Human neuroanatomy: [an introduction]
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Amsterdam [u.a.]
Elsevier, Acad. Press
2008
|
| Ausgabe: | 1. ed. |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Klappentext Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | XVI, 494 S. Ill. |
| ISBN: | 9780120682515 0120682516 |
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| 100 | 1 | |a Augustine, James R. |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Human neuroanatomy |b [an introduction] |c James R. Augustine |
| 250 | |a 1. ed. | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a Amsterdam [u.a.] |b Elsevier, Acad. Press |c 2008 | |
| 300 | |a XVI, 494 S. |b Ill. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804135008440418304 |
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| adam_text | This textbook provides a thorough and comprehensive overview of the neuroanatomy of the human brain and spinal cord
for medical and graduate students in
neuroscience,
experimental psychology and other areas
(biomedical
sciences,
communication sciences, physiology and physical therapy) as well as advanced undergraduates and residents in the
clinical
neurosciences.
Standing on the shoulders of training from outstanding scientist-teacher mentors and based on
more than
30
years of experience teaching about the brain and spinal cord to medical and graduate students, this
single authored text presents everything the reader would need as they begin their study of the human nervous system.
At the same time the experienced neuroscientist will find much useful and valuable information in these pages that is
based almost exclusively on studies in experimental primates and observations in humans. Every effort has been made
to present the complexities of the nervous system as simply and clearly as possible. The careful reader will discover a
clarity and depth of coverage that makes the reading both instructional and enjoyable. Topics are presented logically
and the text in an easy-to-read style. The accompanying line drawings emphasize important concepts in a clear and
uncluttered manner.
Topics presented:
•
Neurons, glial cells, degeneration, regeneration, axonal transport
•
Review of the development of the human nervous system
•
Overview of the anatomy of the spinal cord, brain stem and forebrain
•
General sensory paths (pain, temperature, touch, pressuref proprioception)
•
Review of the
reticular
formation with figures and terminology based on Paxinos and Huang: Atlas of the
Human Brainstem
•
Special sensory systems (auditory,
vestibular,
visual, olfactory and gustatory)
•
Eye movements and visual reflexes
•
Thorough discussion of the human
thalamus
with figures and terminology based on Mai, Assheuer
and Paxinos: Atlas of the Human Brain
•
Comprehensive presentation of the regions involved in motor activity including the clinical manifestation
of injuries to these motor areas
•
Limbie
system,
hypothalamus
and the
autonomie
nervous system
•
Lobes of the brain, clinically important cortical areas and the results of lesions in these areas
•
Blood supply to the spinal cord, brain stem, and brain including classical brain stem syndromes
•
The
meninges
and the ventricular system
•
Numerous helpful clinical correlations that emphasize the practical application of basic anatomical information
•
Most terms used are the English equivalents currently included in
Terminologia
Anatomica,
the most
up-to-date reference ¡n the field
Contents
Preface
xv
Chapter
1:
Introduction to the Nervous System
3
1.1.
Neurons
4
1.1.1.
Neuronal
Cell Body
(Soma)
4
1.1.2.
Axon Hillock
5
1.1.3.
Neuronal
Processes
-
Axons
and
Dendrites
5
1.2.
Classification of Neurons
6
1.2.1.
Neuronal
Classification by Function
6
1.2.2.
Neuronal
Classification by Number
of Processes
6
1.3.
The Synapse
7
1.3.1.
Components of a Synapse
8
1.3.2.
Neurotransmitters
and
Neuromodulators
8
1.3.3.
Neuronal
Plasticity
8
1.3.4.
The Neuropil
9
1.4.
Neuroglial Cells
9
1.4.1.
Neuroglial Cells differ from Neurons
9
1.4.2.
Identification of Neuroglia
9
1.4.3.
Neuroglial Function
10
1.4.4.
Neuroglial Cells and Aging
11
1.5.
Axonal Transport
11
1.5.1.
Functions of Axonal Transport
12
1.5.2.
Defective Axonal Transport
12
1.6.
Degeneration and Regeneration
12
1.6.1.
Axon or Retrograde Reaction
13
1.6.2.
Anterograde Degeneration
13
1.6.3.
Retrograde Degeneration
14
1.6.4.
Regeneration of Peripheral Nerves
14
1.6.5.
Regeneration and Neurotrophic
Factors
16
1.6.6.
Regeneration in the Central Nervous
System
16
1.7.
Neural Transplantation
16
Further Reading
17
Chapter
2:
Development of the Nervous System
19
2.1.
First Week of Development (Fertilization,
Free Blastocyst, Attaching Blastocyst)
20
2.1.1.
Fertilization
20
2.1.2.
From Two Cells to the Free Blastocyst
20
2.2.
Second Week of Development
(Implantation, Primitive Streak
Appears, Three Layers of Cells)
20
2.2.1.
Implantation and the Appearance of
Two Distinct Layers of Cells
20
2.2.2.
Primitive Streak and a Third Layer
of Cells Appear
22
2.3.
Third Week of Development (Neural
Plate, Groove, and Folds, Three Main
Divisions of the Brain)
22
2.3.1.
Primitive Node and Notochordal
Process Appear
22
2.3.2.
Neural Plate, Groove, Folds and
Neuromeres Appear
23
2.3.3.
Three Main Divisions of the Brain
Identifiable
24
2.3.4.
Mesencephalic Flexure Appears
24
2.4.
Fourth Week of Development (Neural
Tube Forms and Closes, Neural Crest
Formation Continues)
24
2.4.1.
Formation of the Neural Tube
24
2.4.2.
Rostral and Caudal
Neuropores
Remain Temporarily Open
24
2.4.3.
Neural Crest Cells Emerge
24
2.4.4.
Neural Canal
-
the Future
Ventricular System
26
2.4.5.
Neuropores
Close and the Closed
Neural Tube is Filled with Fluid
26
2.4.6.
Cervical Flexure Present
26
2.5.
Fifth Week of Development (Five Subdivisions
of the Brain Identifiable)
27
2.5.1.
Simple Tube Transforms into
Complex Organ System
27
vi
CONTENTS
2.5.2.
Five Subdivisions of the Brain Appear
27 3.5.
2.5.3.
Brain Vesicles vs. Brain Regions
27
3.6.
2.6.
Vulnerability of the Developing
3.7.
Nervous System
28
2.7.
Congenital Malformations of the
Nervous System
29
2.7.1.
Spinal Dysraphism
29
3.8.
2.7.2.
Anencephaly
30
Further Reading
31
Chapters: The Spinal Cord
33
3.1.
Embryological Considerations
33
3.1.1.
Layers of the Developing Spinal Cord
34
3.1.2.
Formation of Ventral Gray Columns
and Ventral Roots
34
3.1.3.
Formation of Dorsal Gray Columns
35
3.1.4.
Dorsal and Ventral Horns vs. Dorsal
and Ventral Gray Columns
35
3.1.5.
Development of Neural Crest Cells
36
3.1.6.
The Framework of the Adult Cord is
Present at Birth
36
3.2.
Gross Anatomy
36
3.2.1.
Spinal Cord Weight and Length
36
3.2.2.
Spinal Segments, Regions, and
Enlargements
36
3.2.3.
Spinal Segments in Each Region are of
Unequal Length
37
3.2.4.
Conus Medullaris, Filum
Terminale,
and
Cauda Equina
37
3.2.5.
Termination of the Adult Spinal Cord
38
3.2.6.
Differential Rate of Growth: Vertebral
Column vs. the Spinal Cord
38
3.2.7.
Relationship between Spinal Segments
and Vertebrae
38
3.3.
Nuclear Groups
-
Gray Matter
39
3.3.1.
General Arrangement of Spinal Cord
Gray Matter
39
3.3.2.
Gray Matter at Enlargement Levels
39
3.3.3.
Spinal Laminae
39
3.3.4.
Dorsal Horn
40
3.3.5.
Lateral Horn
40
3.3.6.
Ventral Horn
40
3.4.
Functional Classes of Neurons
41
3.4.1.
Four Classes of Neurons in the
Spinal Cord
41
3.4.2.
General Somatic vs. General Visceral
Afferent Neurons
41
3.4.3.
General Somatic vs. General Visceral
Efferent Neurons
41
3.4.4.
Some Ventral Root
Axons
are Sensory
42
Funiculi/Fasciculi/Tracts
-
White Matter
Spinal Reflexes
43
Spinal
Meninges
and Related Spaces
44
3.7.1.
Spinal Dura Mater
44
3.7.2.
Spinal Arachnoid
45
3.7.3.
Spinal
Pia
Mater
45
Spinal Cord Injury
45
3.8.1.
