 Electric field .............................. 439 14.2 Electrostatic induction ......................... 440 14.2.1 Electric field lines ....................... 441 14.2.2 Electric field strength of point charges ............. 444 14.3 Force .................................. 445 14.4 Electric voltage ............................. 445 14.5 Electric potential ............................ 447 14.5.1 Equipotential surfaces ..................... 448 14.5.2 Field strength and potential of various charge distributions . . 448 14.5.3 Electric flux .......................... 451 14.5.4 Electric displacement in a vacuum ............... 453 14.6 Electric polarization .......................... 454 14.6.1 Dielectric ........................... 456 14.7 Capacitance ............................... 457 14.7.1 Parallel-plate capacitor .................... 458 14.7.2 Parallel connection of capacitors ............... 458 14.7.3 Series connection of capacitors ................ 459 14.7.4 Capacitance of simple arrangements of conductors ...... 459 14.8 Energy and energy density of the electric field ............. 460 14.9 Electric field at interfaces ........................ 461 14.10 Magnetic field ............................. 462 14.11 Magnetism ............................... 463 14.11.1 Magnetic field lines ...................... 463 14.12 Magnetic flux density .......................... 465 14.13 Magnetic flux .............................. 467 14.14 Magnetic field strength ......................... 469 14.15 Magnetic potential difference and magnetic circuits .......... 470 14.15.1 Ampere s law ......................... 472 14.15.2 Biot-Savart s law ....................... 474 14.) 5.3 Magnetic field of a rectilinear conductor ........... 476 14.15.4 Magnetic fields of various current distributions ........ 477 Contents xiii 14.16 Matter in magnetic fields ........................ 478 14.16.1 Diamagnetism ......................... 480 14.16.2 Paramagnetism ........................ 480 14.16.3 Ferromagnetism ........................ 481 14.16.4 Antiferromagnetism ...................... 483 14.16.5 Ferrimagnetism ........................ 484 14.17 Magnetic fields at interfaces ...................... 484 14.18 Induction ................................ 485 14.18.1 Faraday s law of induction ................... 486 14.18.2 Transformer induction ..................... 487 14.19 Self-induction .............................. 488 14.19.1 Inductances of geometric arrangements of conductors ..... 490 14.19.2 Magnetic conductance ..................... 491 14.20 Mutual induction ............................ 492 14.20.1 Transformer .......................... 493 14.21 Energy and energy density of the magnetic field ............ 494 14.22 Maxwell s equations .......................... 496 14.22.1 Displacement current ..................... 497 14.22.2 Electromagnetic waves .................... 498 14.22.3 Poynting vector ........................ 500 15 Applications in electrical engineering 501 15.1 Direct-current circuit .......................... 502 15.1.1 Kirchhoff s laws for direct-current circuit ........... 503 15.1.2 Resistors in a direct-current circuit .............. 503 15.1.3 Real voltage source ...................... 505 15.1.4 Power and energy in the direct-current circuit ......... 507 15.1.5 Matching for power transfer .................. 508 15.1.6 Measurement of current and voltage .............. 509 15.1.7 Resi stance measurement by means of the compensation method ..................... 510 15.1.8 Charging and discharging of capacitors ............ 511 15.1.9 Switching the current on and off in a ÄL-circuit ....... 513 15.2 Alternating-current circuit ....................... 514 15.2.1 Alternating quantities ..................... 514 15.2.2 Representation of sinusoidal quantities in a phasor diagram . . 517 15.2.3 Calculation rules for phasor quantities ............. 519 15.2.4 Basics of alternating-current engineering ........... 522 15.2.5 Basic components in the alternating-current circuit ...... 529 15.2.6 Series connection of resistor and capacitor .......... 534 15.2.7 Parallel connection of a resistor and a capacitor ........ 535 15.2.8 Parallel connection of a resistor and an inductor ........ 536 15.2.9 Series connection of a resistor and an inductor ........ 536 15.2.10 Series-resonant circuit ..................... 538 15.2.11 Parallel-resonant circuit .................... 539 15.2.12 Equivalence of series and parallel connections ........ 541 15.2.13 Radio waves .......................... 542 15.3 Electric machines ............................ 544 15.3.1 Fundamental functional principle ............... 544 15.3.2 Direct-current machine .................... 545 15.3.3 Three-phase machine ..................... 547 xiv Contents 16 Current conduction in liquids, gases and vacuum 551 16.1 Electrolysis ............................... 551 16.1.1 Amount of substance ..................... 551 16.1.2 Ions .............................. 552 16.1.3 Electrodes ........................... 552 16.1.4 Electrolytes .......................... 552 16.1.5 Galvanic cells ......................... 557 16.1.6 Electrokinetic effects ..................... 560 16.2 Current conduction in gases ....................... 560 16.2.1 Non-self-sustained discharge ................. 560 16.2.2 Self-sustained gaseous discharge ............... 563 16.3 Electron emission ............................ 565 16.3.1 Thermo-iomc emission .................... 565 16.3.2 Photo emission ........................ 565 16.3.3 Fieldemission......................... 566 16.3.4 Secondary electron emission ................. 567 16.4 Vacuum tubes .............................. 567 16.4.1 Vacuum-tube diode ...................... 568 16.4.2 Vacuum-tube triode ...................... 568 16.4.3 Tetrode ............................ 571 16.4.4 Cathode rays .......................... 571 16.4.5 Channel rays .......................... 571 17 Plasma physics 573 17.1 Properties of a plasma ......................... 573 17.1.1 Plasma parameters ....................... 573 17.1.2 Plasma radiation ........................ 580 17.1.3 Plasmas in magnetic fields ................... 