Media law:
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| Sprache: | English |
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Dublin
Thomson Round Hall
2003
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| Ausgabe: | 2. ed. |
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| Beschreibung: | LXVI, 493 S. |
| ISBN: | 1858002729 |
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| adam_text | IMAGE 1
MEDIA LAW
MARIE MCGONAGLE
T H O M S ON R O U ND H A LL
2003
IMAGE 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION VII
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION XI
TABLE OF CASES XXIII
TABLE OF STATUTES XLI
ONE THE MEDIA AND MEDIA LAW 1
TWO MEDIA RIGHTS 19
THREE THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE MEDIA AND THE LAW 43
FOUR DEFAMATION 64
FIVE PRIVACY 150
SIX THE PRINCIPLE OF OPEN JUSTICE: THE MEDIA AND THE COURTS 179
SEVEN REPORTING THE COURTS, PARLIAMENT AND
LOCAL GOVERNMENT 237
EIGHT PUBLIC ORDER AND MORALITY 271
NINE MORAL CENSORSHIP OF THE MEDIA 298
TEN THE AUTHORITY OF THE STATE 335
ELEVEN MEDIA STRUCTURES AND REGULATION PRESENT AND FUTURE 384
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 457
INDEX 469
IMAGE 3
XVI MEDIA LAW
ONE THE MEDIA AND MEDIA LAW 1
LI INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 WHAT ARE THE MEDIA? 1
L3 WHAT IS THE MEDIA S CONTENT? 2
L3.1 NEWS AND INFORMATION 2
1.3.2 COMMENT - THE EXPRESSION OF VIEWS AND OPINIONS 4 1.3.3 ADVERTISING
5
1.3.4 ENTERTAINMENT 6
1.4 WHAT IS THE MEDIA S ROLE? 7
1.5 WHAT IS LAW? 9
1.5.1 DIVISIONS OF LAW 10
1.5.1.1 COMMON-LAW AND CIVIL-LAW TRADITIONS 10 1.5.1.2 COMMON LAW AND
EQUITY 10
1.5.1.3 PUBLIC AND PRIVATE LAW 11
1.5.1.4 CIVIL AND CRIMINAL LAW 11
1.5.2 HOW IS THE LAW IMPLEMENTED? 12
1.5.2.1 THE COURTS SYSTEM 12
1.5.2.2 PROCEDURE 13
1.6 WHATIS MEDIA LAW? 13
1.6.1 THE CONSTITUTION 14
1.6.2 STATUTE LAW 14
1.6.3 JUDGE-MADE LAWS 14
1.6.4 EUROPEAN COMMUNITY LAW 15
1.6.5 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND COVENANTS 16
1.7 HOW DOES MEDIA LAW OPERATE IN PRACTICE? 16
FURTHER READING 18
TWO MEDIA RIGHTS 19
2.1 INTRODUCTION 19
2.2 RIGHTS PROTECTED BY THE IRISH CONSTITUTION 19
2.2.1 FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION 19
2.2.2 RIGHT TO GOOD NAME 23
2.2.3 RIGHT TO FAIR TRIAL 23
2.2.4 BALANCING CONFLICTING RIGHTS 23
2.2.5 THE RIGHT TO COMMUNICATE 25
2.2.6 THE RIGHT TO BE INFORMED 27
2.3 RIGHTS PROTECTED BY INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS 28 2.3.1
THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS 28
2.3.1.1 PRESCRIBED BY LAW 33
2.3.1.2 LEGITIMATE AIM 33
2.3.1.3 NECESSARY IN A DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY 34
2.3.2 THE EU CHARTER OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS 35
2.3.3 INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS 36
2.4 TOWARDS A REAPPRAISAL OF MEDIA RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS 40 FURTHER
READING 42
IMAGE 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS XVUE
THREE THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE MEDIA AND THE LAW 43 3.1
