Sustainable energy: choosing among options
Gespeichert in:
| Format: | Buch |
|---|---|
| Sprache: | English |
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Cambridge, Mass.
MIT Press
2005
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| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | XXIII, 846 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |
| ISBN: | 0262201534 |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804135351655071744 |
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| adam_text | SUSTAINABLE ENERGY CHOOSING AMONG OPTIONS JEFFERSON W. TESTER, ELISABETH
M. DRAKE, MICHAEL W. GOLAY, MICHAEL J. DRISCOLL, AND WILLIAM A. PETERS
THE MIT PRESS CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS LONDON, ENGLAND CONTENTS PREFACE
XVII ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XXI CHAPTER 1 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY*THE ENGINE OF
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ... 1 1.1 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY: THE ENGINE OF
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2 1.2 DEFINING ENERGY*SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING
FOUNDATIONS 9 1.3 ASPECTS OF ENERGY PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION 17 1.4
NATIONAL AND GLOBAL PATTERNS OF ENERGY SUPPLY AND UTILIZATION 24 1.5
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF ENERGY*GAINING UNDERSTANDING 32 1.6 CONFRONTING
THE ENERGY-PROSPERITY-ENVIRONMENTAL DILEMMA 41 1.7 MATHEMATICAL
REPRESENTATIONS OF SUSTAINABILITY 45 1.8 THE REST OF THIS BOOK 47
REFERENCES 48 CHAPTER 2 ESTIMATION AND EVALUATION OF ENERGY RESOURCES 51
2.1 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT: ENERGY AND POWER 52 2.2 COMPARISON OF
DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY 54 2.3 THE ENERGY LIFECYCLE 56 2.4 ESTIMATION
AND VALUATION OF FOSSIL MINERAL FUELS, ESPECIALLY PETROLEUM 64 2.4.1
ASKING THE RIGHT QUESTIONS AND AVOIDING THE UNANSWERABLE ONES 64 2.4.2
PERSPECTIVES FROM MINERAL GEOLOGY 65 2.4.3 TWO INTERPRETATIONS OF
HYDROCARBON FUEL ECONOMICS 66 2.4.4 CATEGORIES OF RESERVES 73 2.4.5
FORECASTING MINERAL FUEL PRICES AND SUPPLIES 75 2.4.6 GEOPOLITICAL
FACTORS AND ENERGY SUPPLY CRISES 79 2.5 LESSONS FOR SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT 82 2.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 83 REFERENCES 83 CHAPTER 3
TECHNICAL PERFORMANCE: ALLOWABILITY, EFFICIENCY, PRODUCTION RATES 87 3.1
RELATION TO SUSTAINABILITY 88 3.2 AN INTRODUCTION TO METHODS OF
THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS 90 3.2.1 ALLOWABILITY, EFFICIENCY, AND THE SECOND
LAW 90 3.2.2 MORE ABOUT ENTROPY 92 VI CONTENTS 3.2.3 ANALYSIS OF IDEAL
(CARNOT) HEAT ENGINES 98 3.2.4 ANALYSIS OF REAL WORLD (IRREVERSIBLE)
HEAT ENGINES 100 3.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF RATE PROCESSES IN ENERGY
CONVERSION 115 3.4 CHEMICAL RATE PROCESSES 116 3.5 THE PHYSICAL
TRANSPORT OF HEAT 120 3.5.1 FOUNDATIONS FOR QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS 120
3.5.2 THERMAL CONDUCTION 122 3.5.3 CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER 123 3.5.4
RADIATIVE HEAT TRANSMISSION 124 3.5.5 HEAT TRANSFER BY TANDEM MECHANISMS
128 3.6 USE AND ABUSE OF TIME SCALES 129 3.7 ENERGY RESOURCES AND ENERGY
CONVERSION*FERTILE COMMON GROUND . . . . . . . . 131 REFERENCES 131
PROBLEMS 134 CHAPTER 4 LOCAL, REGIONAL, AND GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
OF ENERGY . . 137 4.1 HOW ENERGY SYSTEMS INTERACT WITH THE ENVIRONMENT
138 4.1.1 KNOWN AND POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS 138 4.1.2 ORIGIN OF
HARMFUL AGENTS 140 4.1.3 LENGTH AND TIME SCALES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS 143 4.2 ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OVER LOCAL AND REGIONAL
LENGTH SCALES 147 4.2.1 AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION 147 4.2.2 ADULTERATION OF
SOIL, WATER, AND INDOOR AIR 156 4.2.3 TRANSPORT AND TRANSFORMATION OF
AIR, GROUND, AND WATER CONTAMINATION 157 4.3 GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE:
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OVER PLANETARY-LENGTH SCALES 158 4.3.1
INTRODUCTION 158 4.3.2 BASIC SCIENCE OF THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT 160 4.3.3
ENERGY AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT 167 4.3.4 GREENHOUSE CONSEQUENCES:
CONSENSUS, UNKNOWNS, MISCONCEPTIONS 172 4.3.5 TECHNOLOGICAL AND POLICY
RESPONSE STRATEGIES: EVOLUTIONARY AND REVOLUTIONARY . . 178 4.4
ATTRIBUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE TO ENERGY UTILIZATION 184 4.4.1
DIAGNOSING RECEPTOR JEOPARDY AND INJURY 185 4.4.2 SOURCE IDENTIFICATION
, 190 4.4.3 RISK AND UNCERTAINTY 191 4.5 METHODS OF ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION 191 4.5.1 ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT AS AN ENSEMBLE OF
COUPLED COMPLEX SYSTEMS .... 191 4.5.2 EARTH-SYSTEM ECOLOGY AS A WORKING
PARADIGM 192 4.5.3 PUBLIC POLICY INSTRUMENTS 195 4.5.4 TECHNOLOGICAL
REMEDIES 196 CONTENTS VII 4.6 ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF ENERGY 196 4.6.1
POLLUTION PREVENTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION . 196 4.6.2 SOCIAL
AND ECONOMIC FOUNDATIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSHIP 197 4.7
IMPLICATIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE ENERGY 197 4.7.1 ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINTS
AS SUSTAINABILITY METRICS 197 4.7.2 THE UNUSUAL CHALLENGE OF GLOBAL
CLIMATE CHANGE 198 PROBLEMS 199 APPENDIX: LESSONS FROM SO2 EMISSIONS
TRADING 200 REFERENCES 203 CHAPTER 5 PROJECT ECONOMIC EVALUATION 207 5.1