581 17.1.4 Plasma waves ......................... 583 17.2 Generation of plasmas ......................... 586 17.2.1 Thermal generation of plasma ................. 586 17.2.2 Generation of plasma by compression ............. 586 17.3 Energy production with plasmas .................... 588 17.3.1 MHD generator ........................ 588 17.3.2 Nuclear fusion reactors .................... 589 17.3.3 Fusion with magnetic confinement .............. 590 17.3.4 Fusion with inerţial confinement ............... 591 Symbols used in formulae on electricity and plasma physics 593 18 Tables on electricity 595 18.1 Metals and alloys ............................ 595 18.1.1 Specific electric resistance ................... 595 18.1.2 Electrochemical potential series ................ 598 18.2 Dielectrics ............................... 601 18.3 Practical tables of electric engineering ................. 606 1 8.4 Magnetic properties ........................... 609 18.5 Ferromagnetic properties ........................ 614 18.5.1 Magnetic anisotropy ...................... 617 18.6 Ferrites ................................. 619 18.7 Antiferromagnets ............................ 619 18.8 Ion mobility ............................... 620 Contents xv Part IV Thermodynamics 621 19 Equilibrium and state variables 623 19.1 Systems, phases and equilibrium .................... 623 19.1.1 Systems ............................ 623 19.1.2 Phases ............................. 624 19.1.3 Equilibrium .......................... 625 19.2 State variables ............................. 627 19.2.1 State property definitions ................... 627 19.2.2 Temperature .......................... 629 19.2.3 Pressure ............................ 634 19.2.4 Particle number, amount of substance and Avogadro number . 637 19.2.5 Entropy ............................ 640 19.3 Thermodynamic potentials ....................... 641 19.3.1 Principle of maximum entropy — principle of minimum energy ....................... 641 19.3.2 Internal energy as a potential ................. 641 19.3.3 Entropy as a thermodynamic potential ............. 642 19.3.4 Free energy .......................... 643 19.3.5 Enthalpy ............................ 644 19.3.6 Free enthalpy ......................... 647 19.3.7 Maxwell relations ....................... 648 19.3.8 Thermodynamic stability ................... 649 19.4 Ideal gas ................................ 650 19.4.1 Boyle-Mariotte law ...................... 651 19.4.2 LawofGay-Lussac ...................... 651 19.4.3 Equation of state ........................ 652 19.5 Kinetic theory of the ideal gas ..................... 653 19.5.1 Pressure and temperature ................... 653 19.5.2 Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution ............... 655 19.5.3 Degrees of freedom ...................... 657 19.5.4 Equipartition law ....................... 657 19.5.5 Transport processes ...................... 658 19.6 Equations of state ............................ 661 19.6.1 Equation of state of the ideal gas ............... 661 19.6.2 Equation of state of real gases ................. 665 19.6.3 Equation of states for liquids and solids ............ 671 20 Heat, conversion of energy and changes of state 675 20.1 Energyforms .............................. 675 20.1.1 Energy units .......................... 675 20.1.2 Work ............................. 676 20.1.3 Chemical potential ....................... 677 20.1.4 Heat .............................. 678 20.2 Energy conversion ........................... 679 20.2.1 Conversion of equivalent energies into heat .......... 679 20.2.2 Conversion of heat into other forms of energy ......... 683 20.2.3 Exergy and anergy ....................... 683 20.3 Heat capacity .............................. 684 20.3.1 Total heat capacity ....................... 684 20.3.2 Molar heat capacity ...................... 686 20.3.3 Specific heat capacity ..................... 687 xvi Contents 20.4 Changes of state ............................ 691 20.4.1 Reversible and irreversible processes ............. 691 20.4.2 Isothermal processes ...................... 692 20.4.3 Isobaric processes ....................... 693 20.4.4 Isochoric processes ...................... 694 20.4.5 Adiabatic (isentropic) processes ................ 695 20.4.6 Equilibrium states ....................... 697 20.5 Laws of thermodynamics ........................ 698 20.5.1 Zeroth law of thermodynamics ................ 698 20.5.2 First law of thermodynamics ................. 698 20.5.3 Second law of thermodynamics ................ 701 20.5.4 Third law of thermodynamics ................. 702 20.6 Carnot cycle .............................. 702 20.6.1 Principle and application ................... 702 20.6.2 Reduced heat ......................... 705 20.7 Thermodynamic machines ....................... 706 20.7.1 Right-handed and left-handed processes ............ 706 20.7.2 Heat pump and refrigerator .................. 707 20.7.3 Stirling cycle ......................... 708 20.7.4 Steam engine ......................... 709 20.7.5 Open systems ......................... 710 20.7.6 Otto and Diesel engines .................... 711 20.7.7 Gasturbines .......................... 713 20.8 Gas liquefaction ............................ 714 20.8.1 Generation of low temperatures ................ 714 20.8.2 Joule-Thomson effect ..................... 715 21 Phase transitions, reactions and equalizing of heat 717 21.1 Phase and state of aggregation ..................... 717 21.1.1 Phase ............................. 717 21.1.2 Aggregation states ....................... 717 21.1.3 Conversions of aggregation states ............... 718 21.1.4 Vapor ............................. 719 21.2 Order of phase transitions ........................ 720 21.2.1 First-order phase transition .................. 720 21.2.2 Second-order phase transition ................. 721 21.2.3 Lambda transitions ...................... 722 21.2.4 Phase-coexistence region ................... 722 21.2.5 Critical indices ........................ 723 21.3 Phase transition and Van der Waals gas ................. 724 21.3.1 Phase equilibrium ....................... 