Transverse Hemisection of the
Spinal Cord
(Brown-Séquard
Syndrome)
45
3.8.2.
Syringomyelia
46
Blood Supply to the Spinal Cord
46
42
3.9.
Further Reading
46
Chapter
4:
The Brain Stem
49
4.1.
External Features
49
4.1.1.
Medulla Oblongata
49
4.1.2.
Pons
51
4.1.3.
Midbrain
52
4.2.
Cerebellum and Fourth Ventricle
52
4.2.1.
Cerebellum
52
4.2.2.
Fourth Ventricle
52
4.3.
Organization of Brain Stem
Neuronal
Columns
53
4.3.1.
Functional Components of the
Cranial Nerves
55
4.3.2.
Efferent Columns
55
4.3.3.
Afferent Columns
55
4.4.
Internal Features
57
4.4.1.
Endogenous Substances
57
4.4.2.
Medulla Oblongata
57
4.4.3.
Pons
61
4.4.4.
Midbrain
65
Further Reading
68
Chapter
5:
TheForebrain
71
5.1.
Telencephalon
71
5.1.1.
Telencephalon Medium
71
5.1.2.
Cerebral Hemispheres
72
5.1.3.
Basal Nuclei
77
5.1.4.
Rhinencephalon
79
5.2.
Diencephalon
79
5.2.1.
Epithalamus
79
5.2.2.
Thalamus
79
5.2.3.
Subthalamus
79
5.2.4.
Hypothalamus
80
5.3.
Cerebral White Matter
80
Further Reading
80
CONTENTS
Chapter
6:
Introduction
to Ascending
Sensory Paths
83
6.1.
Receptors
83
6.2.
Classification of Receptors by Modality
84
6.2.1.
Mechanoreceptors
84
6.2.2.
Thermoreceptors
85
6.2.3.
Nociceptors
85
6.2.4.
Chemoreceptors
86
6.2.5.
Photoreceptors
86
6.2.6.
Osmoreceptors
86
6.3.
Sherrington s Classification of Receptors
86
6.3.1.
Exteroceptors
87
6.3.2.
Interoceptors
87
6.3.3.
Proprioceptors
87
6.4.
Structural Classification of Receptors
87
6.4.1.
Free Nerve Endings
87
6.4.2.
Endings in Hair Follicles
87
6.4.3.
Terminal Endings of Nerves
88
6.4.4.
Neurotendinous Spindles
90
6.4.5.
Neuromuscular Spindles
90
6.5.
Reflex Circuits
91
6.5.1.
The Monosynaptic Reflex
91
6.5.2.
Complex Reflexes
91
6.6.
General Sensory Paths
92
6.6.1.
Classification of Sensory Paths by
Function
92
6.7.
Organization of General Sensory
Paths
92
6.7.1.
Receptors
92
6.7.2.
Primary Neurons
92
6.7.3.
Secondary Neurons
94
6.7.4.
Thalamic Neurons
94
6.7.5.
Cortical Neurons
94
6.7.6.
Modulation of Sensory Paths
94
Further Reading
95
7.2.
Path for Visceral Pain from the Body
105
7.2.1.
Modalities and Receptors
106
7.2.2.
Primary Neurons
107
7.2.3.
Secondary Neurons
107
7.2.4.
Thalamic Neurons
109
7.2.5.
Cortical Neurons
109
7.2.6.
Suffering Accompanying Pain
109
7.2.7.
Visceral Pain as Referred Pain
110
7.2.8.
Transection of Fiber Bundles to
Relieve Intractable Pain 111
7.3.
The Trigeminal Nuclear Complex 111
7.3.1.
Organization of the Trigeminal
Nuclear Complex 111
7.3.2.
Organization of Entering Trigeminal
Sensory Fibers
112
7.4.
Path for Superficial Pain and Thermal
Extremes from the Head
112
7.4.1.
Modalities and Receptors
112
7.4.2.
Primary Neurons
113
7.4.3.
Secondary Neurons
115
7.4.4.
Thalamic Neurons
115
7.5.
Path for Thermal Discrimination from
the Head
116
7.5.1.
Modality and Receptors
116
7.5.2.
Primary Neurons
117
7.5.3.
Secondary Neurons
117
7.5.4.
Thalamic Neurons
117
7.5.5.
Cortical Neurons
117
7.6.
General Somatic Afferent Components
of
VII,
IX and X
118
7.7.
Trigeminal and Other Neuralgias
119
7.7.1.
Causes of Trigeminal Neuralgia
119
7.7.2.
Methods of Treatment for Trigeminal
Neuralgia
119
7.8.
Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia
120
Further Reading
120
Chapter
7:
Paths for Pain and Temperature
97
7.1.
Path for Superficial Pain and Temperature
from the Body
98
7.1.1.
Modalities
99
7.1.2.
Receptors
99
7.1.3.
Primary Neurons
100
7.1.4.
Secondary Neurons
101
7.1.5.
Position of the Lateral Spinothalamic
Tract in the Brain Stem
102
7.1.6.
Thalamic Neurons
102
7.1.7.
Cortical Neurons
103
7.1.8.
Modulation of Painful and Thermal
Impulses
105
Chapter
8:
Paths for Touch, Pressure,
Proprioception, and Vibration
123
8.1.
Path for General Tactile Sensation from
the Body
123
8.1.1.
Modalities and Receptors
124
8.1.2.
Primary Neurons
124
8.1.3.
Secondary Neurons
124
8.1.4.
Thalamic Neurons
124
8.2.
Path for Tactile Discrimination, Pressure,
Proprioception, and Vibration from the Body
124
8.2.1.
Modalities and Receptors
126
8.2.2.
Primary Neurons
129
8.2.3.
Secondary Neurons
131
CONTENTS
8.2.4.
Thalamic
Neurons
134
8.2.5.
Cortical
Neurons
135
8.2.6.
Spinal
Cord
Stimulation
for the
Relief
of Pain
137
8.3.
Path
for Tactile Discrimination
from the Head
138
8.3.1.
Modalities and Receptors
138
8.3.2.
Primary Neurons
138
8.3.3.
Secondary Neurons
138
8.3.4.
Thalamic Neurons
139
8.3.5.
Cortical Neurons
140
8.4.
Path for General Tactile Sensation from
the Head
141
8.4.1.
Modalities and Receptors
141
8.4.2.
Primary Neurons
141
8.4.3.
Secondary Neurons and Their
Central Processes
141
8.4.4.
Thalamic Neurons
142
8.5.
Path for Proprioception, Pressure, and
Vibration from the Head
143
8.5.1.
Modalities and Receptors
143
8.5.2.
Primary Neurons
143
8.5.3.
Secondary Neurons
143
8.5.4.
Thalamic Neurons
143
8.5.5.
Cortical Neurons
143
8.6.
Trigeminal Motor Component
144
8.7.
Certain Trigeminal Reflexes
145
8.7.1.
Mandibular,
Masseter,
or
Jaw-Closing Reflex
145
8.7.2.
Corneal
Reflex
146
Further Reading
146
10.1.3.
Internal Ear
164
10.2.
The Ascending Auditory Path
166
10.2.1.
Modality and Receptors
166
10.2.2.
Primary Neurons
167
10.2.3.
Secondary Neurons
167
10.2.4.
Tertiary Neurons
169
10.2.5.
Inferior Collicular Neurons
169
10.2.6.
Thalamic Neurons
169
10.2.7.
Cortical Neurons
170
10.2.8.
Comments
172
10.3.
Descending Auditory Connections
172
10.3.1.
Electrical Stimulation of
Cochlear
Efferente
173
10.3.2.
Autonomie
Fibers to the Cochlea
173
10.4.
Injury to the Auditory Path
173
10.4.1.
Congenital Loss of Hearing
173
10.4.2.
Decoupling of Stereocilia
174
10.4.3.
Tinnitus
174
10.4.4.
Noise-Induced Loss of Hearing
174
10.4.5.
Aging and the Loss of Hearing
175
10.4.6.
Unilateral Loss of Hearing
175
10.4.7.
Injury to the Inferior Colliculi
175
10.4.8.
Unilateral Injury to the Medial
Geniculate Body or Auditory Cortex
175
10.4.9.
Bilateral Injury to the Primary
Auditory Cortex
175
10.4.10.
Auditory Seizures
-
Audenes
176
10.5.
Cochlear Implants
176
10.6.
Auditory Brain Stem Implants
176
Further Reading
176
Chapter
9:
The
Reticular
Formation
149
9.1.
Structural Aspects
149
9.1.1.
Reticular
Nuclei in the Medulla
150
9.1.2.