INTRODUCTION 43
3.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEWSPAPERS 43
3.2.1 NEWSPAPER CONTENT 45
3.2.2 POLITICAL COMMENT 46
3.2.3 STRICT CENSORSHIP 47
3.2.4 MASS CIRCULATION BECOMES A REALITY 48
3.3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF BOOK PUBLISHING 49
3.4 THE PRINT AND BROADCAST MEDIA IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 51 3.4.1 FROM
MILITARY CENSORSHIP TO MORAL CENSORSHIP 51 3.4.2 WARTIME CENSORSHIP 52
3.4.3 THE POST-WAR PERIOD 53
3.5 THE DEVELOPMENT OF RADIO BROADCASTING 53
3.6 THE DAWN OF TELEVISION 55
3.6.1 DEVELOPMENTS IN TELEVISION 56
3.7 PRIVATE COMMERCIAL RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING 57 3.8 THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERNET AND MULTI-MEDIA 61
3.9 CONCENTRATION AND CONVERGENCE IN THE LATE TWENTIETH CENTURY 61
FURTHER READING 62
FOUR DEFAMATION 64
4.1 INTRODUCTION 64
4.2 WHAT IS DEFAMATION? 65
4.2.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 67
4.2.1.1 RULES LAID DOWN BY STATUTE 69
4.2.1.2 CONSTITUTIONAL DIMENSION 70
4.3 KEY ELEMENTS IN PROVING DEFAMATION 74
4.3.1 WRONGFUL PUBLICATION 74
4.3.1.1 WHOISLIABLE? 75
4.3.1.2 REPEATING A LIBEL 79
4.3.2 OF A FALSE STATEMENT 81
4.3.2.1 THEPRESUMPTIONOF FALSITY 82
4.3.2.2 INACCURACY AND ERROR 84
4.3.2.3 FACT AND COMMENT 87
4.3.3 ABOUTA PERSON 87
4.3.3.1 INDIVIDUAIS AND LEGAL PERSONS 88
4.3.3.2 LIVING PERSONS 89
4.3.3.3 CROUPS 90
4.3.3.4 IDENTIFICATION 90
4.3.4 WHICH TENDS TO LOWER THAT PERSON 92
4.3.4.1 TENDS TO 92
4.3.4.2 LOWER THAT PERSON 92
4.3.5 IN THE EYES OF RIGHT-THINKING MEMBERS OF SOCIETY 95 4.3.6 INNUENDO
96
4.3.6.1 FALSE OR POPULAER INNUENDO 96
4.3.6.2 TRUE OR LEGAL INNUENDO 96
4.4 PRACTICAL ISSUES REGARDING DEFAMATION 97
IMAGE 5
XVIII MEDIA LAW
4.4.1 WHOSUES? 97
4.4.2 WHY DO THEY SUE? 98
4.4.3 WHOISSUED? 99
4.4.4 PUBLIC/PRIVATE PLAINTIFF DISTINCTION 100
4.4.5 LIMITATION PERIODS 103
4.4.6 ABSENCE OF LEGAL AID 103
4.4.7 JURISDICTION 104
4.5 DEFENCES 106
4.5.1 GENERAL TORT DEFENCES 106
4.5.2 JUSTIFICATION 107
4.5.3 FAIR COMMENT 112
4.5.3.1 COMMENT AS OPPOSED TO FACT 112
4.5.3.2 AN OPINION HONESTLY HELD 117
4.5.3.3 PUBLIC INTEREST 118
4.5.3.4 MALICE 119
4.5.4 PRIVILEGE 120
4.5.4.1 ABSOLUTE PRIVILEGE 120
4.5.4.2 QUALIFIED PRIVILEGE AT COMMON LAW 122
4.5.4.3 STATUTORY QUALIFIED PRIVILEGE 128
4.6 REMEDIES 130
4.6.1 DAMAGES 130
4.6.1.1 POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVES TO DAMAGES 137
4.6.2 MITIGATION 138
4.6.3 APOLOGIES 140
4.6.4 UNINTENTIONAL DEFAMATION AND THE OFFER OF AMENDS . 141 4.6.5
INJUNCTIONS 145
4.7 LAW REFORM 146
FURTHER READING 148
FIVE PRIVACY 150
5.1 INTRODUCTION 150
5.2 WHY PROTECT PRIVACY? 150
5.3 WHAT TO PROTECT? 152
5.4 TOWARDS A LEGAL DEFINITION OF PRIVACY 155
5.4.1 THE RIGHT TO INDIVIDUAL PRIVACY 155
5.4.2 WHAT IS THE LEGAL BASIS FOR THE RIGHT? 157
5.4.2.1 THE CONSTITUTION 157
5.4.2.2 THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS 159 5.5 WHAT PROTECTION
IS THERE AT PRESENT? 161
5.5.1 PERSON AND PROPERTY 161
5.5.2 CONFIDENTIALITY 162
5.5.3 COPYRIGHT 165
5.5.4 LEGISLATIVE PROTECTION 166