724 21.3.2 Maxwell construction ..................... 724 21.3.3 Delayed boiling and delayed condensation .......... 726 21.3.4 Theorem of corresponding states ............... 727 21.4 Examples of phase transitions ...................... 727 21.4.1 Magnetic phase transitions .................. 727 21.4.2 Order-disorder phase transitions ............... 728 21.4.3 Change in the crystal structure ................. 729 21.4.4 Liquid crystals ......................... 730 21.4.5 Superconductivity ....................... 730 21.4.6 Superfluidity .......................... 731 Contents xvii 21.5 Mu lticomponent gases ......................... 731 21.5.1 Partial pressure and Dalton s law ............... 732 21.5.2 Euler equation and Gibbs-Duhem relation .......... 733 21.6 Multiphase systems ........................... 734 21.6.1 Phase equilibrium ....................... 734 21.6.2 Gibbs phase rule ........................ 734 21.6.3 Clausius-Clapeyron equation ................. 735 21.7 Vapor pressure of solutions ....................... 736 21.7.1 Raoult s law .......................... 736 21.7.2 Boiling-point elevation and freezing-point depression ..... 736 21.7.3 Henry-Dalton law ....................... 738 21.7.4 Steam-air mixtures (humid air) ................ 738 21.8 Chemical reactions ........................... 742 21.8.1 Stoichiometry ......................... 743 21.8.2 Phase rule for chemical reactions ............... 744 21.8.3 Law of mass action ...................... 744 21.8.4 pH- value and solubility product ................ 746 21.9 Equalization of temperature ....................... 748 21.9.1 Mixing temperature of two systems .............. 748 21.9.2 Reversible and irreversible processes ............. 749 21.10 Heat transfer .............................. 750 21.10.1 Heat flow ........................... 751 21.10.2 Heat transfer .......................... 751 21.10.3 Heat conduction ........................ 753 21.10.4 Thermal resistance ....................... 757 21.10.5 Heat transmission ....................... 759 21.10.6 Heat radiation ......................... 764 21.10.7 Deposition of radiation .................... 764 21.11 Transport of heat and mass ....................... 766 21.11.1 Fourier s law .......................... 766 21.11.2 Continuity equation ...................... 766 21.11.3 Heat conduction equation ................... 767 21.11.4 Fick s law and diffusion equation ............... 768 21.11.5 Solution of the equation of heat conduction and diffusion . . . 769 Formula symbols used in thermodynamics 771 22 Tables on thermodynamics 775 22.1 Characteristic temperatures ....................... 775 22.1.1 Units and calibration points .................. 775 22.1.2 Melting and boiling points ................... 777 22.1.3 Curie and Néel temperatures .................. 786 22.2 Characteristics of real gases ....................... 787 22.3 Thermal properties of substances .................... 788 22.3.1 Viscosity ............................ 788 22.3.2 Expansion, heat capacity and thermal conductivity ...... 789 22.4 Heat transmission ............................ 795 22.5 Practical correction data ........................ 798 22.5.1 Pressure measurement ..................... 798 22.5.2 Volume measurements — conversion to standard temperature . 803 22.6 Generation of liquid low-temperature baths ............... 804 xviii Contents 22.7 Dehydrators............................... 805 22.8 Vapor pressure............................. 806 22.8.1 Solutions ........................... 806 22.8.2 Relative humidity ....................... 806 22.8.3 Vapor pressure of water .................... 807 22.9 Specific enthalpies ........................... 809 Part V Quantum physics 815 23 Photons, electromagnetic radiation and light quanta 817 23.1 Planck s radiation law .......................... 817 23.2 Photoelectric effect ........................... 820 23.3 Compton effect ............................. 822 24 Matter waves — wave mechanics of particles 825 24.1 Wave character of particles ....................... 825 24.2 Heisenberg s uncertainty principle ................... 827 24.3 Wave function and observable ..................... 827 24.4 Schrödinger equation .......................... 835 24.4.1 Piecewise constant potentials ................. 837 24.4.2 Harmonic oscillator ...................... 841 24.4.3 Pauli principle ......................... 843 24.5 Spin and magnetic moments ...................... 844 24.5.1 Spin .............................. 844 24.5.2 Magnetic moments ...................... 847 25 Atomic and molecular physics 851 25.1 Fundamentals of spectroscopy ..................... 851 25.2 Hydrogen atom ............................. 854 25.2.1 Bohr s postulates ....................... 855 25.3 Stationary states and quantum numbers in the central field ....... 859 25.4 Many-electron atoms .......................... 864 25.5 X-rays ................................. 868 25.5.1 Applications of x-rays ..................... 870 25.6 Molecular spectra ............................ 871 25.7 Atoms in external fields ......................... 874 25.8 Periodic Table of elements ....................... 877 25.9 Interaction of photons with atoms and molecules ............ 879 25.9.1 Spontaneous and induced emission .............. 879 26 Elementary particle physics — standard model 883 26.1 Unification of interactions ....................... 883 26.1.1 Standard model ........................ 883 26.1.2 Field quanta or gauge bosons ................. 887 26.1.3 Fermions and bosons ..................... 889 26.2 Leptons, quarks, and vector bosons ................... 891 26.2.1 Leptons ............................ 891 26.2.2 Quarks ............................. 892 26.2.3 Hadrons ............................ 894 26.2.4 Accelerators and detectors ................... 898 Contents xix 26.3 Symmetries and conservation laws ................... 900 26.3.1 Parity conservation and the weak interaction ......... 900 26.3.2 Charge conservation and pair production ........... 901 26.3.3 Charge conjugation and antiparticles ............. 902 26.3.4 Time-reversal invariance and inverse reactions ........ 