Reticular
Nuclei in the
Pons
153
9.1.3.
Reticular
Nuclei in the Midbrain
154
9.2.
Ascending
Reticular
System
155
9.3.
Descending
Reticular
System
158
9.4.
Functional Aspects of the
Reticular
Formation
158
9.4.1.
Consciousness
158
9.4.2.
Homeostatic Regulation
159
9.4.3.
Visceral Reflexes
160
9.4.4.
Motor Function
160
Further Reading
161
Chapter
10:
The Auditory System
163
10.1.
Gross Anatomy
163
10.1.1.
External Ear
163
10.1.2.
Middle Ear
163
Chapter
11:
The
Vestibular
System
179
11.1
Gross Anatomy
179
11.1.1.
Internal Ear
179
11.2.
The Ascending
Vestibular
Path
181
11.2.1.
Modalities and Receptors
181
11.2.2.
Primary Neurons
184
11.2.3.
Secondary Neurons
186
11.2.4.
Thalamic Neurons
187
11.2.5.
Cortical Neurons
188
11.3.
Other
Vestibular
Connections
190
11.3.1.
Primary Vestibulocerebellar Fibers
190
11.3.2.
Vestibular
Nuclear Projections to
the Cerebellum
190
11.3.3.
Vestibular
Nuclear Projections to
the Spinal Cord
190
11.3.4.
Vestibular
Nuclear Projections to
Nuclei of the Extraocular Muscles
192
11.3.5.
Vestibular
Nuclear Projections to
the
Reticular
Formation
192
CONTENTS
11.3.6.
Vestibular
Projections
to the
Contralateral
Vestibular
Nuclei
193
11.4.
The Efferent Component of the
Vestibular
System
193
11.5.
Afferent Projections to the
Vestibular
Nuclei
193
11.6.
Vertigo
193
11.6.1.
Physiological Vertigo
194
11.6.2.
Pathological Vertigo
194
Further Reading
195
Chapter
12:
The Visual System
199
12.1.
Retina
199
12.1.1.
Pigment Layer
199
12.1.2.
Neural Layer
200
12.1.3.
Other Retinal Elements
200
12.1.4.
Special Retinal Regions
201
12.1.5.
Retinal Areas
202
12.1.6.
Visual Fields
202
12.2.
Visual Path
204
12.2.1.
Receptors
204
12.2.2.
Primary Retinal Neurons
205
12.2.3.
Secondary Retinal Neurons
205
12.2.4.
Optic Nerve [II]
207
12.2.5.
Optic
Chiasma
-
the Union of Both
Intracranial Optic Nerves
208
12.2.6.
Optic Tract
209
12.2.7.
Thaiamic Neurons
209
12.2.8.
Optic Radiations
210
12.2.9.
Cortical Neurons
211
12.3.
Injuries to the Visual System
214
12.3.1.
Retinal Injuries
214
12.3.2.
Injury to the Optic Nerve
214
12.3.3.
Chiasmal Injuries
215
12.3.4.
Injuries to the Optic Tract
215
12.3.5.
Injury to the Lateral Geniculate Body
215
12.3.6.
Injuries to the Optic Radiations
216
12.3.7.
Injuries to the Visual Cortex
216
Further Reading
217
Chapter
13:
Ocular Movements and
Visual Reflexes
219
13.1.
Ocular Movements
219
13.1.1.
Primary Position of the Eyes
219
13.2.
Conjugate Ocular Movements
220
13.2.1.
Miniature Ocular Movements
220
13.2.2.
Saccades
220
13.2.3.
Smooth Pursuit Movements
221
13.2.4.
Vestibular
Movements
221
13.3.
Extraocular Muscles
221
13.4.
Innervation
of the Extraocular Muscles
222
13.4.1.
Abducent Nucleus and Nerve
223
13.4.2.
Trochlear Nucleus and Nerve
224
13.4.3.
Oculomotor Nucleus and Nerve
225
13.5.
Anatomical Basis of Conjugate Ocular
Movements
227
13.6.
Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus
228
13.7.
Vestibular
Connections Related to Ocular
Movements
229
13.7.1.
Vestibular
Connections Related to
Horizontal Ocular Movements
229
13.7.2.
Vestibular
Nystagmus
229
13.7.3.
Doll s Ocular Movements
230
13.7.4.
Vestibular
Connections Related to
Vertical Ocular Movements
231
13.8.
Injury to the Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus
231
13.9.
Injury to the
Vestibular
Nuclei
231
13.10.
The
Reticular
Formation and Ocular
Movements
232
13.11.
Congenital Nystagmus
232
13.12.
Ocular Bobbing
233
13.13.
Examination of the
Vestibular
System
233
13.14.
Visual Reflexes
234
13.14.1.
The Light Reflex
235
13.14.2.
The Near Reflex
236
13.14.3.
Pupillary Dilatation
236
13.14.4.
The Lateral Tectotegmentospinal
Tract
237
13.14.5.
Pupillary Pain Reflex and the
Spinotectal Tract
238
13.14.6.
The Afferent Pupillary Defect
(Marcus Gurm Pupillary Sign)
238
Further Reading
238
Chapter
14:
The
Thalamus
241
14.1.
Introduction
241
14.2.
Nuclear Groups of the
Thalamus
245
14.2.1.
Anterior Nuclei and the Lateral
Dorsal Nucleus
245
14.2.2. Intralaminar
Nuclei
246
14.2.3.
Medial Nuclei
247
14.2.4.
Median Nuclei
248
14.2.5.
Metathalamic Body and Nuclei
249
14.2.6.
Posterior Nuclear Complex
250
14.2.7.
Pulvinar Nuclei and Lateral
Posterior Nucleus
250
14.2.8.
Reticular
Nucleus
251
14.2.9.
Ventral Nuclei
251
14.3.
Injuries to the
Thalamus
254
CONTENTS
14.4.
Mapping the Human
Thalamus
255
14.5.
Stimulation of the Human
Thalamus
255
14.6.
The
Thalamus as a
Neurosurgical Target
256
Further Reading
256
Chapter
15:
The Motor System: Part
1 -
Lower
Motoneurons
and the Pyramidal
System
259
15.1.
Regions Involved in Motor Activity
259
15.2.
Lower
Motoneurons
260
15.2.1.
Terms Related to Motor Activity
260
15.2.2.
Lower
Motoneurons
in the
Spinal Cord
260
15.2.3.
Activation of
Motoneurons
261
15.2.4.
Lower
Motoneurons
in the Brain Stem
261
15.2.5.
Injury to Lower
Motoneurons
263
15.2.6.
Examples of Lower
Motoneuron
Disorders
263
15.3.
Pyramidal System
263
15.3.1.
Corticospinal Component
263
15.3.2.
Corticobulbar Component
270
15.3.3.
Clinical Neuroanatomical Correlation
274
Further Reading
274
Chapter
16:
The Motor System: Part
2 -
The
Extrapyramidal
System and
Cerebellum
277
16.1. Extrapyramidal
System
277
16.1.1. Extrapyramidal
Motor Cortex
278
16.1.2.
Basal Nuclei
279
16.1.3.
Afférents
to the Basal Nuclei
282
16.1.4.
Cortical-striatal-paffidal-thalamo-
cortical Circuits
282
16.1.5.
Multisynaptic Descending Paths
282
16.1.6.
Common Discharge Paths
283
16.1.7.
Somatotopic Organization of the
Basal Nuclei
283
16.2.
Cerebellum
283
16.2.1.
External Features of the Cerebellum
284
16.2.2.
Cerebeilar Cortex
286
16.2.3.
Deep Cerebeilar Nuclei
287
16.2.4.
Cerebeilar White Matter
287
16.3.
Input to the Cerebellum through the
Peduncles
287
16.3.1.
Inferior Cerebeilar Peduncle
287
16.3.2.
Middle Cerebeilar Peduncle
288
16.3.3.
Superior Cerebeilar Peduncle
288
16.4.
Input to the Cerebellum
289
16.4.1.
Incoming Fibers to the
Cerebellum
289
16.5.
Cerebeilar Output
289
16.5.1.
Output from the Fastigial Nuclei
289
16.5.2.
Output from the Globose and
Emboliform Nuclei
290
16.5.3.
Output from the Dentate Nuclei
290
16.6.
Cerebeilar Circuitry
290
16.7.
Common Discharge Paths
290
16.8.
Cerebeilar Functions
291
16.8.1.
Motor Functions of the
Cerebellum
291
16.8.2.
Nonmotor Functions of the
Cerebellum
291
16.8.3.
Studies Involving the Human
Cerebellum
291
16.8.4.
Localization in the Cerebellum
291
16.9.