5.5.5 PRIVACY VERSUS DEFAMATION 168
5.5.6 SELF-REGULATION 169
5.5.7 PRIVACY, COMPUTERS AND THE INTERNET 171
5.6 A STATUTORY REGIME? 173
FURTHER READING 178
IMAGE 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS XIX
SIX THE PRINCIPLE OF OPEN JUSTICE: THE MEDIA AND THE COURTS 179
6.1 INTRODUCTION 179
6.2 CONTEMPT OF COURT 182
6.2.1 CONSTITUTIONAL AND COMMON-LAW ORIGINS 182
6.2.2 CONTEMPT OF COURT IN OTHER JURISDICTIONS 184
6.3 FORMS OF CONTEMPT 186
6.3.1 CIVIL CONTEMPT 187
6.3.2 CRIMINAL CONTEMPT 188
6.3.2.1 CONTEMPT IN FACIE CURIAE (IN THE FACE OF THECOURT) 189
6.3.2.2 CONTEMPT BY SCANDALISING THE COURT 197
6.3.2.3 CONTEMPT BY PREJUDICING A FAIR TRIAL 201
6.3.2.4 ACTS CALCULATED TO PREJUDICE THE COURSE OF JUSTICE 208
6.3.2.5 DISOBEDIENCE TO A WRIT OF HABEAS CORPUS 209 6.3.3 HYBRID
CASES: CIVIL AND CRIMINAL CONTEMPT 209
6.4 ELEMENTS OF CONTEMPT 212
6.4.1 DEGREE OF PREJUDICE 212
6.4.2 MENS REA 213
6.4.3 RESTRICTED COMMENTS AND THE SUB JUDICE RULE 215 6.4.3.1 SUB JUDICE
IN THE DAEIL 215
6.4.3.2 THE SUNDAY TIMES CASE 216
6.4.3.3 TIME LIMITS AND THE RULE 217
6.4.3.4 THE SCOPE OF THE RULE 221
6.5 DEFENCES 222
6.6 PERSONS LEGALLY RESPONSIBLE FOR PUBLICATION 223
6.7 EXTENSIONS OF THE CONTEMPT POWER 223
6.7.1 CONTEMPT AND TRIBUNALS 224
6.7.2 STATUTORY CONTEMPT 224
6.7.3 CONTEMPT OF THE COURTS 226
6.8 PROCEDURE 227
6.9 CONCLUSIONS ON CONTEMPT 229
6.10 INJUNCTIONS 229
6.10.1 INJUNCTIONS RESTRAINING PUBLICATION 230
6.10.2 INJUNCTIONS AS PRIOR RESTRAINT 231
6.10.3 NOTICE OF INJUNCTION 233
FURTHER READING 235
SEVEN REPORTING THE COURTS, PARIIAMENT AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT 237
7.1 REPORTING THE COURTS 237
7.1.1 EXCLUSION OF THE MEDIA FROM THE COURT 237
7.1.1.1 APPLICATIONS OF AN URGENT NATURE 238
7.1.1.2 MATRIMONIAL CAUSES AND MATTERS 240
7.1.1.3 MINORS 246
7.1.1.4 DISCLOSURE OF A SECRET MANUFACTURING PROCESS 250
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XX MEDIA LAW
7.1.1.5 OTHER STATUTORY PROVISIONS 252
7.1.2 REPORTING RESTRICTIONS 254
7.1.3 ACCESS TO EVIDENCE 258
7.1.4 FORMS OF REPORTING 259
7.2 REPORTING TRIBUNALS 262
7.3 REPORTING PARLIAMENT 264
7.4 REPORTING LOCAL GOVERNMENT 267
FURTHER READING 270
EIGHT PUBLIC ORDER AND MORALITY 271
8.1 THE CONSTITUTION AND INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS 271
8.2 RESTRICTIONS IN THE INTERESTS OF PUBLIC ORDER 272
8.2.1 CRIMINAL LIBEL 274
8.2.2 THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE (PUBLIC ORDER) ACT 1994 AND OTHER GENERAL
LEGISLATION 281
8.2.2.1 THE PROHIBITION OF INCITEMENT TO HATRED ACT 1989 282
8.2.2.2 THE REFUGEE ACT 1996 288
8.2.3 THE BROADCASTING ACTS 289
8.2.3.1 POLITICAL ADVERTISING 289
8.2.3.2 RELIGIOUS ADVERTISING 293
8.2.3.3 REFERENDA BROADCASTS 295
FURTHER READING 297
NINE MORAL CENSORSHIP OF THE MEDIA 298
9.1 INTRODUCTION 298
9.2 OFFENCES AGAINST PUBLIC MORALITY 298
9.2.1 BLASPHEMY 299
9.2.1.1 DEFINITIONS 299
9.2.1.2 APPLICABILITY 301
9.2.1.3 BLASPHEMOUS LIBEL 302
9.2.1.4 STATUTE LAW 305
9.2.1.5 EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS 308
9.2.2 INDECENT MATTER AND OBSCENITY 312