903 26.3.5 Conservation laws ....................... 903 26.3.6 Beyond the standard model .................. 904 27 Nuclear physics 907 27.1 Constituents of the atomic nucleus ................... 907 27.2 Basic quantities of the atomic nucleus ................. 910 27.3 Nucleon-nucleon interaction ...................... 912 27.3.1 Phénoménologie nucleon-nucleon potentials ......... 912 27.3.2 Meson exchange potentials .................. 914 27.4 Nuclear models ............................. 915 27.4.1 Fermi-gas model ........................ 915 27.4.2 Nuclear matter ......................... 915 27.4.3 Droplet model ......................... 916 27.4.4 Shell model .......................... 917 27.4.5 Collective model ........................ 920 27.5 Nuclear reactions ............................ 922 27.5.1 Reaction channels and cross-sections ............. 922 27.5.2 Conservation laws in nuclear reactions ............ 926 27.5.3 Elastic scattering ....................... 928 27.5.4 Compound-nuclear reactions ................. 929 27.5.5 Optical model ......................... 931 27.5.6 Direct reactions ........................ 931 27.5.7 Heavy-ion reactions ...................... 932 27.5.8 Nuclear fission ......................... 935 27.6 Nuclear decay .............................. 937 27.6.1 Decay law ........................... 938 27.6.2 α -decay............................ 941 27.6.3 јб -decay ............................ 943 27.6.4 /-decay ............................ 946 27.6.5 Emission of nucléons and nucleón clusters .......... 947 27.7 Nuclear reactor ............................. 947 27.7.1 Types of reactors ....................... 949 27.8 Nuclear fusion ............................. 950 27.9 Interaction of radiation with matter ................... 953 27.9.1 Ionizing particles ....................... 953 27.9.2 /-radiation .......................... 956 27.10 Dosimetry ................................ 958 27.10.1 Methods of dosage measurements ............... 962 27.10.2 Environmental radioactivity .................. 964 28 Solid-state physics 967 28.1 Structure of solid bodies ........................ 967 28.1.1 Basic concepts of solid-state physics ............. 967 28.1.2 Structure of crystals ...................... 968 28.1.3 Bravais lattices ........................ 970 28.1.4 Methods for structure investigation .............. 974 28.1.5 Bond relations in crystals ................... 976 ;x Contents 28.2 Lattice defects ............................. 979 28.2.1 Pointdefects .......................... 979 28.2.2 One-dimensional defects ................... 981 28.2.3 Two-dimensional lattice defects ................ 982 28.2.4 Amorphous solids ....................... 983 28.3 Mechanical properties of materials ................... 984 28.3.1 Macromolecular solids .................... 984 28.3.2 Compound materials ...................... 987 28.3.3 Alloys ............................. 988 28.3.4 Liquid crystals ......................... 990 28.4 Phonons and lattice vibrations ..................... 991 28.4.1 Elastic waves ......................... 991 28.4.2 Phonons and specific heat capacity .............. 995 28.4.3 Einstein model ......................... 996 28.4.4 Debye model ......................... 997 28.4.5 Heat conduction ........................ 999 28.5 Electrons in solids ............................ 1000 28.5.1 Free-electron gas ....................... 1001 28.5.2 Band model .......................... 1007 28.6 Semiconductors ............................. 1011 28.6.1 Extrinsic conduction ...................... 1014 28.6.2 Semiconductor diode ..................... 1016 28.6.3 Transistor ........................... 1023 28.6.4 Unipolar (field effect) transistors ............... 1030 28.6.5 Thyristor............................ 1032 28.6.6 Integrated circuits (1С)..................... 1034 28.6.7 Operational amplifiers ..................... 1037 28.7 Superconductivity ............................ 1042 28.7.1 Fundamental properties of superconductivity ......... 1043 28.7.2 High-temperature superconductors .............. 1047 28.8 Magnetic properties ........................... 1049 28.8.1 Ferromagnetism ........................ 1052 28.8.2 Antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism ........... 1054 28.9 Dielectric properties .......................... 1055 28.9.1 Para-electric materials ..................... 1059 28.9.2 Ferroelectrics ......................... 1059 28.10 Optical properties of crystals ...................... 1060 28.10.1 Excitons and their properties ................. 1061 28.10.2 Photoconductivity ....................... 1062 28.10.3 Luminescence ......................... 1063 28.10.4 Optoelectronic properties ................... 1063 Formula symbols used in quantum physics 1065 29 Tables in quantum physics 1071 29.1 Ionization potentials .......................... 1071 29.2 Atomic and ionic radii of elements ................... 1078 29.3 Electron emission ............................ 1082 29.4 X-rays ................................. 1086 29.5 Nuclear reactions ............................ 1087 29.6 Interaction of radiation with matter ................... 1088 Contents xxi 29.7 Hall effect ................................ 1089 29.8 Superconductors ............................ 1091 29.9 Semiconductors ............................. 1093 29.9.1 Thermal, magnetic and electric properties of semiconductors . 1093 Part VI Appendix 1095 30 Measurements and measurement errors 1097 30.1 Description of measurements ...................... 1097 30.1.1 Quantities and SI units ..................... 1097 30.2 Error theory and statistics ........................ 1100 30.2.1 Types of errors ......................... 1100 30.2.2 Mean values of runs ...................... 1102 30.2.3 Variance ............................ 1104 30.2.4 Correlation .......................... 1105 30.2.5 Regression analysis ...................... 1106 30.2.6 Rate distributions ....................... 1106 30.2.7 Reliability ........................... 1111 31 Vector calculus 1115 31.1.1 Vectors ............................ 1115 31.1.2 Multiplication by a scalar ................... 1116 31.1.3 Addition and subtraction of vectors .............. 1117 31.1.4 Multiplication of vectors ................... 1117 32 Differential and integral calculus 1121 32.1 Differential calculus .......................... 1121 32.1.1 Differentiation rales ...................... 1121 32.2 Integral calculus ............................ 1122 32.2.1 Integration rules ........................ 1123 32.3 Derivatives and integrals of elementary functions ............ 1124 33 Tables on the SI 1125 Index 1131