INTRODUCTION 208 5.2 TIME VALUE OF MONEY MECHANICS 211 5.2.1 BASIC
ASPECTS . . 211 5.2.2 APPLICATION TO A TYPICAL CASH FLOW SCENARIO 213
5.2.3 DERIVATION OF RELATIONS 215 5.2.4 PITFALLS, ERRORS, AND
AMBIGUITIES 220 5.3 CURRENT VERSUS CONSTANT-DOLLAR COMPARISONS 222 5.4
SIMPLE PAYBACK 225 5.5 ECONOMY OF SCALE AND LEARNING CURVE 225 5.6
ALLOWING FOR UNCERTAINTY 229 5.6.1 OVERVIEW 229 5.6.2 ANALYTIC
UNCERTAINTY PROPAGATION 229 5.6.3 THE MONTE CARLO METHOD 230 5.6.4
DECISION TREE METHOD 232 5.7 ACCOUNTING FOR EXTERNALITIES 232 5.8 ENERGY
ACCOUNTING 239 5.9 MODELING BEYOND THE PROJECT LEVEL 241 5.10 CHAPTER
SUMMARY 243 APPENDIX A 245 APPENDIX B 247 REFERENCES 251 PROBLEMS 254
CHAPTER 6 ENERGY SYSTEMS AND SUSTAINABILITY METRICS 259 6.1 INTRODUCTION
AND HISTORICAL NOTES 260 6.2 ENERGY FROM A SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE 263 6.3
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS APPROACHES 271 VIII CONTENTS 6.3.1 LIFECYCLE ANALYSIS
273 6.3.2 SIMULATION MODELS 275 6.3.3 RISK-BASED MODELS 276 6.4 MEASURES
OF SUSTAINABILITY 279 6.4.1 GENERAL INDICATORS OF SUSTAINABILITY 280
6.4.2 CATEGORIES OF INDICATORS 282 6.5 DRIVERS OF SOCIETAL CHANGE 284
6.6 SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 287 REFERENCES
289 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 292 PROBLEMS 292 CHAPTER 7 FOSSIL FUELS AND
FOSSIL ENERGY 295 7.1 INTRODUCTION 296 7.1.1 DEFINITION AND TYPES OF
FOSSIL FUELS 296 7.1.2 HISTORICAL AND CURRENT CONTRIBUTIONS OF FOSSIL
FUELS TO HUMAN PROGRESS 300 7.1.3 SUSTAINABILITY: CHALLENGES AND
OPPORTUNITIES 302 7.2 THE FOSSIL FUEL RESOURCE BASE 302 7.2.1 HOW LONG
WILL FOSSIL FUELS LAST? 302 7.2.2 UNCONVENTIONAL NATURALLY OCCURRING
FOSSIL FUELS . 303 7.2.3 FOSSIL RESOURCES AND SUSTAINABILITY 305 7.3
HARVESTING ENERGY AND ENERGY PRODUCTS FROM FOSSIL FUELS 306 7.3.1
EXPLORATION, DISCOVERY, AND EXTRACTION OF FUELS 306 7.3.2 FUEL STORAGE
AND TRANSPORTATION 306 7.3.3 FUEL CONVERSION 307 7.3.4 FUEL COMBUSTION
317 7.3.5 DIRECT GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY: FUEL CELLS 324 7.3.6
MANUFACTURE OF CHEMICALS AND OTHER PRODUCTS 329 7.4 ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS 329 7.4.1 POLLUTANT SOURCES AND REMEDIES: THE FUEL ITSELF 329
7.4.2 POLLUTANT SOURCES AND REMEDIES: COMBUSTION PATHOLOGIES 332 7.4.3
POLLUTANT SOURCES AND REMEDIES: CARBON MANAGEMENT 333 7.5 GEOPOLITICAL
AND SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS 337 7.5.1 GLOBALIZATION OF FOSSIL ENERGY
SOURCES 337 7.5.2 EQUITABLE ACCESS, REVENUE SCAFFOLDS, AMERICAN
GRAFFITI 338 7.6 ECONOMICS OF FOSSIL ENERGY 341 7.7 SOME PRINCIPLES FOR
EVALUATING FOSSIL AND OTHER ENERGY TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS .... 346 7.8
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES 353 CONTENTS IX 7.9 CLOSURE: WHY ARE FOSSIL FUELS
IMPORTANT TO SUSTAINABLE ENERGY? 353 REFERENCES 355 PROBLEMS 359 CHAPTER
8 NUCLEAR POWER 361 8.1 NUCLEAR HISTORY 362 8.2 PHYSICS 364 8.3 NUCLEAR
REACTORS 364 8.4 BURNING AND BREEDING 368 8.5 NUCLEAR POWER ECONOMICS
369 8.6 THE THREE MILE ISLAND 2 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT ACCIDENT 370 8.7
REACTOR SAFETY 372 8.8 LIGHT-WATER REACTORS (LWR) 374 8.9
PRESSURIZED-WATER REACTOR (PWR) TECHNOLOGIES 374 8.10 BOILING-WATER
REACTOR (BWR) TECHNOLOGY 377 8.11 RBMK REACTORS 377 8.12 HEAVY-WATER
COOLED TECHNOLOGIES 380 8.13 GAS-COOLED REACTOR TECHNOLOGIES 380 8.14
LIQUID-METAL REACTOR TECHNOLOGIES 384 8.15 ACTINIDE BURNING 385 8.16
ADVANCED REACTORS 387 8.17 NUCLEAR POWER FUEL RESOURCES 387 8.18 FUEL
CYCLE 389 8.18.1 URANIUM MINING 390 8.18.2 URANIUM MILLING 390 8.18.3
CONVERSION 391 8.18.4 ENRICHMENT 391 8.18.5 FUEL FABRICATION 392 8.18.6
SPENT FUEL 392 8.18.7 REPROCESSING 393 8.18.8 HIGH LEVEL WASTES (HLW)
DISPOSAL 394 8.19 FUSION ENERGY 397 8.19.1 INTRODUCTION 397 8.19.2 WHY
IS FUSION MORE DIFFICULT THAN FISSION? 398 8.19.3 MAGNETIC FUSION ENERGY
400 8.19.4 INERTIAL FUSION ENERGY 401 8.19.5 PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE
402 8.20 FUTURE PROSPECTS FOR NUCLEAR POWER 404 REFERENCES 405
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 406 X CONTENTS CHAPTER 9 RENEWABLE ENERGY IN
CONTEXT 407 9.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL NOTES 408 9.2 RESOURCE
ASSESSMENT 410 9.3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS 412 9.4 TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
AND DEPLOYMENT 413 9.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF STORAGE 414 9.6 CONNECTING
RENEWABLES TO HYDROGEN 414 9.7 THE FUTURE FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY 415 9.8
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 416 REFERENCES 416 CHAPTER 10 BIOMASS ENERGY 419
10.1 CHARACTERIZING THE BIOMASS RESOURCE 420 10.2 BIOMASS RELEVANCE TO
ENERGY PRODUCTION 424 10.2.1 UTILIZATION OPTIONS 424 10.2.2 ADVANTAGES
AND DISADVANTAGES 424 10.2.3 MORE ON RESOURCES 427 10.3 CHEMICAL AND
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES RELEVANT TO ENERGY PRODUCTION 429 10.4 BIOMASS
PRODUCTION: USEFUL SCALING PARAMETERS 430 10.5 THERMAL CONVERSION OF
BIOMASS 432 10.5.1 BIOMASS TO ELECTRICITY 432 10.5.2 BIOMASS TO FUELS
434 10.6 BIOCONVERSION 437 10.6.1 INTRODUCTION 437 10.6.2 BIOGAS 437
10.6.3 FERMENTATION ETHANOL FROM CORN AND CELLULOSIC BIOMASS 440 10.7
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 440 10.8 ECONOMICS 443 10.9 ENABLING RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT 444 10.10 DISRUPTIVE TECHNOLOGY . 444 10.11 SUMMARY 446
REFERENCES 446 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 449 PROBLEMS 449 CHAPTER 11