9.2.2.1 OBSCENE LIBEL 313
9.2.2.2 STATUTE LAW 315
9.2.3 POMOGRAPHY 324
9.3 TASTE AND DECENCY OBLIGATIONS 328
9.4 ADVERTISING 330
FURTHER READING 333
TEN THE AUTHORITY OF THE STATE 335
10.1 INTRODUCTION 335
10.2 THE IRISH CONSTITUION 336
10.3 SEDITIOUS MATTER 338
10.3.1 STATUTE LAW 339
10.3.1.1 OFFENCES AGAINST THE STATE ACT 1939 340
IMAGE 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS XXI
10.3.1.2 THE BROADCASTING BANS 343
10.3.2 EUROPEAN COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS 347
10.3.2.1 PURCELL V IRELAND 347
10.3.2.2 DEVELOPMENTS AFTER PURCELL 348
10.3.3 EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS 351
10.4 THE OFFICIAL SECRETS ACT 1963 353
10.5 THE FREEDOM OF INFORMATION ACT 1997 357
10.5.1 THE FREEDOM OF INFORMATION (AMENDMENT) ACT 2003 359
10.5.2 THE ESSENCE OF THE FREEDOM OF INFORMATION LEGISLATION 360
10.5.3 PROCEDURES 364
10.5.3.1 MAKING A REQUEST 364
10.5.3.2 THE TIME-FRAME 365
10.5.3.3 THE REVIEW AND APPEALS SYSTEM 366
10.5.3.4 THE ROLE OF THE INFORMATION COMMISSIONER 366
10.5.3.5 IMPLEMENTATION 367
10.6 EXPERIENCE OF THE FREEDOM OF INFORMATION ACT IN PRACTICE 368
10.6.1 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES 368
10.6.1.1 GENERAL 368
10.6.1.2 MEDIA USAGE 375
10.7 FREEDOM OF INFORMATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES 379
FURTHER READING 383
ELEVEN MEDIA STRUCTURES AND REGULATION PRESENT AND FUTURE 384 11.1
INTRODUCTION 384
11.2 THE MEDIA IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 384
11.3 REGULATION OF BROADCASTING 386
11.3.1 THE BROADCASTING ACT 2001 389
11.3.2 THE BROADCASTING COMPLAINTS COMMISSION 392 11.3.3 PLURALISM AND
DIVERSITY 394
11.3.4 THE 2001 ACT AND BEYOND 398
11.3.5 COMREG 399
11.3.6 THE FORUM ON BROADCASTING 2002 400
11.3.7 THE BROADCASTING AUTHORITY OF IRELAND 401
11.4 THE FUTURE OF BROADCASTING 401
11.4.1 PUBLIC SERVICE BROADCASTING 401
11.4.1.1 PUBLIC SERVICE REMIT 401
11.4.1.2 FINANCING AND STATE AID 406
11.4.2 REGULATING BROADCASTING AND PRINT MEDIA IN THE AGE OF CONVERGENCE
409
11.4.2.1 DIGITAL BROADCASTING 410
11.4.2.2 ADVERTISING 412
11.5 EUROPEAN COMMUNITY LAW AND THE MEDIA 415
11.5.1 THE EUROPEAN COURT OF JUSTICE 415
11.5.2 THE TELEVISION WITHOUT FRONTIERS DIRECTIVE 416
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XXII MEDIA LAW
11.5.2.1 THE OVERALL CONTEXT 416
11.5.2.2 QUOTAS FOR EUROPEAN WORKS 417
11.5.2.3 TELEVISION ADVERTISING 418
11.5.2.4 PROTECTION OF MINORS 419
11.5.2.5 RIGHT OFREPLY 419
11.5.2.6 REVIEW 420
11.5.2.7 COVERAGE OF MAJOR EVENTS 420
11.5.2.8 SHORT REPORTS OF EVENTS 422
11.5.3 THE HUMAN RIGHTS DIMENSION 423
11.5.3.1 THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS 423 11.5.3.2 THE EUROPEAN
CONVENTION ON TRANSFRONTIER TELEVISION (ECTT) 425 11.5.4 COMPETITION LAW
426
11.5.5 THE COMPETITION ACT 2002 AND MEDIA MERGERS 429 11.5.5.1 THE
FRAMEWORK DIRECTIVES 430
11.6 COPYRIGHT AND RELATED RIGHTS 431
11.6.1 THE COPYRIGHT ACT 2000 433
11.6.1.1 ORIGINAL LITERARY, DRAMATIC, MUSICAL OR ARTISTIC WORKS 436
11.6.1.2 SOUND RECORDINGS, FILMS, BROADCASTS OR CABLE PROGRAMMES 440