Manifestations of Injuries to the
Motor System
291
16.9.1.
Injury to the Premotor Cortex
291
16.9.2.
Injuries to the Basal Nuclei
292
16.9.3.
Injury to the Subthalamic
Nucleus
294
16.9.4.
Injury to the Cerebellum
294
16.9.5.
Localization of
Cerebeilar
Damage
295
16.10.
Decorticate Versus Decerebrate
Rigidity
296
16.10.1.
Decerebrate Rigidity
296
16.10.2.
Decorticate Rigidity
296
16.11.
Epilogue
296
Further Reading
296
Chapter
17:
The Olfactory and Gustatory
Systems
299
17.1.
The Olfactory System
299
17.1.1.
Receptors
300
17.1.2.
Primary Neurons
300
17.1.3.
Olfactory
Fila
and the Olfactory-
Nerve
300
17.1.4.
Olfactory Bulb
-
Secondary
Olfactory Neurons
300
17.1.5.
Olfactory Stalk
301
17.1.6.
Medial Stria
301
17.1.7.
Lateral Stria
301
17.1.8.
Thaiamic Neurons
302
17.1.9.
Cortical Neurons
302
17.1.10.
Efferent Olfactory Connections
303
CONTENTS
17.1.11.
Injuries
to the Olfactory
System
303
17.2.
The Gustatory System
304
17.2.1.
Receptors
304
17.2.2.
Primary Neurons
306
17.2.3.
Secondary Neurons
308
17.2.4.
The Ascending Gustatory Path
308
17.2.5.
Thalamic Neurons
308
17.2.6.
Cortical Neurons
309
17.2.7.
Injuries to the Gustatory System
309
Further Reading
310
Chapter
18:
The
Limbie
System
313
18.1.
Historical Aspects
313
18.2.
Anatomy of the
Limbie
System
314
18.2.1.
Olfactory System
314
18.2.2.
Šeptal
Area
315
18.2.3.
Mamillary Bodies of the
Hypothalamus
315
18.2.4.
Anterior Nuclei of the
Thalamus
315
18.2.5.
The Hippocampal Formation
315
18.2.6.
The Amygdaloid Body
316
18.2.7.
Cingulate Gyms and Cingulum
318
18.2.8.
Cortical Areas
318
18.3.
Cyclic Paths of the
Limbie
System
318
18.4.
Synaptic Organization of Human
Limbie
System
320
18.5.
Descending
Limbie
Paths
320
18.6.
Functional Aspects of the Human
Limbie
System
321
18.6.1.
Emotion
321
18.6.2.
Memory
322
18.7.
Limbie
System Disorders
322
18.8.
Injuries to
Limbie
Constituents
323
18.8.1.
Šeptal
Area
323
18.8.2.
Hippocampal Formation
323
18.8.3.
Amygdaloid Body
323
18.8.4.
Seizures Involving the
Limbie
System
323
18.9.
Psychosurgery of the
Limbie
System
323
18.9.1.
Drug Resistant Epilepsy
324
18.9.2.
Violent, Aggressive, or Restless
Behaviors
324
18.9.3.
Schizophrenia
324
18.9.4.
Intractable Pain
324
18.9.5.
Psychiatric Disorders and Abnormal
Behavior
324
Further Reading
324
Chapter
19:
The
Hypothalamus
327
19.1.
Hypothalamic Regions
328
19.2.
Hypothalamic Zones
329
19.3.
Hypothalamic Nuclei
330
19.3.1.
Anterior Hypothalamic Region
330
19.3.2.
Dorsal Hypothalamic Region
330
19.3.3.
Intermediate Hypothalamic Region
332
19.3.4.
Lateral Hypothalamic Area
332
19.3.5.
Posterior Hypothalamic Region
332
19.3.6.
Posterior Nucleus of the
Hypothalamus
333
19.4.
Fiber Connections
333
19.4.1.
Medial Forebrain Bundle
333
19.4.2.
Stria
Terminalis 333
19.4.3. Fornix 333
19.4.4.
Diencephalic Periventricular
System (DPS)
333
19.4.5.
Dorsal Longitudinal Fasciculus
333
19.4.6.
Anterior and Posterior
Hypothalamotegmental Tracts
334
19.4.7.
Pallidohypothalamic Tract
334
19.4.8.
Mamillothalamic Tract
334
19.4.9.
Hypothalamo-hypophyseal Tract
334
19.4.10.
Vascular Connections
334
19.5.
Functions of the
Hypothalamus
334
19.5.1.
Water Balance
-
Water Intake
and Loss
334
19.5.2.
Eating
-
Food Intake
335
19.5.3.
Temperature Regulation
335
19.5.4.
Autonomie
Regulation
335
19.5.5.
Emotional Expression
335
19.5.6.
Wakefulness and Sleep
(Biological Rhythms)
336
19.5.7.
Control of the Endocrine System
336
19.5.8.
Reproduction
336
Further Reading
336
Chapter
20:
The
Autonomie
Nervous System
339
20.1
Historical Aspects
339
20.2.
Structural Aspects
340
20.2.1.
Location of
Autonomie
Neurons
of Origin
340
20.2.2.
Manner of Distribution of
Autonomie
Fibers
341
20.2.3.
Termination of
Autonomie
Fibers
342
20.3.
Comparison of the Somatic Efferents
and Visceral Efferents
343
20.4.
General Visceral
Afférents
345
CONTENTS
20.5. Regulation
of the
Autonomie
Nervous
System 346
20.6.
Disorders of the
Autonomie
Nervous
System
346
Further Reading
347
Chapter
21:
General Features of the Cerebral
Hemispheres
349
21.1.
Facts and Figures
349
21.2.
Cortical Neurons
350
21.3.
Cortical Layers
351
21.4.
Cortical Columns
(Microarchitecture)
352
21.5.
Functional Aspects of the Cerebral
Cortex
353
21.6.
Cerebral Dominance, Lateralization, and
Asymmetry
353
21.7.
Frontal Lobe
353
21.7.1.
Primary Motor Cortex
353
21.7.2.
Premotor Cortex
354
21.7.3.
Supplementary Motor Area (SMA)
355
21.7.4.
Cingulate Motor Areas
355
21.7.5.
Frontal Eye Fields
355
21.7.6.
Motor Speech Region
356
21.7.7.
Prefrental Cortex
356
21.8.
Parietal Lobe
357
21.8.1.
Primary Somatosensory
Cortex (SI)
358
21.8.2.
Secondary Somatosensory
Cortex
360
21.8.3.
Superior Parietal Lobule
361
21.8.4.
Inferior Parietal Lobule: Language
Areas
361
21.8.5.
Primary
Vestibular
Cortex (2v)
362
21.8.6.
Mirror Representation of Others
Actions
362
21.8.7.
Preoccipital Areas Involved in
Following Ocular Movements
362
21.9.
Occipital Lobe
363
21.9.1.
Primary Visual Cortex (VI)
363
21.9.2.
Secondary Visual Cortex
363
21.10.
Temporal Lobe
363
21.10.1.
Primary Auditory Cortex
(AI)
364
21.10.2.
Wernicke s Region
364
21.10.3.
Temporal
Vestibular
Cortex
364
21.10.4.
Midtemporal Areas Related to
Memory
365
21.10.5.
Anomia
365
21.10.6.
Prosopagnosia
365
21.10.7.
Psychomotor Seizures
365
21.11.
Insular Lobe
366
21.12.
Aphasia
366
21.12.1.
Historic Aspects of Aphasia
367
21.12.2.
Broca s Aphasia
367
21.12.3.
Wernicke s Aphasia
368
21.12.4.
Conductive Aphasia
368
21.12.5.
Global Aphasia
368
21.13.
Alexia
368
21.14.
Apraxia
368
21.15.
Gerstmann s Syndrome
369
21.16.
Agnosia
369
21.17.
Dyslexia
369
Further Reading
369
Chapter
22:
Blood Supply to the Central
Nervous System
373
22.1.
Cerebral Circulation
373
22.2.
Aortic Arch, Brachiocephalic Trunk, and
Subclavian Vessels
374
22.3.
Vertebral-Basilar Arterial System
374
22.3.1.
Branches of the Vertebral Arteries
375
22.4.
Blood Supply to the Spinal Cord
376
22.4.1.
Extramedullary Vessels
376
22.4.2.
Intramedullary Vessels
379
22.4.3.
Spinal Veins
380
22.5.
Blood Supply to the Brain Stem and
Cerebellum
380
22.5.1.
Extrinsic or Superficial Branches
380
22.5.2.
Branches of the
Basilar
Arteries
382
22.5.3.