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 453 11.1 CHARACTERIZATION OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE TYPES
454 11.1.1 DEFINITION IN GENERAL 454 11.1.2 NATURAL HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS
457 CONTENTS XI 11.1.3 GEOPRESSURED SYSTEMS 459 11.1.4 HOT DRY ROCK 459
11.1.5 MAGMA 461 11.1.6 ULTRA LOW-GRADE SYSTEMS 461 11.1.7 MARKETS FOR
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 462 11.2 GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION 464
11.2.1 OVERALL FRAMEWORK AND TERMINOLOGY 464 11.2.2 QUALITY ISSUES 465
11.2.3 RESOURCE BASE AND RESERVE ESTIMATES 466 11.3 PRACTICAL OPERATION
AND EQUIPMENT FOR RECOVERING ENERGY 468 11.3.1 DRILLING AND FIELD
DEVELOPMENT 468 11.3.2 RESERVOIR FLUID PRODUCTION 469 11.3.3
NON-ELECTRIC, DIRECT-HEAT UTILIZATION 473 11.3.4 ELECTRIC POWER
GENERATION 477 11.3.5 EQUIPMENT 481 11.3.6 POWER CYCLE PERFORMANCE 485
11.4 SUSTAINABILITY ATTRIBUTES 487 11.4.1 RESERVOIR LIFETIME ISSUES 487
11.4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS 488 11.4.3 DISPATCHABLE HEAT AND POWER
DELIVERY 490 11.4.4 SUITABILITY FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 490 11.4.5
POTENTIAL FOR CO2 REDUCTION AND POLLUTION PREVENTION 490 11.5 STATUS OF
GEOTHERMAL TECHNOLOGY TODAY 491 11.5.1 HYDROTHERMAL 491 11.5.2 ADVANCED
SYSTEMS 495 11.6 COMPETING IN TODAY S ENERGY MARKETS 505 11.7 RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT ADVANCES NEEDED 508 11.8 POTENTIAL FOR THE LONG TERM 510
REFERENCES 510 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 517 PROBLEMS 517 CHAPTER 12
HYDROPOWER 519 12.1 OVERVIEW OF HYDROPOWER 520 12.2 HYDROPOWER RESOURCE
ASSESSMENT 522 12.3 BASIC ENERGY CONVERSION PRINCIPLES 525 12.4
CONVERSION EQUIPMENT AND CIVIL ENGINEERING OPERATIONS 527 12.4.1 CIVIL
ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF DAM CONSTRUCTION AND WATERWAY MANAGEMENT . . .
527 12.4.2 TURBINES AS ENERGY CONVERTERS 529 XII CONTENTS 12.5
SUSTAINABILITY ATTRIBUTES 531 12.6 STATUS OF HYDROPOWER TECHNOLOGY TODAY
535 12.6.1 ECONOMIC ISSUES 535 12.6.2 POTENTIAL FOR GROWTH 537 12.6.3
ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY NEEDS 538 REFERENCES 540 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 542
PROBLEMS 542 CHAPTER 13 SOLAR ENERGY 543 13.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
SOLAR ENERGY 544 13.2 RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 544 13.3 PASSIVE AND ACTIVE
SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY FOR BUILDINGS 554 13.3.1 MOTIVATION AND GENERAL
ISSUES 554 13.3.2 PASSIVE SYSTEMS 555 13.3.3 ACTIVE SYSTEMS 556 13.3.4
ECONOMIC AND POLICY ISSUES 559 13.4 SOLAR THERMAL ELECTRIC
SYSTEMS*CONCENTRATING SOLAR POWER 561 13.4.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND OPTIONS
561 13.4.2 POWER TOWER*CENTRAL RECEIVER SYSTEMS 562 13.4.3 PARABOLIC
TROUGHS 565 13.4.4 DISH ENGINE SYSTEMS 568 13.4.5 CURRENT STATUS AND
FUTURE POTENTIAL OF CSP 569 13.5 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) SYSTEMS 572
13.5.1 SOLID STATE PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY FUNDAMENTALS 573 13.5.2
PERFORMANCE LIMITS AND DESIGN OPTIONS 575 13.5.3 SILICA-BASED SYSTEMS
(CRYSTALLINE AND AMORPHOUS) 578 13.5.4 COPPER INDIUM DISELENIDE (CIS)
579 13.5.5 CADMIUM TELLURIDE (CDTE) 579 13.5.6 CURRENT STATUS AND FUTURE
POTENTIAL OF PV 580 13.6 SUSTAINABILITY ATTRIBUTES 582 13.7 SUMMARY AND
PROGNOSIS 584 REFERENCES 585 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 586 PROBLEMS 587
CHAPTER 14 OCEAN WAVES, TIDE, AND THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION 589 14.1
INTRODUCTION 590 14.2 ENERGY FROM THE TIDES 590 CONTENTS XIII 14.3
ENERGY FROM THE WAVES: OVERVIEW 597 14.4 ENERGY FROM TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCES 599 14.4.1 OVERVIEW 599 14.4.2 PERFORMANCE LIMITS 600 14.4.3
OTEC TECHNOLOGY 602 14.5 ECONOMIC PROSPECTS 604 14.6 ENVIRONMENTAL AND
SUSTAINABILITY CONSIDERATIONS 605 14.7 THE OCEAN AS AN EXTERNALITIES
SINK 606 14.8 CURRENT STATUS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS 606 REFERENCES 607 WEB
SITES OF INTEREST 609 PROBLEMS 609 APPENDIX 611 CHAPTER 15 WIND ENERGY
613 15.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL NOTES 614 15.2 WIND RESOURCES 617
15.2.1 WIND QUALITY 619 15.2.2 VARIATION OF WIND SPEED WITH ELEVATION
622 15.2.3 AIR DENSITY 624 15.2.4 MAXIMUM WIND TURBINE EFFICIENCY: THE
BETZ RATIO 624 15.3 WIND MACHINERY AND GENERATING SYSTEMS 627 15.3.1
OVERVIEW 627 15.3.2 ROTOR BLADE ASSEMBLY 627 15.3.3 TOWER 630 15.3.4
NACELLE COMPONENTS 630 15.3.5 BALANCE-OF-STATION SUBSYSTEMS 630 15.3.6
SYSTEM DESIGN CHALLENGES 631 15.4 WIND TURBINE RATING 631 15.5 WIND
POWER ECONOMICS 632 15.6 MEASURES OF SUSTAINABILITY 635 15.6.1 NET
ENERGY ANALYSIS 635 15.6.2 COST OF EXTERNALITIES 635 15.6.3
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF WIND POWER 636 15.7 CURRENT STATUS/FUTURE
PROSPECTS 637 REFERENCES 640 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 642 PROBLEMS 642
APPENDIX 645 XIV CONTENTS CHAPTER 16 STORAGE, TRANSPORTATION, AND
DISTRIBUTION OF ENERGY 647 16.1 OVERVIEW OF ENERGY SUPPLY INFRASTRUCTURE
NEEDS 648 16.2 CONNECTED EFFICIENCIES AND ENERGY CHAINS 651 16.3 MODES
OF ENERGY STORAGE 653 16.3.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 653 16.3.2 ENERGY
STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES 658 16.4 ENERGY TRANSMISSION 670 16.4.1 GENERAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF ENERGY TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 670 16.4.2 OIL TRANSPORT
671 16.4.3 NATURAL GAS TRANSPORT 674 16.4.4 COAL TRANSPORT 675 16.4.5
ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION 676 16.5 ENERGY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 678
16.5.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CENTRAL VERSUS DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS 678
16.5.2 COMBINED HEAT AND POWER OPPORTUNITIES 681 16.5.3 APPLICATIONS TO
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS AND HYBRIDS 683 16.6 SUSTAINABILITY ATTRIBUTES
683 16.6.1 IMPROVED RESOURCE UTILIZATION 683 16.6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL,
SAFETY, AND HEALTH CONCERNS 683 16.6.3 ECONOMIC AND OPERATIONAL
ATTRIBUTES 684 16.7 OPPORTUNITIES FOR ADVANCEMENT OF SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
INFRASTRUCTURES 684 REFERENCES 686 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 688 PROBLEMS
688 CHAPTER 17 ELECTRIC POWER SECTOR 693 17.1 INTRODUCTION AND
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES 694 17.2 POWER GENERATION 698 17.2.1 ELECTRIC
ENERGY .698 17.2.2 CENTRALIZED ENERGY GENERATION 700 17.2.3 ELECTRIC
POWER GENERATION 700 17.2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY
PRODUCTION 701 17.2.5 POWER PLANT SITING REQUIREMENTS 704 17.2.6
ELECTRICITY ECONOMICS 705 17.2.7 WAYS OF ORGANIZING THE ELECTRIC ECONOMY
707 17.2.8 DEMAND-SIDE MANAGEMENT (DSM) AND DISTRIBUTED GENERATION 708
17.2.9 ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC
DEREGULATION 708 17.3 AN EXAMPLE OF ELECTRIC INDUSTRY PLANNING USING
MULTIATTRIBUTE ASSESSMENT TOOLS . 710 CONTENTS XV 17.4 ENERGY MARKET
IMPACTS ON ELECTRICITY GENERATION OPTIONS 715 17.5 SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES
719 REFERENCES 724 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 725 PROBLEMS 726 CHAPTER 18
TRANSPORTATION SERVICES 727 18.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVES 728 18.2 ELEMENTS OF THE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM 733 18.3
TRANSPORTATION FUELS AND THE FUEL CYCLE 735 18.4 PERSONAL VEHICLES 739
18.4.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES 739 18.4.2 LOOKING FORWARD 741 18.5 A
LIFECYCLE COMPARISON OF ROAD TRANSPORT ALTERNATIVES FOR 2020 744 18.6
FREIGHT VEHICLES 752 18.7 INTERURBAN AND INTERCONTINENTAL TRANSPORT 753
18.8 MOTORIZATION TRENDS 753 18.9 SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES 755 REFERENCES
757 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 758 PROBLEMS 758 CHAPTER 19 INDUSTRIAL ENERGY
USAGE 761 19.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES 762 19.2
LIFECYCLE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN FOR SUSTAINABILITY 763 19.3 METALS
INDUSTRIES 766 19.4 CEMENT AND LIME INDUSTRIES 767 19.5 CHEMICAL
INDUSTRIES 769 19.6 FOREST PRODUCTS AND AGRICULTURE 770 19.7 WASTE
MANAGEMENT INDUSTRIES 772 19.8 SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES 773 REFERENCES 774
WEB SITES OF INTEREST 775 PROBLEMS 775 CHAPTER 20 COMMERCIAL AND
RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS 777 20.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
778 20.2 LIFECYCLE ANALYSIS 780 20.3 RESIDENTIAL BUILDING DESIGN 784
20.4 COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 789 XVI CONTENTS 20.5 INDOOR AIR QUALITY 791
20.6 SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES 792 REFERENCES 794 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 795
PROBLEMS 795 CHAPTER 21 SYNERGISTIC COMPLEX SYSTEMS 797 21.1
INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL NOTES 798 21.2 THE COMPLEX SYSTEMS VIEW 800
21.2.1 EXPERTPANELS 801 21.2.2 DECISION ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES 802 21.2.3
NEGOTIATION 805 21.2.4 HOW ARE DECISIONS REALLY MADE? 805 21.3 SOME CASE
STUDIES 806 21.3.1 BEYOND THE LIMITS (MEADOWS ETAL., 1992) 807 21.3.2
WHICH WORLD? (HAMMOND, 1998) 811 21.3.3 MIT JOINT PROGRAM ON THE SCIENCE
AND POLICY OF GLOBAL CHANGE: INTEGRATED GLOBAL CLIMATE MODEL 812 21.4
TRANSITIONAL PATHWAYS 816 21.5 THE CHALLENGE TO SOCIETY 817 REFERENCES
819 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 820 PROBLEMS 821 CHAPTER 22 CHOOSING AMONG
OPTIONS 823 CONVERSION FACTORS 827 LIST OF ACRONYMS 831 INDEX 837
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SUSTAINABLE ENERGY CHOOSING AMONG OPTIONS JEFFERSON W. TESTER, ELISABETH
M. DRAKE, MICHAEL W. GOLAY, MICHAEL J. DRISCOLL, AND WILLIAM A. PETERS
THE MIT PRESS CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS LONDON, ENGLAND CONTENTS PREFACE
XVII ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XXI CHAPTER 1 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY*THE ENGINE OF
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT . 1 1.1 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY: THE ENGINE OF
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2 1.2 DEFINING ENERGY*SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING
FOUNDATIONS 9 1.3 ASPECTS OF ENERGY PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION 17 1.4
NATIONAL AND GLOBAL PATTERNS OF ENERGY SUPPLY AND UTILIZATION 24 1.5
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF ENERGY*GAINING UNDERSTANDING 32 1.6 CONFRONTING
THE ENERGY-PROSPERITY-ENVIRONMENTAL DILEMMA 41 1.7 MATHEMATICAL
REPRESENTATIONS OF SUSTAINABILITY 45 1.8 THE REST OF THIS BOOK 47
REFERENCES 48 CHAPTER 2 ESTIMATION AND EVALUATION OF ENERGY RESOURCES 51
2.1 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT: ENERGY AND POWER 52 2.2 COMPARISON OF
DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY 54 2.3 THE ENERGY LIFECYCLE 56 2.4 ESTIMATION
AND VALUATION OF FOSSIL MINERAL FUELS, ESPECIALLY PETROLEUM 64 2.4.1