11.6.2 JOUMALISTS COPYRIGHT 443
11.6.3 FAIRDEALING 444
11.6.4 MORAL RIGHTS 445
11.6.5 EC COPYRIGHT DIRECTIVE 2001 447
11.7 ACCOUNTABILITY AND ACCESS 448
11.7.1 THE NEW MEDIA 451
11.8 CONCLUSION 454
FURTHER READING 456
|
| adam_txt |
IMAGE 1
MEDIA LAW
MARIE MCGONAGLE
T H O M S ON R O U ND H A LL
2003
IMAGE 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION VII
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION XI
TABLE OF CASES XXIII
TABLE OF STATUTES XLI
ONE THE MEDIA AND MEDIA LAW 1
TWO MEDIA RIGHTS 19
THREE THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE MEDIA AND THE LAW 43
FOUR DEFAMATION 64
FIVE PRIVACY 150
SIX THE PRINCIPLE OF OPEN JUSTICE: THE MEDIA AND THE COURTS 179
SEVEN REPORTING THE COURTS, PARLIAMENT AND
LOCAL GOVERNMENT 237
EIGHT PUBLIC ORDER AND MORALITY 271
NINE MORAL CENSORSHIP OF THE MEDIA 298
TEN THE AUTHORITY OF THE STATE 335
ELEVEN MEDIA STRUCTURES AND REGULATION PRESENT AND FUTURE 384
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 457
INDEX 469
IMAGE 3
XVI MEDIA LAW
ONE THE MEDIA AND MEDIA LAW 1
LI INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 WHAT ARE THE MEDIA? 1
L3 WHAT IS THE MEDIA'S CONTENT? 2
L3.1 NEWS AND INFORMATION 2
1.3.2 COMMENT - THE EXPRESSION OF VIEWS AND OPINIONS 4 1.3.3 ADVERTISING
5
1.3.4 ENTERTAINMENT 6
1.4 WHAT IS THE MEDIA'S ROLE? 7
1.5 WHAT IS LAW? 9
1.5.1 DIVISIONS OF LAW 10
1.5.1.1 COMMON-LAW AND CIVIL-LAW TRADITIONS 10 1.5.1.2 COMMON LAW AND
EQUITY 10
1.5.1.3 PUBLIC AND PRIVATE LAW 11
1.5.1.4 CIVIL AND CRIMINAL LAW 11
1.5.2 HOW IS THE LAW IMPLEMENTED? 12
1.5.2.1 THE COURTS SYSTEM 12
1.5.2.2 PROCEDURE 13
1.6 WHATIS MEDIA LAW? 13
1.6.1 THE CONSTITUTION 14
1.6.2 STATUTE LAW 14
1.6.3 JUDGE-MADE LAWS 14
1.6.4 EUROPEAN COMMUNITY LAW 15
1.6.5 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND COVENANTS 16
1.7 HOW DOES MEDIA LAW OPERATE IN PRACTICE? 16
FURTHER READING 18
TWO MEDIA RIGHTS 19
2.1 INTRODUCTION 19
2.2 RIGHTS PROTECTED BY THE IRISH CONSTITUTION 19
2.2.1 FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION 19
2.2.2 RIGHT TO GOOD NAME 23
2.2.3 RIGHT TO FAIR TRIAL 23
2.2.4 BALANCING CONFLICTING RIGHTS 23
2.2.5 THE RIGHT TO COMMUNICATE 25
2.2.6 THE RIGHT TO BE INFORMED 27
2.3 RIGHTS PROTECTED BY INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS 28 2.3.1
THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS 28
2.3.1.1 PRESCRIBED BY LAW 33
2.3.1.2 LEGITIMATE AIM 33
2.3.1.3 NECESSARY IN A DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY 34
2.3.2 THE EU CHARTER OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS 35
2.3.3 INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS 36
2.4 TOWARDS A REAPPRAISAL OF MEDIA RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS 40 FURTHER
READING 42
IMAGE 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS XVUE
THREE THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE MEDIA AND THE LAW 43 3.1
INTRODUCTION 43
3.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEWSPAPERS 43
3.2.1 NEWSPAPER CONTENT 45
3.2.2 POLITICAL COMMENT 46
3.2.3 STRICT CENSORSHIP 47