Intrinsic or Penetrating Branches
383
22.5.4.
Classical Brain Stem Syndromes
385
22.6.
Common Carotid Artery
386
22.6.1.
External Carotid Artery
386
22.6.2.
Internal Carotid Artery: Cervical,
Petrous, and Cavernous Parts
387
22.7.
Blood Supply to the Cerebral
Hemispheres
387
22.7.1.
Internal Carotid Artery:
Cerebral Part
387
22.7.2.
Branches of the Internal
Carotid Artery
388
22.7.3.
Posterior Cerebral Artery and its
Cerebral Supply
391
22.8.
Cerebral Arterial Circle
392
22.8.1.
Types of Arteries Supplying
the Brain
392
22.9.
Embryological Considerations
392
22.10.
Vascular Injuries
392
22.10.1.
Brain Stem Vascular Injuries
393
22.10.2.
Visualization of Brain Vessels
393
Further Reading
393
CONTENTS
Chapter
23:
The
Meninges,
Ventricular
System
23.2.3.
Third Ventricle
401
and
Cerebrospinal
Fluid
395 23.2.4.
Aqueduct of Midbrain
402
23.2.5.
Fourth Ventricle
402
23.1.
The Cranial
Meninges
and Related Spaces
395 23.3.
Cerebrospinal
Fluid
403
23.1.1.
Cranial Dura Mater
395
Further Reading
403
23.1.2.
Cranial Arachnoid
395
23.1.3.
Cranial
Pia
Mater
398
References
406
23.1.4.
Dural
Projections
398
23.1.5.
Intracranial Herniations
399
Index
461
23.2.
Ventricular System
400
23.2.1.
Introduction
400
23.2.2.
Lateral Ventricles
400
|
| adam_txt |
This textbook provides a thorough and comprehensive overview of the neuroanatomy of the human brain and spinal cord
for medical and graduate students in
neuroscience,
experimental psychology and other areas
(biomedical
sciences,
communication sciences, physiology and physical therapy) as well as advanced undergraduates and residents in the
clinical
neurosciences.
Standing on the shoulders of training from outstanding scientist-teacher mentors and based on
more than
30
years of experience teaching about the brain and spinal cord to medical and graduate" students, this
single authored text presents everything the reader would need as they begin their study of the human nervous system.
At the same time the experienced neuroscientist will find much useful and valuable information in these pages that is
based almost exclusively on studies in experimental primates and observations in humans. Every effort has been made
to present the complexities of the nervous system as simply and clearly as possible. The careful reader will discover a
clarity and depth of coverage that makes the reading both instructional and enjoyable. Topics are presented logically
and the text in an easy-to-read style. The accompanying line drawings emphasize important concepts in a clear and
uncluttered manner.
Topics presented:
•
Neurons, glial cells, degeneration, regeneration, axonal transport
•
Review of the development of the human nervous system
•
Overview of the anatomy of the spinal cord, brain stem and forebrain
•
General sensory paths (pain, temperature, touch, pressuref'proprioception)
•
Review of the
reticular
formation with figures and terminology based on Paxinos and Huang: Atlas of the
Human Brainstem
•
Special sensory systems (auditory,
vestibular,
visual, olfactory and gustatory)
•
Eye movements and visual reflexes
•
Thorough discussion of the human
thalamus
with figures and terminology based on Mai, Assheuer
and Paxinos: Atlas of the Human Brain
•
Comprehensive presentation of the regions involved in motor activity including the clinical manifestation
of injuries to these motor areas
•
Limbie
system,
hypothalamus
and the
autonomie
nervous system
•
Lobes of the brain, clinically important cortical areas and the results of lesions in these areas
•
Blood supply to the spinal cord, brain stem, and brain including classical brain stem syndromes
•
The
meninges
and the ventricular system
•
Numerous helpful clinical correlations that emphasize the practical application of basic anatomical information
•
Most terms used are the English equivalents currently included in
Terminologia
Anatomica,
the most
up-to-date reference ¡n the field
Contents
Preface
xv
Chapter
1:
Introduction to the Nervous System
3
1.1.
Neurons
4
1.1.1.
Neuronal
Cell Body
(Soma)
4
1.1.2.
Axon Hillock
5
1.1.3.
Neuronal
Processes
-
Axons
and
Dendrites
5
1.2.
Classification of Neurons
6
1.2.1.
Neuronal
Classification by Function
6
1.2.2.
Neuronal
Classification by Number
of Processes
6
1.3.
The Synapse
7
1.3.1.
Components of a Synapse
8
1.3.2.
Neurotransmitters
and
Neuromodulators
8
1.3.3.
Neuronal
Plasticity
8
1.3.4.
The Neuropil
9
1.4.
Neuroglial Cells
9
1.4.1.
Neuroglial Cells differ from Neurons
9
1.4.2.
Identification of Neuroglia
9
1.4.3.
Neuroglial Function
10
1.4.4.
Neuroglial Cells and Aging
11
1.5.
Axonal Transport
11
1.5.1.
Functions of Axonal Transport
12
1.5.2.
Defective Axonal Transport
12
1.6.
Degeneration and Regeneration
12
1.6.1.
Axon or Retrograde Reaction
13
1.6.2.
Anterograde Degeneration
13
1.6.3.
Retrograde Degeneration
14
1.6.4.
Regeneration of Peripheral Nerves
14
1.6.5.
Regeneration and Neurotrophic
Factors
16
1.6.6.
Regeneration in the Central Nervous
System
16
1.7.
Neural Transplantation
16
Further Reading
17
Chapter
2:
Development of the Nervous System
19
2.1.
First Week of Development (Fertilization,
Free Blastocyst, Attaching Blastocyst)
20
2.1.1.
Fertilization
20
2.1.2.
From Two Cells to the Free Blastocyst
20
2.2.
Second Week of Development
(Implantation, Primitive Streak
Appears, Three Layers of Cells)
20
2.2.1.
Implantation and the Appearance of
Two Distinct Layers of Cells
20
2.2.2.
Primitive Streak and a Third Layer
of Cells Appear
22
2.3.
Third Week of Development (Neural
Plate, Groove, and Folds, Three Main
Divisions of the Brain)
22
2.3.1.
Primitive Node and Notochordal
Process Appear
22
2.3.2.
Neural Plate, Groove, Folds and
Neuromeres Appear
23
2.3.3.
Three Main Divisions of the Brain
Identifiable
24
2.3.4.
Mesencephalic Flexure Appears
24
2.4.
Fourth Week of Development (Neural
Tube Forms and Closes, Neural Crest
Formation Continues)
24
2.4.1.
Formation of the Neural Tube
24
2.4.2.
Rostral and Caudal
Neuropores
Remain Temporarily Open
24
2.4.3.
Neural Crest Cells Emerge
24
2.4.4.
Neural Canal
-
the Future
Ventricular System
26
2.4.5.
Neuropores
Close and the Closed
Neural Tube is Filled with Fluid
26
2.4.6.
Cervical Flexure Present
26
2.5.
Fifth Week of Development (Five Subdivisions
of the Brain Identifiable)
27
2.5.1.
Simple Tube Transforms into
Complex Organ System
27
vi
CONTENTS
2.5.2.
Five Subdivisions of the Brain Appear
27 3.5.
2.5.3.
Brain Vesicles vs. Brain Regions
27
3.6.
2.6.
Vulnerability of the Developing
3.7.
Nervous System
28
2.7.
Congenital Malformations of the
Nervous System
29
2.7.1.
Spinal Dysraphism
29
3.8.
2.7.2.
Anencephaly
30
Further Reading
31
Chapters: The Spinal Cord
33
3.1.
Embryological Considerations
33
3.1.1.
Layers of the Developing Spinal Cord
34
3.1.2.
Formation of Ventral Gray Columns
and Ventral Roots
34
3.1.3.
Formation of Dorsal Gray Columns
35
3.1.4.
Dorsal and Ventral Horns vs. Dorsal
and Ventral Gray Columns
35
3.1.5.
Development of Neural Crest Cells
36
3.1.6.
The Framework of the Adult Cord is
Present at Birth
36
3.2.
Gross Anatomy
36
3.2.1.
Spinal Cord Weight and Length
36
3.2.2.
Spinal Segments, Regions, and
Enlargements
36
3.2.3.
Spinal Segments in Each Region are of
Unequal Length
37
3.2.4.
Conus Medullaris, Filum
Terminale,
and
Cauda Equina
37
3.2.5.
Termination of the Adult Spinal Cord
38
3.2.6.
Differential Rate of Growth: Vertebral
Column vs. the Spinal Cord
38
3.2.7.