ASKING THE RIGHT QUESTIONS AND AVOIDING THE UNANSWERABLE ONES 64 2.4.2
PERSPECTIVES FROM MINERAL GEOLOGY 65 2.4.3 TWO INTERPRETATIONS OF
HYDROCARBON FUEL ECONOMICS 66 2.4.4 CATEGORIES OF RESERVES 73 2.4.5
FORECASTING MINERAL FUEL PRICES AND SUPPLIES 75 2.4.6 GEOPOLITICAL
FACTORS AND ENERGY SUPPLY "CRISES" 79 2.5 LESSONS FOR SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT 82 2.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 83 REFERENCES 83 CHAPTER 3
TECHNICAL PERFORMANCE: ALLOWABILITY, EFFICIENCY, PRODUCTION RATES 87 3.1
RELATION TO SUSTAINABILITY 88 3.2 AN INTRODUCTION TO METHODS OF
THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS 90 3.2.1 ALLOWABILITY, EFFICIENCY, AND THE SECOND
LAW 90 3.2.2 MORE ABOUT ENTROPY 92 VI CONTENTS 3.2.3 ANALYSIS OF IDEAL
(CARNOT) HEAT ENGINES 98 3.2.4 ANALYSIS OF REAL WORLD (IRREVERSIBLE)
HEAT ENGINES 100 3.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF RATE PROCESSES IN ENERGY
CONVERSION 115 3.4 CHEMICAL RATE PROCESSES 116 3.5 THE PHYSICAL
TRANSPORT OF HEAT 120 3.5.1 FOUNDATIONS FOR QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS 120
3.5.2 THERMAL CONDUCTION 122 3.5.3 CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER 123 3.5.4
RADIATIVE HEAT TRANSMISSION 124 3.5.5 HEAT TRANSFER BY TANDEM MECHANISMS
128 3.6 USE AND ABUSE OF TIME SCALES 129 3.7 ENERGY RESOURCES AND ENERGY
CONVERSION*FERTILE COMMON GROUND . . . . . . . . 131 REFERENCES 131
PROBLEMS 134 CHAPTER 4 LOCAL, REGIONAL, AND GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
OF ENERGY . . 137 4.1 HOW ENERGY SYSTEMS INTERACT WITH THE ENVIRONMENT
138 4.1.1 KNOWN AND POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS 138 4.1.2 ORIGIN OF
HARMFUL AGENTS 140 4.1.3 LENGTH AND TIME SCALES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS 143 4.2 ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OVER LOCAL AND REGIONAL
LENGTH SCALES 147 4.2.1 AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION 147 4.2.2 ADULTERATION OF
SOIL, WATER, AND INDOOR AIR 156 4.2.3 TRANSPORT AND TRANSFORMATION OF
AIR, GROUND, AND WATER CONTAMINATION 157 4.3 GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE:
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OVER PLANETARY-LENGTH SCALES 158 4.3.1
INTRODUCTION 158 4.3.2 BASIC SCIENCE OF THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT 160 4.3.3
ENERGY AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT 167 4.3.4 GREENHOUSE CONSEQUENCES:
CONSENSUS, UNKNOWNS, MISCONCEPTIONS 172 4.3.5 TECHNOLOGICAL AND POLICY
RESPONSE STRATEGIES: EVOLUTIONARY AND REVOLUTIONARY . . 178 4.4
ATTRIBUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE TO ENERGY UTILIZATION 184 4.4.1
DIAGNOSING RECEPTOR JEOPARDY AND INJURY 185 4.4.2 SOURCE IDENTIFICATION
, 190 4.4.3 RISK AND UNCERTAINTY 191 4.5 METHODS OF ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION 191 4.5.1 ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT AS AN ENSEMBLE OF
COUPLED COMPLEX SYSTEMS . 191 4.5.2 EARTH-SYSTEM ECOLOGY AS A WORKING
PARADIGM 192 4.5.3 PUBLIC POLICY INSTRUMENTS 195 4.5.4 TECHNOLOGICAL
REMEDIES 196 CONTENTS VII 4.6 ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF ENERGY 196 4.6.1
POLLUTION PREVENTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION . 196 4.6.2 SOCIAL
AND ECONOMIC FOUNDATIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSHIP 197 4.7
IMPLICATIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE ENERGY 197 4.7.1 ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINTS
AS SUSTAINABILITY METRICS 197 4.7.2 THE UNUSUAL CHALLENGE OF GLOBAL
CLIMATE CHANGE 198 PROBLEMS 199 APPENDIX: LESSONS FROM SO2 EMISSIONS
TRADING 200 REFERENCES 203 CHAPTER 5 PROJECT ECONOMIC EVALUATION 207 5.1
INTRODUCTION 208 5.2 TIME VALUE OF MONEY MECHANICS 211 5.2.1 BASIC
ASPECTS . . 211 5.2.2 APPLICATION TO A TYPICAL CASH FLOW SCENARIO 213
5.2.3 DERIVATION OF RELATIONS 215 5.2.4 PITFALLS, ERRORS, AND
AMBIGUITIES ' 220 5.3 CURRENT VERSUS CONSTANT-DOLLAR COMPARISONS 222 5.4
SIMPLE PAYBACK 225 5.5 ECONOMY OF SCALE AND LEARNING CURVE 225 5.6
ALLOWING FOR UNCERTAINTY 229 5.6.1 OVERVIEW 229 5.6.2 ANALYTIC
UNCERTAINTY PROPAGATION 229 5.6.3 THE MONTE CARLO METHOD 230 5.6.4
DECISION TREE METHOD 232 5.7 ACCOUNTING FOR EXTERNALITIES 232 5.8 ENERGY
ACCOUNTING 239 5.9 MODELING BEYOND THE PROJECT LEVEL 241 5.10 CHAPTER
SUMMARY 243 APPENDIX A 245 APPENDIX B 247 REFERENCES 251 PROBLEMS 254
CHAPTER 6 ENERGY SYSTEMS AND SUSTAINABILITY METRICS 259 6.1 INTRODUCTION
AND HISTORICAL NOTES 260 6.2 ENERGY FROM A SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE 263 6.3
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS APPROACHES 271 VIII CONTENTS 6.3.1 LIFECYCLE ANALYSIS
273 6.3.2 SIMULATION MODELS 275 6.3.3 RISK-BASED MODELS 276 6.4 MEASURES
OF SUSTAINABILITY 279 6.4.1 GENERAL INDICATORS OF SUSTAINABILITY 280
6.4.2 CATEGORIES OF INDICATORS 282 6.5 DRIVERS OF SOCIETAL CHANGE 284
6.6 SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 287 REFERENCES
289 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 292 PROBLEMS 292 CHAPTER 7 FOSSIL FUELS AND
FOSSIL ENERGY 295 7.1 INTRODUCTION 296 7.1.1 DEFINITION AND TYPES OF
FOSSIL FUELS 296 7.1.2 HISTORICAL AND CURRENT CONTRIBUTIONS OF FOSSIL
FUELS TO HUMAN PROGRESS 300 7.1.3 SUSTAINABILITY: CHALLENGES AND
OPPORTUNITIES 302 7.2 THE FOSSIL FUEL RESOURCE BASE 302 7.2.1 HOW LONG
WILL FOSSIL FUELS LAST? 302 7.2.2 "UNCONVENTIONAL" NATURALLY OCCURRING
FOSSIL FUELS . 303 7.2.3 FOSSIL RESOURCES AND SUSTAINABILITY 305 7.3
HARVESTING ENERGY AND ENERGY PRODUCTS FROM FOSSIL FUELS 306 7.3.1
EXPLORATION, DISCOVERY, AND EXTRACTION OF FUELS 306 7.3.2 FUEL STORAGE