adam_txt	Contents Preface v Contributors xxiii Part I Mechanics 1 1 Kinematics 3 1.1 Description of motion . 3 1.1.1 Reference systems . 3 1.1.2 Time . 8 1.1.3 Length, area, volume . 9 1.1.4 Angle . 11 1.1.5 Mechanical systems . 12 1.2 Motion in one dimension . 14 1.2.1 Velocity . 14 1.2.2 Acceleration . 17 1.2.3 Simple motion in one dimension . 19 1.3 Motion in several dimensions . 22 1.3.1 Velocity vector . 23 1.3.2 Acceleration vector . 25 1.3.3 Free-fall and projectile motion . 28 1.4 Rotational motion . 31 1.4.1 Angular velocity . 32 1.4.2 Angular acceleration . 33 1.4.3 Orbital velocity . 34 2 Dynamics 37 2.1 Fundamental laws of dynamics . 37 2.1.1 Mass and momentum . 37 2.1.2 Newton's laws . 40 2.1.3 Orbital angular momentum . 48 2.1.4 Torque . 50 2.1.5 The fundamental law of rotational dynamics . 52 Contents 2.2 Forces. 53 2.2.1 Weight. 53 2.2.2 Spring torsion forces . 54 2.2.3 Frictional forces . 56 2.3 Inerţial forces in rotating reference systems . 59 2.3.1 Centripetal and centrifugal forces . 60 2.3.2 Coriolis force . 62 2.4 Work and energy . 63 2.4.1 Work . 63 2.4.2 Energy . 65 2.4.3 Kinetic energy . 66 2.4.4 Potential energy . 67 2.4.5 Frictional work . 70 2.5 Power . 70 2.5.1 Efficiency . 71 2.6 Collision processes . 72 2.6.1 Elastic straight-line central collisions . 74 2.6.2 Elastic off-center central collisions . 76 2.6.3 Elastic non-central collision with a body at rest . 76 2.6.4 Inelastic collisions . 78 2.7 Rockets . 79 2.7.1 Thrust . 79 2.7.2 Rocket equation . 81 2.8 Systems of point masses . 82 2.8.1 Equations of motion . 82 2.8.2 Momentum conservation law . 84 2.8.3 Angular momentum conservation law . 85 2.8.4 Energy conservation law . 86 2.9 Lagrange's and Hamilton's equations . 86 2.9.1 Lagrange's equations and Hamilton's principle . 86 2.9.2 Hamilton's equations . 89 Rigid bodies 93 3.1 Kinematics . 93 3.1.1 Density . 93 3.1.2 Center of mass . 94 3.1.3 Basic kinematic quantities . 96 3.2 Statics . 97 3.2.1 Force vectors . 98 3.2.2 Torque . 100 3.2.3 Couples . 101 3.2.4 Equilibrium conditions of statics . 103 3.2.5 Technical mechanics . 104 3.2.6 Machines . 106 3.3 Dynamics . Ill 3.4 Moment of inertia and angular momentum . Ill 3.4.1 Moment of inertia . Ill 3.4.2 Angular momentum . 116 3.5 Work, energy and power . 118 3.5.1 Kinetic energy . 119 3.5.2 Torsionai potential energy . 120 Contents ix 3.6 Theory of the gyroscope . 121 3.6.1 Tensor of inertia . 121 3.6.2 Nutation and precession . 124 3.6.3 Applications of gyroscopes . 127 4 Gravitation and the theory of relativity 129 4.1 Gravitational field . 129 4.1.1 Law of gravitation . 129 4.1.2 Planetary motion . 131 4.1.3 Planetary system . 133 4.2 Special theory of relativity . 137 4.2.1 Principle of relativity . 137 4.2.2 Lorentz transformation . 140 4.2.3 Relativistic effects . 144 4.2.4 Relativistic dynamics . 145 4.3 General theory of relativity and cosmology . 148 4.3.1 Stars and galaxies . 150 5 Mechanics of continuous media 153 5.1 Theory of elasticity . 153 5.1.1 Stress . 153 5.1.2 Elastic deformation . 156 5.1.3 Plastic deformation . 167 5.2 Hydrostatics, aerostatics . 171 5.2.1 Liquids and gases . 172 5.2.2 Pressure . 172 5.2.3 Buoyancy . 180 5.2.4 Cohesion, adhesion, surface tension . 183 5.3 Hydrodynamics, aerodynamics . 186 5.3.1 Flow field . 186 5.3.2 Basic equations of ideal flow . 187 5.3.3 Real flow . 197 5.3.4 Turbulent flow . 203 5.3.5 Scaling laws . 206 5.3.6 Flow with density variation . 209 6 Nonlinear dynamics, chaos and fractals 211 6.1 Dynamical systems and chaos . 212 6.1.1 Dynamical systems . 212 6.1.2 Conservative systems . 217 6.1.3 Dissipative systems . 219 6.2 Bifurcations . 221 6.2.1 Logistic mapping . 222 6.2.2 Universality . 225 6.3 Fractals . 225 Formula symbols used in mechanics 229 7 Tables on mechanics 231 7.1 Density . 231 7.1.1 Solids . 231 7.1.2 Fluids . 237 7.1.3 Gases . 238 Contents 7.2 Elastic properties . 239 7.3 Dynamical properties . 243 7.3.1 Coefficients of friction . 243 7.3.2 Compressibility . 244 7.3.3 Viscosity . 248 7.3.4 Flow resistance . 250 7.3.5 Surface tension . 251 Part II Vibrations and Waves 253 8 Vibrations 255 8.1 Free undamped vibrations . 257 8.1.1 Mass on a spring . 258 8.1.2 Standard pendulum . 260 8.1.3 Physical pendulum . 263 8.1.4 Torsionai vibration . 265 8.1.5 Liquid pendulum . 266 8.1.6 Electric circuit . 267 8.2 Damped vibrations . 268 8.2.1 Friction . 269 8.2.2 Damped electric oscillator circuit . 273 8.3 Forced vibrations . 275 8.4 Superposition of vibrations . 277 8.4.1 Superposition of vibrations of equal frequency . 277 8.4.2 Superposition of vibrations of different frequencies . 279 8.4.3 Superposition of vibrations in different directions and with different frequencies . 280 8.4.4 Fourier analysis, decomposition into harmonics . 282 8.5 Coupled vibrations . 283 9 Waves 287 9.1 Basic features of waves . 287 9.2 Polarization . 293 9.3 Interference . 294 9.3.1 Coherence . 294 9.3.2 Interference . 295 9.3.3 Standing waves . 296 9.3.4 Waves with different frequencies . 299 9.4 Doppler effect . 300 9.4.1 Mach waves and Mach shock waves . 302 9.5 Refraction . 302 9.6 Reflection . 304 9.6.1 Phase relations . 304 9.7 Dispersion . 305 9.8 Diffraction . 305 9.8.1 Diffraction by a slit . 306 9.8.2 Diffraction by a grating . 307 9.9 Modulation of waves . 308 9.10 Surface waves and gravity waves . 309 Contents xi 10 Acoustics 311 10.1 Sound waves . 311 10.1.1 Sound velocity . 311 10.1.2 Parameters of sound . 313 10.1.3 Relative quantities . 317 10.2 Sources and receivers of sound . 319 10.2.1 Mechanical sound emitters . 319 10.2.2 Electro-acoustic transducers . 321 10.2.3 Sound absorption . 324 10.2.4 Sound attenuation . 