Relationship between Spinal Segments
and Vertebrae
38
3.3.
Nuclear Groups
-
Gray Matter
39
3.3.1.
General Arrangement of Spinal Cord
Gray Matter
39
3.3.2.
Gray Matter at Enlargement Levels
39
3.3.3.
Spinal Laminae
39
3.3.4.
Dorsal Horn
40
3.3.5.
Lateral Horn
40
3.3.6.
Ventral Horn
40
3.4.
Functional Classes of Neurons
41
3.4.1.
Four Classes of Neurons in the
Spinal Cord
41
3.4.2.
General Somatic vs. General Visceral
Afferent Neurons
41
3.4.3.
General Somatic vs. General Visceral
Efferent Neurons
41
3.4.4.
Some Ventral Root
Axons
are Sensory
42
Funiculi/Fasciculi/Tracts
-
White Matter
Spinal Reflexes
43
Spinal
Meninges
and Related Spaces
44
3.7.1.
Spinal Dura Mater
44
3.7.2.
Spinal Arachnoid
45
3.7.3.
Spinal
Pia
Mater
45
Spinal Cord Injury
45
3.8.1.
Transverse Hemisection of the
Spinal Cord
(Brown-Séquard
Syndrome)
45
3.8.2.
Syringomyelia
46
Blood Supply to the Spinal Cord
46
42
3.9.
Further Reading
46
Chapter
4:
The Brain Stem
49
4.1.
External Features
49
4.1.1.
Medulla Oblongata
49
4.1.2.
Pons
51
4.1.3.
Midbrain
52
4.2.
Cerebellum and Fourth Ventricle
52
4.2.1.
Cerebellum
52
4.2.2.
Fourth Ventricle
52
4.3.
Organization of Brain Stem
Neuronal
Columns
53
4.3.1.
Functional Components of the
Cranial Nerves
55
4.3.2.
Efferent Columns
55
4.3.3.
Afferent Columns
55
4.4.
Internal Features
57
4.4.1.
Endogenous Substances
57
4.4.2.
Medulla Oblongata
57
4.4.3.
Pons
61
4.4.4.
Midbrain
65
Further Reading
68
Chapter
5:
TheForebrain
71
5.1.
Telencephalon
71
5.1.1.
Telencephalon Medium
71
5.1.2.
Cerebral Hemispheres
72
5.1.3.
Basal Nuclei
77
5.1.4.
Rhinencephalon
79
5.2.
Diencephalon
79
5.2.1.
Epithalamus
79
5.2.2.
Thalamus
79
5.2.3.
Subthalamus
79
5.2.4.
Hypothalamus
80
5.3.
Cerebral White Matter
80
Further Reading
80
CONTENTS
Chapter
6:
Introduction
to Ascending
Sensory Paths
83
6.1.
Receptors
83
6.2.
Classification of Receptors by Modality
84
6.2.1.
Mechanoreceptors
84
6.2.2.
Thermoreceptors
85
6.2.3.
Nociceptors
85
6.2.4.
Chemoreceptors
86
6.2.5.
Photoreceptors
86
6.2.6.
Osmoreceptors
86
6.3.
Sherrington's Classification of Receptors
86
6.3.1.
Exteroceptors
87
6.3.2.
Interoceptors
87
6.3.3.
Proprioceptors
87
6.4.
Structural Classification of Receptors
87
6.4.1.
Free Nerve Endings
87
6.4.2.
Endings in Hair Follicles
87
6.4.3.
Terminal Endings of Nerves
88
6.4.4.
Neurotendinous Spindles
90
6.4.5.
Neuromuscular Spindles
90
6.5.
Reflex Circuits
91
6.5.1.
The Monosynaptic Reflex
91
6.5.2.
Complex Reflexes
91
6.6.
General Sensory Paths
92
6.6.1.
Classification of Sensory Paths by
Function
92
6.7.
Organization of General Sensory
Paths
92
6.7.1.
Receptors
92
6.7.2.
Primary Neurons
92
6.7.3.
Secondary Neurons
94
6.7.4.
Thalamic Neurons
94
6.7.5.
Cortical Neurons
94
6.7.6.
Modulation of Sensory Paths
94
Further Reading
95
7.2.
Path for Visceral Pain from the Body
105
7.2.1.
Modalities and Receptors
106
7.2.2.
Primary Neurons
107
7.2.3.
Secondary Neurons
107
7.2.4.
Thalamic Neurons
109
7.2.5.
Cortical Neurons
109
7.2.6.
Suffering Accompanying Pain
109
7.2.7.
Visceral Pain as Referred Pain
110
7.2.8.
Transection of Fiber Bundles to
Relieve Intractable Pain 111
7.3.
The Trigeminal Nuclear Complex 111
7.3.1.
Organization of the Trigeminal
Nuclear Complex 111
7.3.2.
Organization of Entering Trigeminal
Sensory Fibers
112
7.4.
Path for Superficial Pain and Thermal
Extremes from the Head
112
7.4.1.
Modalities and Receptors
112
7.4.2.
Primary Neurons
113
7.4.3.
Secondary Neurons
115
7.4.4.
Thalamic Neurons
115
7.5.
Path for Thermal Discrimination from
the Head
116
7.5.1.
Modality and Receptors
116
7.5.2.
Primary Neurons
117
7.5.3.
Secondary Neurons
117
7.5.4.
Thalamic Neurons
117
7.5.5.
Cortical Neurons
117
7.6.
General Somatic Afferent Components
of
VII,
IX and X
118
7.7.
Trigeminal and Other Neuralgias
119
7.7.1.
Causes of Trigeminal Neuralgia
119
7.7.2.
Methods of Treatment for Trigeminal
Neuralgia
119
7.8.
Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia
120
Further Reading
120
Chapter
7:
Paths for Pain and Temperature
97
7.1.
Path for Superficial Pain and Temperature
from the Body
98
7.1.1.
Modalities
99
7.1.2.
Receptors
99
7.1.3.
Primary Neurons
100
7.1.4.
Secondary Neurons
101
7.1.5.
Position of the Lateral Spinothalamic
Tract in the Brain Stem
102
7.1.6.
Thalamic Neurons
102
7.1.7.
Cortical Neurons
103
7.1.8.
Modulation of Painful and Thermal
Impulses
105
Chapter
8:
Paths for Touch, Pressure,
Proprioception, and Vibration
123
8.1.
Path for General Tactile Sensation from
the Body
123
8.1.1.
Modalities and Receptors
124
8.1.2.
Primary Neurons
124
8.1.3.
Secondary Neurons
124
8.1.4.
Thalamic Neurons
124
8.2.
Path for Tactile Discrimination, Pressure,
Proprioception, and Vibration from the Body
124
8.2.1.
Modalities and Receptors
126
8.2.2.
Primary Neurons
129
8.2.3.
Secondary Neurons
131
CONTENTS
8.2.4.
Thalamic
Neurons
134
8.2.5.
Cortical
Neurons
135
8.2.6.
Spinal
Cord
Stimulation
for the
Relief
of Pain
137
8.3.
Path
for Tactile Discrimination
from the Head
138
8.3.1.
Modalities and Receptors
138
8.3.2.
Primary Neurons
138
8.3.3.
Secondary Neurons
138
8.3.4.
Thalamic Neurons
139
8.3.5.
Cortical Neurons
140
8.4.
Path for General Tactile Sensation from
the Head
141
8.4.1.
Modalities and Receptors
141
8.4.2.
Primary Neurons
141
8.4.3.
Secondary Neurons and Their
Central Processes
141
8.4.4.
Thalamic Neurons
142
8.5.
Path for Proprioception, Pressure, and
Vibration from the Head
143
8.5.1.
Modalities and Receptors
143
8.5.2.
Primary Neurons
143
8.5.3.
Secondary Neurons
143
8.5.4.
Thalamic Neurons
143
8.5.5.
Cortical Neurons
143
8.6.
Trigeminal Motor Component
144
8.7.
Certain Trigeminal Reflexes
145
8.7.1.
Mandibular,
Masseter,
or
'Jaw-Closing' Reflex
145
8.7.2.
Corneal
Reflex
146
Further Reading
146
10.1.3.
Internal Ear
164
10.2.
The Ascending Auditory Path
166
10.2.1.
Modality and Receptors
166
10.2.2.
Primary Neurons
167
10.2.3.
Secondary Neurons
167
10.2.4.
Tertiary Neurons
169
10.2.5.
Inferior Collicular Neurons
169
10.2.6.
Thalamic Neurons
169
10.2.7.
Cortical Neurons
170
10.2.8.
Comments
172
10.3.
Descending Auditory Connections
172
10.3.1.