AND TRANSPORTATION 306 7.3.3 FUEL CONVERSION 307 7.3.4 FUEL COMBUSTION
317 7.3.5 DIRECT GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY: FUEL CELLS 324 7.3.6
MANUFACTURE OF CHEMICALS AND OTHER PRODUCTS 329 7.4 ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS 329 7.4.1 POLLUTANT SOURCES AND REMEDIES: THE FUEL ITSELF 329
7.4.2 POLLUTANT SOURCES AND REMEDIES: COMBUSTION PATHOLOGIES 332 7.4.3
POLLUTANT SOURCES AND REMEDIES: CARBON MANAGEMENT 333 7.5 GEOPOLITICAL
AND SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS 337 7.5.1 GLOBALIZATION OF FOSSIL ENERGY
SOURCES 337 7.5.2 EQUITABLE ACCESS, REVENUE SCAFFOLDS, "AMERICAN
GRAFFITI" 338 7.6 ECONOMICS OF FOSSIL ENERGY 341 7.7 SOME PRINCIPLES FOR
EVALUATING FOSSIL AND OTHER ENERGY TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS . 346 7.8
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES 353 CONTENTS IX 7.9 CLOSURE: WHY ARE FOSSIL FUELS
IMPORTANT TO SUSTAINABLE ENERGY? 353 REFERENCES 355 PROBLEMS 359 CHAPTER
8 NUCLEAR POWER 361 8.1 NUCLEAR HISTORY 362 8.2 PHYSICS 364 8.3 NUCLEAR
REACTORS 364 8.4 BURNING AND BREEDING 368 8.5 NUCLEAR POWER ECONOMICS
369 8.6 THE THREE MILE ISLAND 2 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT ACCIDENT 370 8.7
REACTOR SAFETY 372 8.8 LIGHT-WATER REACTORS (LWR) 374 8.9
PRESSURIZED-WATER REACTOR (PWR) TECHNOLOGIES 374 8.10 BOILING-WATER
REACTOR (BWR) TECHNOLOGY 377 8.11 RBMK REACTORS 377 8.12 HEAVY-WATER
COOLED TECHNOLOGIES 380 8.13 GAS-COOLED REACTOR TECHNOLOGIES 380 8.14
LIQUID-METAL REACTOR TECHNOLOGIES 384 8.15 ACTINIDE BURNING 385 8.16
ADVANCED REACTORS 387 8.17 NUCLEAR POWER FUEL RESOURCES 387 8.18 FUEL
CYCLE 389 8.18.1 URANIUM MINING 390 8.18.2 URANIUM MILLING 390 8.18.3
CONVERSION 391 8.18.4 ENRICHMENT 391 8.18.5 FUEL FABRICATION 392 8.18.6
SPENT FUEL 392 8.18.7 REPROCESSING 393 8.18.8 HIGH LEVEL WASTES (HLW)
DISPOSAL 394 8.19 FUSION ENERGY 397 8.19.1 INTRODUCTION 397 8.19.2 WHY
IS FUSION MORE DIFFICULT THAN FISSION? 398 8.19.3 MAGNETIC FUSION ENERGY
400 8.19.4 INERTIAL FUSION ENERGY 401 8.19.5 PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE
402 8.20 FUTURE PROSPECTS FOR NUCLEAR POWER 404 REFERENCES 405
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 406 X CONTENTS CHAPTER 9 RENEWABLE ENERGY IN
CONTEXT 407 9.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL NOTES 408 9.2 RESOURCE
ASSESSMENT 410 9.3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS 412 9.4 TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
AND DEPLOYMENT 413 9.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF STORAGE 414 9.6 CONNECTING
RENEWABLES TO HYDROGEN 414 9.7 THE FUTURE FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY 415 9.8
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 416 REFERENCES 416 CHAPTER 10 BIOMASS ENERGY 419
10.1 CHARACTERIZING THE BIOMASS RESOURCE 420 10.2 BIOMASS RELEVANCE TO
ENERGY PRODUCTION 424 10.2.1 UTILIZATION OPTIONS 424 10.2.2 ADVANTAGES
AND DISADVANTAGES 424 10.2.3 MORE ON RESOURCES 427 10.3 CHEMICAL AND
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES RELEVANT TO ENERGY PRODUCTION 429 10.4 BIOMASS
PRODUCTION: USEFUL SCALING PARAMETERS 430 10.5 THERMAL CONVERSION OF
BIOMASS 432 10.5.1 BIOMASS TO ELECTRICITY 432 10.5.2 BIOMASS TO FUELS
434 10.6 BIOCONVERSION 437 10.6.1 INTRODUCTION 437 10.6.2 BIOGAS 437
10.6.3 FERMENTATION ETHANOL FROM CORN AND CELLULOSIC BIOMASS 440 10.7
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 440 10.8 ECONOMICS 443 10.9 ENABLING RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT 444 10.10 DISRUPTIVE TECHNOLOGY '. 444 10.11 SUMMARY 446
REFERENCES 446 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 449 PROBLEMS 449 CHAPTER 11
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 453 11.1 CHARACTERIZATION OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE TYPES
454 11.1.1 DEFINITION IN GENERAL 454 11.1.2 NATURAL HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS
457 CONTENTS XI 11.1.3 GEOPRESSURED SYSTEMS 459 11.1.4 HOT DRY ROCK 459
11.1.5 MAGMA 461 11.1.6 ULTRA LOW-GRADE SYSTEMS 461 11.1.7 MARKETS FOR
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 462 11.2 GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION 464
11.2.1 OVERALL FRAMEWORK AND TERMINOLOGY 464 11.2.2 QUALITY ISSUES 465
11.2.3 RESOURCE BASE AND RESERVE ESTIMATES 466 11.3 PRACTICAL OPERATION
AND EQUIPMENT FOR RECOVERING ENERGY 468 11.3.1 DRILLING AND FIELD
DEVELOPMENT 468 11.3.2 RESERVOIR FLUID PRODUCTION 469 11.3.3
NON-ELECTRIC, DIRECT-HEAT UTILIZATION 473 11.3.4 ELECTRIC POWER
GENERATION 477 11.3.5 EQUIPMENT 481 11.3.6 POWER CYCLE PERFORMANCE 485
11.4 SUSTAINABILITY ATTRIBUTES 487 11.4.1 RESERVOIR LIFETIME ISSUES 487
11.4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS 488 11.4.3 DISPATCHABLE HEAT AND POWER
DELIVERY 490 11.4.4 SUITABILITY FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 490 11.4.5
POTENTIAL FOR CO2 REDUCTION AND POLLUTION PREVENTION 490 11.5 STATUS OF
GEOTHERMAL TECHNOLOGY TODAY 491 11.5.1 HYDROTHERMAL 491 11.5.2 ADVANCED
SYSTEMS 495 11.6 COMPETING IN TODAY'S ENERGY MARKETS 505 11.7 RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT ADVANCES NEEDED 508 11.8 POTENTIAL FOR THE LONG TERM 510
REFERENCES 510 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 517 PROBLEMS 517 CHAPTER 12
HYDROPOWER 519 12.1 OVERVIEW OF HYDROPOWER 520 12.2 HYDROPOWER RESOURCE
ASSESSMENT 522 12.3 BASIC ENERGY CONVERSION PRINCIPLES 525 12.4
CONVERSION EQUIPMENT AND CIVIL ENGINEERING OPERATIONS 527 12.4.1 CIVIL
ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF DAM CONSTRUCTION AND WATERWAY MANAGEMENT . . .