327 10.2.5 Flow noise . 328 10.3 Ultrasound . 328 10.4 Physiological acoustics and hearing . 329 10.4.1 Perception of sound . 330 10.4.2 Evaluated sound levels . 331 10.5 Musical acoustics . 331 11 Optics 335 11.1 Geometric optics . 337 11.1.1 Optical imaging — fundamental concepts . 338 11.1.2 Reflection . 341 11.1.3 Refraction . 345 11.2 Lenses . 358 11.2.1 Thick lenses . 358 11.2.2 Thin lenses . 364 11.3 Lens systems . 364 11.3.1 Lenses with diaphragms . 365 11.3.2 Image defects . 366 11.4 Optical instruments . 368 11.4.1 Pinhole camera . 369 11.4.2 Camera . 369 11.4.3 Eye . 370 11.4.4 Eye and optical instruments . 372 11.5 Wave optics . 376 11.5.1 Scattering . 376 11.5.2 Diffraction and limitation of resolution . 377 11.5.3 Refraction in the wave picture . 379 11.5.4 Interference . 380 11.5.5 Diffracti ve optical elements . 384 11.5.6 Dispersion . 389 11.5.7 Spectroscopic apparatus . 390 11.5.8 Polarization of light . 391 11.6 Photometry . 395 11.6.1 Photometric quantities . 396 11.6.2 Photometric quantities . 403 Symbols used in formulae on vibrations, waves, acoustics and optics 407 12 Tables on vibrations, waves, acoustics and optics 409 12.1 Tables on vibrations and acoustics . 409 12.2 Tables on optics . 414 xii Contents Part III Electricity 419 13 Charges and currents 421 13.1 Electric charge . 421 13.1.1 Coulomb's law . 423 13.2 Electric charge density . 424 13.3 Electric current . 426 13.3.1 Ampere's law . 428 13.4 Electric current density . 428 13.4.1 Electric current flow field . 430 13.5 Electric resistance and conductance . 431 13.5.1 Electric resistance . 431 13.5.2 Electric conductance . 432 13.5.3 Resistivity and conductivity . 432 13.5.4 Mobility of charge carriers . 433 13.5.5 Temperature dependence of the resistance . 434 13.5.6 Variable resistors . 435 13.5.7 Connection of resistors . 436 14 Electric and magnetic fields 439 14.1 Electric field . 439 14.2 Electrostatic induction . 440 14.2.1 Electric field lines . 441 14.2.2 Electric field strength of point charges . 444 14.3 Force . 445 14.4 Electric voltage . 445 14.5 Electric potential . 447 14.5.1 Equipotential surfaces . 448 14.5.2 Field strength and potential of various charge distributions . . 448 14.5.3 Electric flux . 451 14.5.4 Electric displacement in a vacuum . 453 14.6 Electric polarization . 454 14.6.1 Dielectric . 456 14.7 Capacitance . 457 14.7.1 Parallel-plate capacitor . 458 14.7.2 Parallel connection of capacitors . 458 14.7.3 Series connection of capacitors . 459 14.7.4 Capacitance of simple arrangements of conductors . 459 14.8 Energy and energy density of the electric field . 460 14.9 Electric field at interfaces . 461 14.10 Magnetic field . 462 14.11 Magnetism . 463 14.11.1 Magnetic field lines . 463 14.12 Magnetic flux density . 465 14.13 Magnetic flux . 467 14.14 Magnetic field strength . 469 14.15 Magnetic potential difference and magnetic circuits . 470 14.15.1 Ampere's law . 472 14.15.2 Biot-Savart's law . 474 14.) 5.3 Magnetic field of a rectilinear conductor . 476 14.15.4 Magnetic fields of various current distributions . 477 Contents xiii 14.16 Matter in magnetic fields . 478 14.16.1 Diamagnetism . 480 14.16.2 Paramagnetism . 480 14.16.3 Ferromagnetism . 481 14.16.4 Antiferromagnetism . 483 14.16.5 Ferrimagnetism . 484 14.17 Magnetic fields at interfaces . 484 14.18 Induction . 485 14.18.1 Faraday's law of induction . 486 14.18.2 Transformer induction . 487 14.19 Self-induction . 488 14.19.1 Inductances of geometric arrangements of conductors . 490 14.19.2 Magnetic conductance . 491 14.20 Mutual induction . 492 14.20.1 Transformer . 493 14.21 Energy and energy density of the magnetic field . 494 14.22 Maxwell's equations . 496 14.22.1 Displacement current . 497 14.22.2 Electromagnetic waves . 498 14.22.3 Poynting vector . 500 15 Applications in electrical engineering 501 15.1 Direct-current circuit . 502 15.1.1 Kirchhoff 's laws for direct-current circuit . 503 15.1.2 Resistors in a direct-current circuit . 503 15.1.3 Real voltage source . 505 15.1.4 Power and energy in the direct-current circuit . 507 15.1.5 Matching for power transfer . 508 15.1.6 Measurement of current and voltage . 509 15.1.7 Resi stance measurement by means of the compensation method . 510 15.1.8 Charging and discharging of capacitors . 511 15.1.9 Switching the current on and off in a ÄL-circuit . 513 15.2 Alternating-current circuit . 514 15.2.1 Alternating quantities . 514 15.2.2 Representation of sinusoidal quantities in a phasor diagram . . 517 15.2.3 Calculation rules for phasor quantities . 519 15.2.4 Basics of alternating-current engineering . 522 15.2.5 Basic components in the alternating-current circuit . 529 15.2.6 Series connection of resistor and capacitor . 534 15.2.7 Parallel connection of a resistor and a capacitor . 535 15.2.8 Parallel connection of a resistor and an inductor . 536 15.2.9 Series connection of a resistor and an inductor . 536 15.2.10 Series-resonant circuit . 538 15.2.11 Parallel-resonant circuit . 539 15.2.12 Equivalence of series and parallel connections . 541 15.2.13 Radio waves . 542 15.3 Electric machines . 544 15.3.1 Fundamental functional principle . 544 15.3.2 Direct-current machine . 545 15.3.3 Three-phase machine . 547 xiv Contents 16 Current conduction in liquids, gases and vacuum 551 16.1 Electrolysis . 551 16.1.1 Amount of substance . 551 16.1.2 Ions . 552 16.1.3 Electrodes . 552 16.1.4 Electrolytes . 552 16.1.5 Galvanic cells . 557 16.1.6 Electrokinetic effects . 560 16.2 Current conduction in gases . 560 16.2.1 Non-self-sustained discharge . 560 16.2.2 Self-sustained gaseous discharge . 563 16.3 Electron emission . 565 16.3.1 Thermo-iomc emission . 565 16.3.2 Photo emission . 565 16.3.3 Fieldemission. 566 16.3.4 Secondary electron emission . 567 16.4 Vacuum tubes . 567 16.4.1 Vacuum-tube diode . 568 16.4.2 Vacuum-tube triode . 568 16.4.3 Tetrode . 571 16.4.4 Cathode rays . 571 16.4.5 Channel rays . 571 17 Plasma physics 573 17.1 Properties of a plasma . 573 17.1.1 Plasma parameters . 573 17.1.2 Plasma radiation . 580 17.1.3 Plasmas in magnetic fields . 581 17.1.4 Plasma waves . 583 17.2 Generation of plasmas . 586 17.2.1 Thermal generation of plasma . 586 17.2.2 Generation of plasma by compression . 