3.2.4 MASS CIRCULATION BECOMES A REALITY 48
3.3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF BOOK PUBLISHING 49
3.4 THE PRINT AND BROADCAST MEDIA IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 51 3.4.1 FROM
MILITARY CENSORSHIP TO MORAL CENSORSHIP 51 3.4.2 WARTIME CENSORSHIP 52
3.4.3 THE POST-WAR PERIOD 53
3.5 THE DEVELOPMENT OF RADIO BROADCASTING 53
3.6 THE DAWN OF TELEVISION 55
3.6.1 DEVELOPMENTS IN TELEVISION 56
3.7 PRIVATE COMMERCIAL RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING 57 3.8 THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERNET AND MULTI-MEDIA 61
3.9 CONCENTRATION AND CONVERGENCE IN THE LATE TWENTIETH CENTURY 61
FURTHER READING 62
FOUR DEFAMATION 64
4.1 INTRODUCTION 64
4.2 WHAT IS DEFAMATION? 65
4.2.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 67
4.2.1.1 RULES LAID DOWN BY STATUTE 69
4.2.1.2 CONSTITUTIONAL DIMENSION 70
4.3 KEY ELEMENTS IN PROVING DEFAMATION 74
4.3.1 WRONGFUL PUBLICATION 74
4.3.1.1 WHOISLIABLE? 75
4.3.1.2 REPEATING A LIBEL 79
4.3.2 OF A FALSE STATEMENT 81
4.3.2.1 THEPRESUMPTIONOF FALSITY 82
4.3.2.2 INACCURACY AND ERROR 84
4.3.2.3 FACT AND COMMENT 87
4.3.3 ABOUTA PERSON 87
4.3.3.1 INDIVIDUAIS AND "LEGAL" PERSONS 88
4.3.3.2 LIVING PERSONS 89
4.3.3.3 CROUPS 90
4.3.3.4 IDENTIFICATION 90
4.3.4 WHICH TENDS TO LOWER THAT PERSON 92
4.3.4.1 TENDS TO 92
4.3.4.2 LOWER THAT PERSON 92
4.3.5 IN THE EYES OF RIGHT-THINKING MEMBERS OF SOCIETY 95 4.3.6 INNUENDO
96
4.3.6.1 FALSE OR POPULAER INNUENDO 96
4.3.6.2 TRUE OR LEGAL INNUENDO 96
4.4 PRACTICAL ISSUES REGARDING DEFAMATION 97
IMAGE 5
XVIII MEDIA LAW
4.4.1 WHOSUES? 97
4.4.2 WHY DO THEY SUE? 98
4.4.3 WHOISSUED? 99
4.4.4 PUBLIC/PRIVATE PLAINTIFF DISTINCTION 100
4.4.5 LIMITATION PERIODS 103
4.4.6 ABSENCE OF LEGAL AID 103
4.4.7 JURISDICTION 104
4.5 DEFENCES 106
4.5.1 GENERAL TORT DEFENCES 106
4.5.2 JUSTIFICATION 107
4.5.3 FAIR COMMENT 112
4.5.3.1 COMMENT AS OPPOSED TO FACT 112
4.5.3.2 AN OPINION HONESTLY HELD 117
4.5.3.3 PUBLIC INTEREST 118
4.5.3.4 MALICE 119
4.5.4 PRIVILEGE 120
4.5.4.1 ABSOLUTE PRIVILEGE 120
4.5.4.2 QUALIFIED PRIVILEGE AT COMMON LAW 122
4.5.4.3 STATUTORY QUALIFIED PRIVILEGE 128
4.6 REMEDIES 130
4.6.1 DAMAGES 130
4.6.1.1 POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVES TO DAMAGES 137
4.6.2 MITIGATION 138
4.6.3 APOLOGIES 140
4.6.4 UNINTENTIONAL DEFAMATION AND THE OFFER OF AMENDS . 141 4.6.5
INJUNCTIONS 145
4.7 LAW REFORM 146
FURTHER READING 148
FIVE PRIVACY 150
5.1 INTRODUCTION 150
5.2 WHY PROTECT PRIVACY? 150
5.3 WHAT TO PROTECT? 152
5.4 TOWARDS A LEGAL DEFINITION OF PRIVACY 155
5.4.1 THE RIGHT TO INDIVIDUAL PRIVACY 155
5.4.2 WHAT IS THE LEGAL BASIS FOR THE RIGHT? 157
5.4.2.1 THE CONSTITUTION 157
5.4.2.2 THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS 159 5.5 WHAT PROTECTION
IS THERE AT PRESENT? 161
5.5.1 PERSON AND PROPERTY 161
5.5.2 CONFIDENTIALITY 162
5.5.3 COPYRIGHT 165
5.5.4 LEGISLATIVE PROTECTION 166
5.5.5 PRIVACY VERSUS DEFAMATION 168
5.5.6 SELF-REGULATION 169
5.5.7 PRIVACY, COMPUTERS AND THE INTERNET 171
5.6 A STATUTORY REGIME? 173
FURTHER READING 178