527 12.4.2 TURBINES AS ENERGY CONVERTERS 529 XII CONTENTS 12.5
SUSTAINABILITY ATTRIBUTES 531 12.6 STATUS OF HYDROPOWER TECHNOLOGY TODAY
535 12.6.1 ECONOMIC ISSUES 535 12.6.2 POTENTIAL FOR GROWTH 537 12.6.3
ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY NEEDS 538 REFERENCES 540 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 542
PROBLEMS 542 CHAPTER 13 SOLAR ENERGY 543 13.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
SOLAR ENERGY 544 13.2 RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 544 13.3 PASSIVE AND ACTIVE
SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY FOR BUILDINGS 554 13.3.1 MOTIVATION AND GENERAL
ISSUES 554 13.3.2 PASSIVE SYSTEMS 555 13.3.3 ACTIVE SYSTEMS 556 13.3.4
ECONOMIC AND POLICY ISSUES 559 13.4 SOLAR THERMAL ELECTRIC
SYSTEMS*CONCENTRATING SOLAR POWER 561 13.4.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND OPTIONS
561 13.4.2 POWER TOWER*CENTRAL RECEIVER SYSTEMS 562 13.4.3 PARABOLIC
TROUGHS 565 13.4.4 DISH ENGINE SYSTEMS 568 13.4.5 CURRENT STATUS AND
FUTURE POTENTIAL OF CSP 569 13.5 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) SYSTEMS 572
13.5.1 SOLID STATE PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY FUNDAMENTALS 573 13.5.2
PERFORMANCE LIMITS AND DESIGN OPTIONS 575 13.5.3 SILICA-BASED SYSTEMS
(CRYSTALLINE AND AMORPHOUS) 578 13.5.4 COPPER INDIUM DISELENIDE (CIS)
579 13.5.5 CADMIUM TELLURIDE (CDTE) 579 13.5.6 CURRENT STATUS AND FUTURE
POTENTIAL OF PV 580 13.6 SUSTAINABILITY ATTRIBUTES 582 13.7 SUMMARY AND
PROGNOSIS 584 REFERENCES 585 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 586 PROBLEMS 587
CHAPTER 14 OCEAN WAVES, TIDE, AND THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION 589 14.1
INTRODUCTION 590 14.2 ENERGY FROM THE TIDES 590 CONTENTS XIII 14.3
ENERGY FROM THE WAVES: OVERVIEW 597 14.4 ENERGY FROM TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCES 599 14.4.1 OVERVIEW 599 14.4.2 PERFORMANCE LIMITS 600 14.4.3
OTEC TECHNOLOGY 602 14.5 ECONOMIC PROSPECTS 604 14.6 ENVIRONMENTAL AND
SUSTAINABILITY CONSIDERATIONS 605 14.7 THE OCEAN AS AN EXTERNALITIES
SINK 606 14.8 CURRENT STATUS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS 606 REFERENCES 607 WEB
SITES OF INTEREST 609 PROBLEMS 609 APPENDIX 611 CHAPTER 15 WIND ENERGY
613 15.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL NOTES 614 15.2 WIND RESOURCES 617
15.2.1 WIND QUALITY 619 15.2.2 VARIATION OF WIND SPEED WITH ELEVATION
622 15.2.3 AIR DENSITY 624 15.2.4 MAXIMUM WIND TURBINE EFFICIENCY: THE
BETZ RATIO 624 15.3 WIND MACHINERY AND GENERATING SYSTEMS 627 15.3.1
OVERVIEW 627 15.3.2 ROTOR BLADE ASSEMBLY 627 15.3.3 TOWER 630 15.3.4
NACELLE COMPONENTS 630 15.3.5 BALANCE-OF-STATION SUBSYSTEMS 630 15.3.6
SYSTEM DESIGN CHALLENGES 631 15.4 WIND TURBINE RATING 631 15.5 WIND
POWER ECONOMICS 632 15.6 MEASURES OF SUSTAINABILITY 635 15.6.1 NET
ENERGY ANALYSIS 635 15.6.2 COST OF EXTERNALITIES 635 15.6.3
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF WIND POWER 636 15.7 CURRENT STATUS/FUTURE
PROSPECTS 637 REFERENCES 640 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 642 PROBLEMS 642
APPENDIX 645 XIV CONTENTS CHAPTER 16 STORAGE, TRANSPORTATION, AND
DISTRIBUTION OF ENERGY 647 16.1 OVERVIEW OF ENERGY SUPPLY INFRASTRUCTURE
NEEDS 648 16.2 CONNECTED EFFICIENCIES AND ENERGY CHAINS 651 16.3 MODES
OF ENERGY STORAGE 653 16.3.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 653 16.3.2 ENERGY
STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES 658 16.4 ENERGY TRANSMISSION 670 16.4.1 GENERAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF ENERGY TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 670 16.4.2 OIL TRANSPORT
671 16.4.3 NATURAL GAS TRANSPORT 674 16.4.4 COAL TRANSPORT 675 16.4.5
ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION 676 16.5 ENERGY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 678
16.5.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CENTRAL VERSUS DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS 678
16.5.2 COMBINED HEAT AND POWER OPPORTUNITIES 681 16.5.3 APPLICATIONS TO
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS AND HYBRIDS 683 16.6 SUSTAINABILITY ATTRIBUTES
683 16.6.1 IMPROVED RESOURCE UTILIZATION 683 16.6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL,
SAFETY, AND HEALTH CONCERNS 683 16.6.3 ECONOMIC AND OPERATIONAL
ATTRIBUTES 684 16.7 OPPORTUNITIES FOR ADVANCEMENT OF SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
INFRASTRUCTURES 684 REFERENCES 686 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 688 PROBLEMS
688 CHAPTER 17 ELECTRIC POWER SECTOR 693 17.1 INTRODUCTION AND
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES 694 17.2 POWER GENERATION 698 17.2.1 ELECTRIC
ENERGY .698 17.2.2 CENTRALIZED ENERGY GENERATION 700 17.2.3 ELECTRIC
POWER GENERATION 700 17.2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY
PRODUCTION 701 17.2.5 POWER PLANT SITING REQUIREMENTS 704 17.2.6
ELECTRICITY ECONOMICS 705 17.2.7 WAYS OF ORGANIZING THE ELECTRIC ECONOMY
707 17.2.8 DEMAND-SIDE MANAGEMENT (DSM) AND DISTRIBUTED GENERATION 708
17.2.9 ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC
DEREGULATION 708 17.3 AN EXAMPLE OF ELECTRIC INDUSTRY PLANNING USING
MULTIATTRIBUTE ASSESSMENT TOOLS . 710 CONTENTS XV 17.4 ENERGY MARKET
IMPACTS ON ELECTRICITY GENERATION OPTIONS 715 17.5 SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES
719 REFERENCES 724 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 725 PROBLEMS 726 CHAPTER 18
TRANSPORTATION SERVICES 727 18.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVES 728 18.2 ELEMENTS OF THE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM 733 18.3
TRANSPORTATION FUELS AND THE FUEL CYCLE 735 18.4 PERSONAL VEHICLES 739