Electrical Stimulation of
Cochlear
Efferente
173
10.3.2.
Autonomie
Fibers to the Cochlea
173
10.4.
Injury to the Auditory Path
173
10.4.1.
Congenital Loss of Hearing
173
10.4.2.
Decoupling of Stereocilia
174
10.4.3.
Tinnitus
174
10.4.4.
Noise-Induced Loss of Hearing
174
10.4.5.
Aging and the Loss of Hearing
175
10.4.6.
Unilateral Loss of Hearing
175
10.4.7.
Injury to the Inferior Colliculi
175
10.4.8.
Unilateral Injury to the Medial
Geniculate Body or Auditory Cortex
175
10.4.9.
Bilateral Injury to the Primary
Auditory Cortex
175
10.4.10.
Auditory Seizures
-
Audenes
176
10.5.
Cochlear Implants
176
10.6.
Auditory Brain Stem Implants
176
Further Reading
176
Chapter
9:
The
Reticular
Formation
149
9.1.
Structural Aspects
149
9.1.1.
Reticular
Nuclei in the Medulla
150
9.1.2.
Reticular
Nuclei in the
Pons
153
9.1.3.
Reticular
Nuclei in the Midbrain
154
9.2.
Ascending
Reticular
System
155
9.3.
Descending
Reticular
System
158
9.4.
Functional Aspects of the
Reticular
Formation
158
9.4.1.
Consciousness
158
9.4.2.
Homeostatic Regulation
159
9.4.3.
Visceral Reflexes
160
9.4.4.
Motor Function
160
Further Reading
161
Chapter
10:
The Auditory System
163
10.1.
Gross Anatomy
163
10.1.1.
External Ear
163
10.1.2.
Middle Ear
163
Chapter
11:
The
Vestibular
System
179
11.1
Gross Anatomy
179
11.1.1.
Internal Ear
179
11.2.
The Ascending
Vestibular
Path
181
11.2.1.
Modalities and Receptors
181
11.2.2.
Primary Neurons
184
11.2.3.
Secondary Neurons
186
11.2.4.
Thalamic Neurons
187
11.2.5.
Cortical Neurons
188
11.3.
Other
Vestibular
Connections
190
11.3.1.
Primary Vestibulocerebellar Fibers
190
11.3.2.
Vestibular
Nuclear Projections to
the Cerebellum
190
11.3.3.
Vestibular
Nuclear Projections to
the Spinal Cord
190
11.3.4.
Vestibular
Nuclear Projections to
Nuclei of the Extraocular Muscles
192
11.3.5.
Vestibular
Nuclear Projections to
the
Reticular
Formation
192
CONTENTS
11.3.6.
Vestibular
Projections
to the
Contralateral
Vestibular
Nuclei
193
11.4.
The Efferent Component of the
Vestibular
System
193
11.5.
Afferent Projections to the
Vestibular
Nuclei
193
11.6.
Vertigo
193
11.6.1.
Physiological Vertigo
194
11.6.2.
Pathological Vertigo
194
Further Reading
195
Chapter
12:
The Visual System
199
12.1.
Retina
199
12.1.1.
Pigment Layer
199
12.1.2.
Neural Layer
200
12.1.3.
Other Retinal Elements
200
12.1.4.
Special Retinal Regions
201
12.1.5.
Retinal Areas
202
12.1.6.
Visual Fields
202
12.2.
Visual Path
204
12.2.1.
Receptors
204
12.2.2.
Primary Retinal Neurons
205
12.2.3.
Secondary Retinal Neurons
205
12.2.4.
Optic Nerve [II]
207
12.2.5.
Optic
Chiasma
-
the Union of Both
Intracranial Optic Nerves
208
12.2.6.
Optic Tract
209
12.2.7.
Thaiamic Neurons
209
12.2.8.
Optic Radiations
210
12.2.9.
Cortical Neurons
211
12.3.
Injuries to the Visual System
214
12.3.1.
Retinal Injuries
214
12.3.2.
Injury to the Optic Nerve
214
12.3.3.
Chiasmal Injuries
215
12.3.4.
Injuries to the Optic Tract
215
12.3.5.
Injury to the Lateral Geniculate Body
215
12.3.6.
Injuries to the Optic Radiations
216
12.3.7.
Injuries to the Visual Cortex
216
Further Reading
217
Chapter
13:
Ocular Movements and
Visual Reflexes
219
13.1.
Ocular Movements
219
13.1.1.
Primary Position of the Eyes
219
13.2.
Conjugate Ocular Movements
220
13.2.1.
Miniature Ocular Movements
220
13.2.2.
Saccades
220
13.2.3.
Smooth Pursuit Movements
221
13.2.4.
Vestibular
Movements
221
13.3.
Extraocular Muscles
221
13.4.
Innervation
of the Extraocular Muscles
222
13.4.1.
Abducent Nucleus and Nerve
223
13.4.2.
Trochlear Nucleus and Nerve
224
13.4.3.
Oculomotor Nucleus and Nerve
225
13.5.
Anatomical Basis of Conjugate Ocular
Movements
227
13.6.
Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus
228
13.7.
Vestibular
Connections Related to Ocular
Movements
229
13.7.1.
Vestibular
Connections Related to
Horizontal Ocular Movements
229
13.7.2.
Vestibular
Nystagmus
229
13.7.3.
Doll's Ocular Movements
230
13.7.4.
Vestibular
Connections Related to
Vertical Ocular Movements
231
13.8.
Injury to the Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus
231
13.9.
Injury to the
Vestibular
Nuclei
231
13.10.
The
Reticular
Formation and Ocular
Movements
232
13.11.
Congenital Nystagmus
232
13.12.
Ocular Bobbing
233
13.13.
Examination of the
Vestibular
System
233
13.14.
Visual Reflexes
234
13.14.1.
The Light Reflex
235
13.14.2.
The Near Reflex
236
13.14.3.
Pupillary Dilatation
236
13.14.4.
The Lateral Tectotegmentospinal
Tract
237
13.14.5.
Pupillary Pain Reflex and the
Spinotectal Tract
238
13.14.6.
The Afferent Pupillary Defect
(Marcus Gurm Pupillary Sign)
238
Further Reading
238
Chapter
14:
The
Thalamus
241
14.1.
Introduction
241
14.2.
Nuclear Groups of the
Thalamus
245
14.2.1.
Anterior Nuclei and the Lateral
Dorsal Nucleus
245
14.2.2. Intralaminar
Nuclei
246
14.2.3.
Medial Nuclei
247
14.2.4.
Median Nuclei
248
14.2.5.
Metathalamic Body and Nuclei
249
14.2.6.
Posterior Nuclear Complex
250
14.2.7.
Pulvinar Nuclei and Lateral
Posterior Nucleus
250
14.2.8.
Reticular
Nucleus
251
14.2.9.
Ventral Nuclei
251
14.3.
Injuries to the
Thalamus
254
CONTENTS
14.4.
Mapping the Human
Thalamus
255
14.5.
Stimulation of the Human
Thalamus
255
14.6.
The
Thalamus as a
Neurosurgical Target
256
Further Reading
256
Chapter
15:
The Motor System: Part
1 -
Lower
Motoneurons
and the Pyramidal
System
259
15.1.
Regions Involved in Motor Activity
259
15.2.
Lower
Motoneurons
260
15.2.1.
Terms Related to Motor Activity
260
15.2.2.
Lower
Motoneurons
in the
Spinal Cord
260
15.2.3.
Activation of
Motoneurons
261
15.2.4.
Lower
Motoneurons
in the Brain Stem
261
15.2.5.
Injury to Lower
Motoneurons
263
15.2.6.
Examples of Lower
Motoneuron
Disorders
263
15.3.
Pyramidal System
263
15.3.1.
Corticospinal Component
263
15.3.2.
Corticobulbar Component
270
15.3.3.
Clinical Neuroanatomical Correlation
274
Further Reading
274
Chapter
16:
The Motor System: Part
2 -
The
Extrapyramidal
System and
Cerebellum
277
16.1. Extrapyramidal
System
277
16.1.1. Extrapyramidal
Motor Cortex
278
16.1.2.
Basal Nuclei
279
16.1.3.
Afférents
to the Basal Nuclei
282
16.1.4.
Cortical-striatal-paffidal-thalamo-
cortical Circuits
282
16.1.5.
Multisynaptic Descending Paths
282
16.1.6.
Common Discharge Paths
283
16.1.7.
Somatotopic Organization of the
Basal Nuclei
283
16.2.
Cerebellum
283
16.2.1.
External Features of the Cerebellum
284
16.2.2.