586 17.3 Energy production with plasmas . 588 17.3.1 MHD generator . 588 17.3.2 Nuclear fusion reactors . 589 17.3.3 Fusion with magnetic confinement . 590 17.3.4 Fusion with inerţial confinement . 591 Symbols used in formulae on electricity and plasma physics 593 18 Tables on electricity 595 18.1 Metals and alloys . 595 18.1.1 Specific electric resistance . 595 18.1.2 Electrochemical potential series . 598 18.2 Dielectrics . 601 18.3 Practical tables of electric engineering . 606 1 8.4 Magnetic properties . 609 18.5 Ferromagnetic properties . 614 18.5.1 Magnetic anisotropy . 617 18.6 Ferrites . 619 18.7 Antiferromagnets . 619 18.8 Ion mobility . 620 Contents xv Part IV Thermodynamics 621 19 Equilibrium and state variables 623 19.1 Systems, phases and equilibrium . 623 19.1.1 Systems . 623 19.1.2 Phases . 624 19.1.3 Equilibrium . 625 19.2 State variables . 627 19.2.1 State property definitions . 627 19.2.2 Temperature . 629 19.2.3 Pressure . 634 19.2.4 Particle number, amount of substance and Avogadro number . 637 19.2.5 Entropy . 640 19.3 Thermodynamic potentials . 641 19.3.1 Principle of maximum entropy — principle of minimum energy . 641 19.3.2 Internal energy as a potential . 641 19.3.3 Entropy as a thermodynamic potential . 642 19.3.4 Free energy . 643 19.3.5 Enthalpy . 644 19.3.6 Free enthalpy . 647 19.3.7 Maxwell relations . 648 19.3.8 Thermodynamic stability . 649 19.4 Ideal gas . 650 19.4.1 Boyle-Mariotte law . 651 19.4.2 LawofGay-Lussac . 651 19.4.3 Equation of state . 652 19.5 Kinetic theory of the ideal gas . 653 19.5.1 Pressure and temperature . 653 19.5.2 Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution . 655 19.5.3 Degrees of freedom . 657 19.5.4 Equipartition law . 657 19.5.5 Transport processes . 658 19.6 Equations of state . 661 19.6.1 Equation of state of the ideal gas . 661 19.6.2 Equation of state of real gases . 665 19.6.3 Equation of states for liquids and solids . 671 20 Heat, conversion of energy and changes of state 675 20.1 Energyforms . 675 20.1.1 Energy units . 675 20.1.2 Work . 676 20.1.3 Chemical potential . 677 20.1.4 Heat . 678 20.2 Energy conversion . 679 20.2.1 Conversion of equivalent energies into heat . 679 20.2.2 Conversion of heat into other forms of energy . 683 20.2.3 Exergy and anergy . 683 20.3 Heat capacity . 684 20.3.1 Total heat capacity . 684 20.3.2 Molar heat capacity . 686 20.3.3 Specific heat capacity . 687 xvi Contents 20.4 Changes of state . 691 20.4.1 Reversible and irreversible processes . 691 20.4.2 Isothermal processes . 692 20.4.3 Isobaric processes . 693 20.4.4 Isochoric processes . 694 20.4.5 Adiabatic (isentropic) processes . 695 20.4.6 Equilibrium states . 697 20.5 Laws of thermodynamics . 698 20.5.1 Zeroth law of thermodynamics . 698 20.5.2 First law of thermodynamics . 698 20.5.3 Second law of thermodynamics . 701 20.5.4 Third law of thermodynamics . 702 20.6 Carnot cycle . 702 20.6.1 Principle and application . 702 20.6.2 Reduced heat . 705 20.7 Thermodynamic machines . 706 20.7.1 Right-handed and left-handed processes . 706 20.7.2 Heat pump and refrigerator . 707 20.7.3 Stirling cycle . 708 20.7.4 Steam engine . 709 20.7.5 Open systems . 710 20.7.6 Otto and Diesel engines . 711 20.7.7 Gasturbines . 713 20.8 Gas liquefaction . 714 20.8.1 Generation of low temperatures . 714 20.8.2 Joule-Thomson effect . 715 21 Phase transitions, reactions and equalizing of heat 717 21.1 Phase and state of aggregation . 717 21.1.1 Phase . 717 21.1.2 Aggregation states . 717 21.1.3 Conversions of aggregation states . 718 21.1.4 Vapor . 719 21.2 Order of phase transitions . 720 21.2.1 First-order phase transition . 720 21.2.2 Second-order phase transition . 721 21.2.3 Lambda transitions . 722 21.2.4 Phase-coexistence region . 722 21.2.5 Critical indices . 723 21.3 Phase transition and Van der Waals gas . 724 21.3.1 Phase equilibrium . 724 21.3.2 Maxwell construction . 724 21.3.3 Delayed boiling and delayed condensation . 726 21.3.4 Theorem of corresponding states . 727 21.4 Examples of phase transitions . 727 21.4.1 Magnetic phase transitions . 727 21.4.2 Order-disorder phase transitions . 728 21.4.3 Change in the crystal structure . 729 21.4.4 Liquid crystals . 730 21.4.5 Superconductivity . 730 21.4.6 Superfluidity . 731 Contents xvii 21.5 Mu lticomponent gases . 731 21.5.1 Partial pressure and Dalton's law . 732 21.5.2 Euler equation and Gibbs-Duhem relation . 733 21.6 Multiphase systems . 734 21.6.1 Phase equilibrium . 734 21.6.2 Gibbs phase rule . 734 21.6.3 Clausius-Clapeyron equation . 735 21.7 Vapor pressure of solutions . 736 21.7.1 Raoult's law . 736 21.7.2 Boiling-point elevation and freezing-point depression . 736 21.7.3 Henry-Dalton law . 738 21.7.4 Steam-air mixtures (humid air) . 738 21.8 Chemical reactions . 742 21.8.1 Stoichiometry . 743 21.8.2 Phase rule for chemical reactions . 744 21.8.3 Law of mass action . 744 21.8.4 pH- value and solubility product . 746 21.9 Equalization of temperature . 748 21.9.1 Mixing temperature of two systems . 748 21.9.2 Reversible and irreversible processes . 749 21.10 Heat transfer . 750 21.10.1 Heat flow . 751 21.10.2 Heat transfer . 751 21.10.3 Heat conduction . 753 21.10.4 Thermal resistance . 757 21.10.5 Heat transmission . 759 21.10.6 Heat radiation . 764 21.10.7 Deposition of radiation . 764 21.11 Transport of heat and mass . 766 21.11.1 Fourier's law . 766 21.11.2 Continuity equation . 766 21.11.3 Heat conduction equation . 767 21.11.4 Fick 's law and diffusion equation . 768 21.11.5 Solution of the equation of heat conduction and diffusion . . . 769 Formula symbols used in thermodynamics 771 22 Tables on thermodynamics 775 22.1 Characteristic temperatures . 775 22.1.1 Units and calibration points . 775 22.1.2 Melting and boiling points . 777 22.1.3 Curie and Néel temperatures . 786 22.2 Characteristics of real gases . 787 22.3 Thermal properties of substances . 788 22.3.1 Viscosity . 788 22.3.2 Expansion, heat capacity and thermal conductivity . 789 22.4 Heat transmission . 795 22.5 Practical correction data . 798 22.5.1 Pressure measurement . 798 22.5.2 Volume measurements — conversion to standard temperature . 803 22.6 Generation of liquid low-temperature baths . 