IMAGE 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS XIX
SIX THE PRINCIPLE OF OPEN JUSTICE: THE MEDIA AND THE COURTS 179
6.1 INTRODUCTION 179
6.2 CONTEMPT OF COURT 182
6.2.1 CONSTITUTIONAL AND COMMON-LAW ORIGINS 182
6.2.2 CONTEMPT OF COURT IN OTHER JURISDICTIONS 184
6.3 FORMS OF CONTEMPT 186
6.3.1 CIVIL CONTEMPT 187
6.3.2 CRIMINAL CONTEMPT 188
6.3.2.1 CONTEMPT IN FACIE CURIAE (IN THE FACE OF THECOURT) 189
6.3.2.2 CONTEMPT BY SCANDALISING THE COURT 197
6.3.2.3 CONTEMPT BY PREJUDICING A FAIR TRIAL 201
6.3.2.4 ACTS CALCULATED TO PREJUDICE THE COURSE OF JUSTICE 208
6.3.2.5 DISOBEDIENCE TO A WRIT OF HABEAS CORPUS 209 6.3.3 "HYBRID"
CASES: CIVIL AND CRIMINAL CONTEMPT 209
6.4 ELEMENTS OF CONTEMPT 212
6.4.1 DEGREE OF PREJUDICE 212
6.4.2 MENS REA 213
6.4.3 RESTRICTED COMMENTS AND THE SUB JUDICE RULE 215 6.4.3.1 SUB JUDICE
IN THE DAEIL 215
6.4.3.2 THE SUNDAY TIMES CASE 216
6.4.3.3 TIME LIMITS AND THE RULE 217
6.4.3.4 THE SCOPE OF THE RULE 221
6.5 DEFENCES 222
6.6 PERSONS LEGALLY RESPONSIBLE FOR PUBLICATION 223
6.7 EXTENSIONS OF THE CONTEMPT POWER 223
6.7.1 CONTEMPT AND TRIBUNALS 224
6.7.2 STATUTORY CONTEMPT 224
6.7.3 "CONTEMPT OF THE COURTS" 226
6.8 PROCEDURE 227
6.9 CONCLUSIONS ON CONTEMPT 229
6.10 INJUNCTIONS 229
6.10.1 INJUNCTIONS RESTRAINING PUBLICATION 230
6.10.2 INJUNCTIONS AS PRIOR RESTRAINT 231
6.10.3 NOTICE OF INJUNCTION 233
FURTHER READING 235
SEVEN REPORTING THE COURTS, PARIIAMENT AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT 237
7.1 REPORTING THE COURTS 237
7.1.1 EXCLUSION OF THE MEDIA FROM THE COURT 237
7.1.1.1 APPLICATIONS OF AN URGENT NATURE 238
7.1.1.2 MATRIMONIAL CAUSES AND MATTERS 240
7.1.1.3 MINORS 246
7.1.1.4 DISCLOSURE OF A SECRET MANUFACTURING PROCESS 250
IMAGE 7
XX MEDIA LAW
7.1.1.5 OTHER STATUTORY PROVISIONS 252
7.1.2 REPORTING RESTRICTIONS 254
7.1.3 ACCESS TO EVIDENCE 258
7.1.4 FORMS OF REPORTING 259
7.2 REPORTING TRIBUNALS 262
7.3 REPORTING PARLIAMENT 264
7.4 REPORTING LOCAL GOVERNMENT 267
FURTHER READING 270
EIGHT PUBLIC ORDER AND MORALITY 271
8.1 THE CONSTITUTION AND INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS 271
8.2 RESTRICTIONS IN THE INTERESTS OF PUBLIC ORDER 272
8.2.1 CRIMINAL LIBEL 274
8.2.2 THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE (PUBLIC ORDER) ACT 1994 AND OTHER GENERAL
LEGISLATION 281
8.2.2.1 THE PROHIBITION OF INCITEMENT TO HATRED ACT 1989 282
8.2.2.2 THE REFUGEE ACT 1996 288
8.2.3 THE BROADCASTING ACTS 289
8.2.3.1 POLITICAL ADVERTISING 289
8.2.3.2 RELIGIOUS ADVERTISING 293
8.2.3.3 REFERENDA BROADCASTS 295
FURTHER READING 297
NINE MORAL CENSORSHIP OF THE MEDIA 298
9.1 INTRODUCTION 298
9.2 OFFENCES AGAINST PUBLIC MORALITY 298
9.2.1 BLASPHEMY 299
9.2.1.1 DEFINITIONS 299
9.2.1.2 APPLICABILITY 301
9.2.1.3 BLASPHEMOUS LIBEL 302
9.2.1.4 STATUTE LAW 305
9.2.1.5 EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS 308
9.2.2 INDECENT MATTER AND OBSCENITY 312
9.2.2.1 OBSCENE LIBEL 313
9.2.2.2 STATUTE LAW 315
9.2.3 POMOGRAPHY 324
9.3 TASTE AND DECENCY OBLIGATIONS 328
9.4 ADVERTISING 330
FURTHER READING 333
TEN THE AUTHORITY OF THE STATE 335
10.1 INTRODUCTION 335
10.2 THE IRISH CONSTITUION 336