18.4.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES 739 18.4.2 LOOKING FORWARD 741 18.5 A
LIFECYCLE COMPARISON OF ROAD TRANSPORT ALTERNATIVES FOR 2020 744 18.6
FREIGHT VEHICLES 752 18.7 INTERURBAN AND INTERCONTINENTAL TRANSPORT 753
18.8 MOTORIZATION TRENDS 753 18.9 SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES 755 REFERENCES
757 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 758 PROBLEMS 758 CHAPTER 19 INDUSTRIAL ENERGY
USAGE 761 19.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES 762 19.2
LIFECYCLE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN FOR SUSTAINABILITY 763 19.3 METALS
INDUSTRIES 766 19.4 CEMENT AND LIME INDUSTRIES 767 19.5 CHEMICAL
INDUSTRIES 769 19.6 FOREST PRODUCTS AND AGRICULTURE 770 19.7 WASTE
MANAGEMENT INDUSTRIES 772 19.8 SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES 773 REFERENCES 774
WEB SITES OF INTEREST 775 PROBLEMS 775 CHAPTER 20 COMMERCIAL AND
RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS 777 20.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
778 20.2 LIFECYCLE ANALYSIS 780 20.3 RESIDENTIAL BUILDING DESIGN 784
20.4 COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 789 XVI CONTENTS 20.5 INDOOR AIR QUALITY 791
20.6 SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES 792 REFERENCES 794 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 795
PROBLEMS 795 CHAPTER 21 SYNERGISTIC COMPLEX SYSTEMS 797 21.1
INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL NOTES 798 21.2 THE COMPLEX SYSTEMS VIEW 800
21.2.1 EXPERTPANELS 801 21.2.2 DECISION ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES 802 21.2.3
NEGOTIATION 805 21.2.4 HOW ARE DECISIONS REALLY MADE? 805 21.3 SOME CASE
STUDIES 806 21.3.1 BEYOND THE LIMITS (MEADOWS ETAL., 1992) 807 21.3.2
WHICH WORLD? (HAMMOND, 1998) 811 21.3.3 MIT JOINT PROGRAM ON THE SCIENCE
AND POLICY OF GLOBAL CHANGE: INTEGRATED GLOBAL CLIMATE MODEL 812 21.4
TRANSITIONAL PATHWAYS 816 21.5 THE CHALLENGE TO SOCIETY 817 REFERENCES
819 WEB SITES OF INTEREST 820 PROBLEMS 821 CHAPTER 22 CHOOSING AMONG
OPTIONS 823 CONVERSION FACTORS 827 LIST OF ACRONYMS 831 INDEX 837 |
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| callnumber-subject | TJ - Mechanical Engineering and Machinery |
| classification_rvk | QR 530 ZP 3700 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)58451915 (DE-599)BVBBV021580369 |
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| discipline_str_mv | Energietechnik Wirtschaftswissenschaften |
| format | Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV021580369 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T14:41:30Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T20:39:08Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 0262201534 |
| language | English |
| lccn | 2005041652 |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-014796041 |
| oclc_num | 58451915 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-573 DE-11 |
| owner_facet | DE-573 DE-11 |
| physical | XXIII, 846 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |
| publishDate | 2005 |
| publishDateSearch | 2005 |
| publishDateSort | 2005 |
| publisher | MIT Press |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Sustainable energy choosing among options Jefferson W. Tester ... Cambridge, Mass. MIT Press 2005 XXIII, 846 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Énergies renouvelables Renewable energy sources Nachhaltigkeit (DE-588)4326464-5 gnd rswk-swf Erneuerbare Energien (DE-588)4068598-6 gnd rswk-swf Energievorrat (DE-588)4070814-7 gnd rswk-swf Energiewende (DE-588)1210494086 gnd rswk-swf Erneuerbare Energien (DE-588)4068598-6 s DE-604 Energiewende (DE-588)1210494086 s Nachhaltigkeit (DE-588)4326464-5 s Energievorrat (DE-588)4070814-7 s 1\p DE-604 Tester, Jefferson W. Sonstige oth http://www.gbv.de/dms/goettingen/481814647.pdf Inhaltsverzeichnis GBV Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=014796041&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis 1\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk |
| spellingShingle | Sustainable energy choosing among options Énergies renouvelables Renewable energy sources Nachhaltigkeit (DE-588)4326464-5 gnd Erneuerbare Energien (DE-588)4068598-6 gnd Energievorrat (DE-588)4070814-7 gnd Energiewende (DE-588)1210494086 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4326464-5 (DE-588)4068598-6 (DE-588)4070814-7 (DE-588)1210494086 |
| title | Sustainable energy choosing among options |
| title_auth | Sustainable energy choosing among options |
| title_exact_search | Sustainable energy choosing among options |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Sustainable energy choosing among options |
| title_full | Sustainable energy choosing among options Jefferson W. Tester ... |
| title_fullStr | Sustainable energy choosing among options Jefferson W. Tester ... |
| title_full_unstemmed | Sustainable energy choosing among options Jefferson W. Tester ... |
| title_short | Sustainable energy |
| title_sort | sustainable energy choosing among options |
| title_sub | choosing among options |
| topic | Énergies renouvelables Renewable energy sources Nachhaltigkeit (DE-588)4326464-5 gnd Erneuerbare Energien (DE-588)4068598-6 gnd Energievorrat (DE-588)4070814-7 gnd Energiewende (DE-588)1210494086 gnd |
| topic_facet | Énergies renouvelables Renewable energy sources Nachhaltigkeit Erneuerbare Energien Energievorrat Energiewende |
| url | http://www.gbv.de/dms/goettingen/481814647.pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=014796041&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT testerjeffersonw sustainableenergychoosingamongoptions |
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