804 xviii Contents 22.7 Dehydrators. 805 22.8 Vapor pressure. 806 22.8.1 Solutions . 806 22.8.2 Relative humidity . 806 22.8.3 Vapor pressure of water . 807 22.9 Specific enthalpies . 809 Part V Quantum physics 815 23 Photons, electromagnetic radiation and light quanta 817 23.1 Planck's radiation law . 817 23.2 Photoelectric effect . 820 23.3 Compton effect . 822 24 Matter waves — wave mechanics of particles 825 24.1 Wave character of particles . 825 24.2 Heisenberg's uncertainty principle . 827 24.3 Wave function and observable . 827 24.4 Schrödinger equation . 835 24.4.1 Piecewise constant potentials . 837 24.4.2 Harmonic oscillator . 841 24.4.3 Pauli principle . 843 24.5 Spin and magnetic moments . 844 24.5.1 Spin . 844 24.5.2 Magnetic moments . 847 25 Atomic and molecular physics 851 25.1 Fundamentals of spectroscopy . 851 25.2 Hydrogen atom . 854 25.2.1 Bohr's postulates . 855 25.3 Stationary states and quantum numbers in the central field . 859 25.4 Many-electron atoms . 864 25.5 X-rays . 868 25.5.1 Applications of x-rays . 870 25.6 Molecular spectra . 871 25.7 Atoms in external fields . 874 25.8 Periodic Table of elements . 877 25.9 Interaction of photons with atoms and molecules . 879 25.9.1 Spontaneous and induced emission . 879 26 Elementary particle physics — standard model 883 26.1 Unification of interactions . 883 26.1.1 Standard model . 883 26.1.2 Field quanta or gauge bosons . 887 26.1.3 Fermions and bosons . 889 26.2 Leptons, quarks, and vector bosons . 891 26.2.1 Leptons . 891 26.2.2 Quarks . 892 26.2.3 Hadrons . 894 26.2.4 Accelerators and detectors . 898 Contents xix 26.3 Symmetries and conservation laws . 900 26.3.1 Parity conservation and the weak interaction . 900 26.3.2 Charge conservation and pair production . 901 26.3.3 Charge conjugation and antiparticles . 902 26.3.4 Time-reversal invariance and inverse reactions . 903 26.3.5 Conservation laws . 903 26.3.6 Beyond the standard model . 904 27 Nuclear physics 907 27.1 Constituents of the atomic nucleus . 907 27.2 Basic quantities of the atomic nucleus . 910 27.3 Nucleon-nucleon interaction . 912 27.3.1 Phénoménologie nucleon-nucleon potentials . 912 27.3.2 Meson exchange potentials . 914 27.4 Nuclear models . 915 27.4.1 Fermi-gas model . 915 27.4.2 Nuclear matter . 915 27.4.3 Droplet model . 916 27.4.4 Shell model . 917 27.4.5 Collective model . 920 27.5 Nuclear reactions . 922 27.5.1 Reaction channels and cross-sections . 922 27.5.2 Conservation laws in nuclear reactions . 926 27.5.3 Elastic scattering . 928 27.5.4 Compound-nuclear reactions . 929 27.5.5 Optical model . 931 27.5.6 Direct reactions . 931 27.5.7 Heavy-ion reactions . 932 27.5.8 Nuclear fission . 935 27.6 Nuclear decay . 937 27.6.1 Decay law . 938 27.6.2 α -decay. 941 27.6.3 јб -decay . 943 27.6.4 /-decay . 946 27.6.5 Emission of nucléons and nucleón clusters . 947 27.7 Nuclear reactor . 947 27.7.1 Types of reactors . 949 27.8 Nuclear fusion . 950 27.9 Interaction of radiation with matter . 953 27.9.1 Ionizing particles . 953 27.9.2 /-radiation . 956 27.10 Dosimetry . 958 27.10.1 Methods of dosage measurements . 962 27.10.2 Environmental radioactivity . 964 28 Solid-state physics 967 28.1 Structure of solid bodies . 967 28.1.1 Basic concepts of solid-state physics . 967 28.1.2 Structure of crystals . 968 28.1.3 Bravais lattices . 970 28.1.4 Methods for structure investigation . 974 28.1.5 Bond relations in crystals . 976 ;x Contents 28.2 Lattice defects . 979 28.2.1 Pointdefects . 979 28.2.2 One-dimensional defects . 981 28.2.3 Two-dimensional lattice defects . 982 28.2.4 Amorphous solids . 983 28.3 Mechanical properties of materials . 984 28.3.1 Macromolecular solids . 984 28.3.2 Compound materials . 987 28.3.3 Alloys . 988 28.3.4 Liquid crystals . 990 28.4 Phonons and lattice vibrations . 991 28.4.1 Elastic waves . 991 28.4.2 Phonons and specific heat capacity . 995 28.4.3 Einstein model . 996 28.4.4 Debye model . 997 28.4.5 Heat conduction . 999 28.5 Electrons in solids . 1000 28.5.1 Free-electron gas . 1001 28.5.2 Band model . 1007 28.6 Semiconductors . 1011 28.6.1 Extrinsic conduction . 1014 28.6.2 Semiconductor diode . 1016 28.6.3 Transistor . 1023 28.6.4 Unipolar (field effect) transistors . 1030 28.6.5 Thyristor. 1032 28.6.6 Integrated circuits (1С). 1034 28.6.7 Operational amplifiers . 1037 28.7 Superconductivity . 1042 28.7.1 Fundamental properties of superconductivity . 1043 28.7.2 High-temperature superconductors . 1047 28.8 Magnetic properties . 1049 28.8.1 Ferromagnetism . 1052 28.8.2 Antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism . 1054 28.9 Dielectric properties . 1055 28.9.1 Para-electric materials . 1059 28.9.2 Ferroelectrics . 1059 28.10 Optical properties of crystals . 1060 28.10.1 Excitons and their properties . 1061 28.10.2 Photoconductivity . 1062 28.10.3 Luminescence . 1063 28.10.4 Optoelectronic properties . 1063 Formula symbols used in quantum physics 1065 29 Tables in quantum physics 1071 29.1 Ionization potentials . 1071 29.2 Atomic and ionic radii of elements . 1078 29.3 Electron emission . 1082 29.4 X-rays . 1086 29.5 Nuclear reactions . 1087 29.6 Interaction of radiation with matter . 1088 Contents xxi 29.7 Hall effect . 1089 29.8 Superconductors . 1091 29.9 Semiconductors . 1093 29.9.1 Thermal, magnetic and electric properties of semiconductors . 1093 Part VI Appendix 1095 30 Measurements and measurement errors 1097 30.1 Description of measurements . 1097 30.1.1 Quantities and SI units . 1097 30.2 Error theory and statistics . 1100 30.2.1 Types of errors . 1100 30.2.2 Mean values of runs . 1102 30.2.3 Variance . 1104 30.2.4 Correlation . 1105 30.2.5 Regression analysis . 1106 30.2.6 Rate distributions . 1106 30.2.7 Reliability . 1111 31 Vector calculus 1115 31.1.1 Vectors . 1115 31.1.2 Multiplication by a scalar . 1116 31.1.3 Addition and subtraction of vectors . 1117 31.1.4 Multiplication of vectors . 1117 32 Differential and integral calculus 1121 32.1 Differential calculus . 1121 32.1.1 Differentiation rales . 1121 32.2 Integral calculus . 1122 32.2.1 Integration rules . 1123 32.3 Derivatives and integrals of elementary functions . 1124 33 Tables on the SI 1125 Index 1131
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