10.3 SEDITIOUS MATTER 338
10.3.1 STATUTE LAW 339
10.3.1.1 OFFENCES AGAINST THE STATE ACT 1939 340
IMAGE 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS XXI
10.3.1.2 THE BROADCASTING BANS 343
10.3.2 EUROPEAN COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS 347
10.3.2.1 PURCELL V IRELAND 347
10.3.2.2 DEVELOPMENTS AFTER PURCELL 348
10.3.3 EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS 351
10.4 THE OFFICIAL SECRETS ACT 1963 353
10.5 THE FREEDOM OF INFORMATION ACT 1997 357
10.5.1 THE FREEDOM OF INFORMATION (AMENDMENT) ACT 2003 359
10.5.2 THE ESSENCE OF THE FREEDOM OF INFORMATION LEGISLATION 360
10.5.3 PROCEDURES 364
10.5.3.1 MAKING A REQUEST 364
10.5.3.2 THE TIME-FRAME 365
10.5.3.3 THE REVIEW AND APPEALS SYSTEM 366
10.5.3.4 THE ROLE OF THE INFORMATION COMMISSIONER 366
10.5.3.5 IMPLEMENTATION 367
10.6 EXPERIENCE OF THE FREEDOM OF INFORMATION ACT IN PRACTICE 368
10.6.1 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES 368
10.6.1.1 GENERAL 368
10.6.1.2 MEDIA USAGE 375
10.7 FREEDOM OF INFORMATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES 379
FURTHER READING 383
ELEVEN MEDIA STRUCTURES AND REGULATION PRESENT AND FUTURE 384 11.1
INTRODUCTION 384
11.2 THE MEDIA IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 384
11.3 REGULATION OF BROADCASTING 386
11.3.1 THE BROADCASTING ACT 2001 389
11.3.2 THE BROADCASTING COMPLAINTS COMMISSION 392 11.3.3 PLURALISM AND
DIVERSITY 394
11.3.4 THE 2001 ACT AND BEYOND 398
11.3.5 COMREG 399
11.3.6 THE FORUM ON BROADCASTING 2002 400
11.3.7 THE BROADCASTING AUTHORITY OF IRELAND 401
11.4 THE FUTURE OF BROADCASTING 401
11.4.1 PUBLIC SERVICE BROADCASTING 401
11.4.1.1 PUBLIC SERVICE REMIT 401
11.4.1.2 FINANCING AND "STATE AID" 406
11.4.2 REGULATING BROADCASTING AND PRINT MEDIA IN THE AGE OF CONVERGENCE
409
11.4.2.1 DIGITAL BROADCASTING 410
11.4.2.2 ADVERTISING 412
11.5 EUROPEAN COMMUNITY LAW AND THE MEDIA 415
11.5.1 THE EUROPEAN COURT OF JUSTICE 415
11.5.2 THE TELEVISION WITHOUT FRONTIERS DIRECTIVE 416
IMAGE 9
XXII MEDIA LAW
11.5.2.1 THE OVERALL CONTEXT 416
11.5.2.2 QUOTAS FOR EUROPEAN WORKS 417
11.5.2.3 TELEVISION ADVERTISING 418
11.5.2.4 PROTECTION OF MINORS 419
11.5.2.5 RIGHT OFREPLY 419
11.5.2.6 REVIEW 420
11.5.2.7 COVERAGE OF MAJOR EVENTS 420
11.5.2.8 SHORT REPORTS OF EVENTS 422
11.5.3 THE HUMAN RIGHTS DIMENSION 423
11.5.3.1 THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS 423 11.5.3.2 THE EUROPEAN
CONVENTION ON TRANSFRONTIER TELEVISION (ECTT) 425 11.5.4 COMPETITION LAW
426
11.5.5 THE COMPETITION ACT 2002 AND MEDIA MERGERS 429 11.5.5.1 THE
FRAMEWORK DIRECTIVES 430
11.6 COPYRIGHT AND RELATED RIGHTS 431
11.6.1 THE COPYRIGHT ACT 2000 433
11.6.1.1 ORIGINAL LITERARY, DRAMATIC, MUSICAL OR ARTISTIC WORKS 436
11.6.1.2 SOUND RECORDINGS, FILMS, BROADCASTS OR CABLE PROGRAMMES 440
11.6.2 JOUMALISTS' COPYRIGHT 443
11.6.3 FAIRDEALING 444
11.6.4 MORAL RIGHTS 445
11.6.5 EC COPYRIGHT DIRECTIVE 2001 447
11.7 ACCOUNTABILITY AND ACCESS 448
11.7.1 THE NEW MEDIA 451
11.8 CONCLUSION 454
FURTHER READING 456 |
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