Cerebeilar Cortex
286
16.2.3.
Deep Cerebeilar Nuclei
287
16.2.4.
Cerebeilar White Matter
287
16.3.
Input to the Cerebellum through the
Peduncles
287
16.3.1.
Inferior Cerebeilar Peduncle
287
16.3.2.
Middle Cerebeilar Peduncle
288
16.3.3.
Superior Cerebeilar Peduncle
288
16.4.
Input to the Cerebellum
289
16.4.1.
Incoming Fibers to the
Cerebellum
289
16.5.
Cerebeilar Output
289
16.5.1.
Output from the Fastigial Nuclei
289
16.5.2.
Output from the Globose and
Emboliform Nuclei
290
16.5.3.
Output from the Dentate Nuclei
290
16.6.
Cerebeilar Circuitry
290
16.7.
Common Discharge Paths
290
16.8.
Cerebeilar Functions
291
16.8.1.
Motor Functions of the
Cerebellum
291
16.8.2.
Nonmotor Functions of the
Cerebellum
291
16.8.3.
Studies Involving the Human
Cerebellum
291
16.8.4.
Localization in the Cerebellum
291
16.9.
Manifestations of Injuries to the
Motor System
291
16.9.1.
Injury to the Premotor Cortex
291
16.9.2.
Injuries to the Basal Nuclei
292
16.9.3.
Injury to the Subthalamic
Nucleus
294
16.9.4.
Injury to the Cerebellum
294
16.9.5.
Localization of
Cerebeilar
Damage
295
16.10.
Decorticate Versus Decerebrate
Rigidity
296
16.10.1.
Decerebrate Rigidity
296
16.10.2.
Decorticate Rigidity
296
16.11.
Epilogue
296
Further Reading
296
Chapter
17:
The Olfactory and Gustatory
Systems
299
17.1.
The Olfactory System
299
17.1.1.
Receptors
300
17.1.2.
Primary Neurons
300
17.1.3.
Olfactory
Fila
and the Olfactory-
Nerve
300
17.1.4.
Olfactory Bulb
-
Secondary
Olfactory Neurons
300
17.1.5.
Olfactory Stalk
301
17.1.6.
Medial Stria
301
17.1.7.
Lateral Stria
301
17.1.8.
Thaiamic Neurons
302
17.1.9.
Cortical Neurons
302
17.1.10.
Efferent Olfactory Connections
303
CONTENTS
17.1.11.
Injuries
to the Olfactory
System
303
17.2.
The Gustatory System
304
17.2.1.
Receptors
304
17.2.2.
Primary Neurons
306
17.2.3.
Secondary Neurons
308
17.2.4.
The Ascending Gustatory Path
308
17.2.5.
Thalamic Neurons
308
17.2.6.
Cortical Neurons
309
17.2.7.
Injuries to the Gustatory System
309
Further Reading
310
Chapter
18:
The
Limbie
System
313
18.1.
Historical Aspects
313
18.2.
Anatomy of the
Limbie
System
314
18.2.1.
Olfactory System
314
18.2.2.
Šeptal
Area
315
18.2.3.
Mamillary Bodies of the
Hypothalamus
315
18.2.4.
Anterior Nuclei of the
Thalamus
315
18.2.5.
The Hippocampal Formation
315
18.2.6.
The Amygdaloid Body
316
18.2.7.
Cingulate Gyms and Cingulum
318
18.2.8.
Cortical Areas
318
18.3.
Cyclic Paths of the
Limbie
System
318
18.4.
Synaptic Organization of Human
Limbie
System
320
18.5.
Descending
Limbie
Paths
320
18.6.
Functional Aspects of the Human
Limbie
System
321
18.6.1.
Emotion
321
18.6.2.
Memory
322
18.7.
Limbie
System Disorders
322
18.8.
Injuries to
Limbie
Constituents
323
18.8.1.
Šeptal
Area
323
18.8.2.
Hippocampal Formation
323
18.8.3.
Amygdaloid Body
323
18.8.4.
Seizures Involving the
Limbie
System
323
18.9.
Psychosurgery of the
Limbie
System
323
18.9.1.
Drug Resistant Epilepsy
324
18.9.2.
Violent, Aggressive, or Restless
Behaviors
324
18.9.3.
Schizophrenia
324
18.9.4.
Intractable Pain
324
18.9.5.
Psychiatric Disorders and Abnormal
Behavior
324
Further Reading
324
Chapter
19:
The
Hypothalamus
327
19.1.
Hypothalamic Regions
328
19.2.
Hypothalamic Zones
329
19.3.
Hypothalamic Nuclei
330
19.3.1.
Anterior Hypothalamic Region
330
19.3.2.
Dorsal Hypothalamic Region
330
19.3.3.
Intermediate Hypothalamic Region
332
19.3.4.
Lateral Hypothalamic Area
332
19.3.5.
Posterior Hypothalamic Region
332
19.3.6.
Posterior Nucleus of the
Hypothalamus
333
19.4.
Fiber Connections
333
19.4.1.
Medial Forebrain Bundle
333
19.4.2.
Stria
Terminalis 333
19.4.3. Fornix 333
19.4.4.
Diencephalic Periventricular
System (DPS)
333
19.4.5.
Dorsal Longitudinal Fasciculus
333
19.4.6.
Anterior and Posterior
Hypothalamotegmental Tracts
334
19.4.7.
Pallidohypothalamic Tract
334
19.4.8.
Mamillothalamic Tract
334
19.4.9.
Hypothalamo-hypophyseal Tract
334
19.4.10.
Vascular Connections
334
19.5.
Functions of the
Hypothalamus
334
19.5.1.
Water Balance
-
Water Intake
and Loss
334
19.5.2.
Eating
-
Food Intake
335
19.5.3.
Temperature Regulation
335
19.5.4.
Autonomie
Regulation
335
19.5.5.
Emotional Expression
335
19.5.6.
Wakefulness and Sleep
(Biological Rhythms)
336
19.5.7.
Control of the Endocrine System
336
19.5.8.
Reproduction
336
Further Reading
336
Chapter
20:
The
Autonomie
Nervous System
339
20.1
Historical Aspects
339
20.2.
Structural Aspects
340
20.2.1.
Location of
Autonomie
Neurons
of Origin
340
20.2.2.
Manner of Distribution of
Autonomie
Fibers
341
20.2.3.
Termination of
Autonomie
Fibers
342
20.3.
Comparison of the Somatic Efferents
and Visceral Efferents
343
20.4.
General Visceral
Afférents
345
CONTENTS
20.5. Regulation
of the
Autonomie
Nervous
System 346
20.6.
Disorders of the
Autonomie
Nervous
System
346
Further Reading
347
Chapter
21:
General Features of the Cerebral
Hemispheres
349
21.1.
Facts and Figures
349
21.2.
Cortical Neurons
350
21.3.
Cortical Layers
351
21.4.
Cortical Columns
(Microarchitecture)
352
21.5.
Functional Aspects of the Cerebral
Cortex
353
21.6.
Cerebral Dominance, Lateralization, and
Asymmetry
353
21.7.
Frontal Lobe
353
21.7.1.
Primary Motor Cortex
353
21.7.2.
Premotor Cortex
354
21.7.3.
Supplementary Motor Area (SMA)
355
21.7.4.
Cingulate Motor Areas
355
21.7.5.
Frontal Eye Fields
355
21.7.6.
Motor Speech Region
356
21.7.7.
Prefrental Cortex
356
21.8.
Parietal Lobe
357
21.8.1.
Primary Somatosensory
Cortex (SI)
358
21.8.2.
Secondary Somatosensory
Cortex
360
21.8.3.
Superior Parietal Lobule
361
21.8.4.
Inferior Parietal Lobule: Language
Areas
361
21.8.5.
Primary
Vestibular
Cortex (2v)
362
21.8.6.
Mirror Representation of Others'
Actions
362
21.8.7.
Preoccipital Areas Involved in
Following Ocular Movements
362
21.9.
Occipital Lobe
363
21.9.1.
Primary Visual Cortex (VI)
363
21.9.2.
Secondary Visual Cortex
363
21.10.
Temporal Lobe
363
21.10.1.
Primary Auditory Cortex
(AI)
364
21.10.2.
Wernicke's Region
364
21.10.3.
Temporal
Vestibular
Cortex
364
21.10.4.
Midtemporal Areas Related to
Memory
365
21.10.5.
Anomia
365
21.10.6.
Prosopagnosia
365
21.10.7.
Psychomotor Seizures
365
21.11.
Insular Lobe
366
21.12.
Aphasia
366
21.12.1.
Historic Aspects of Aphasia
367
21.12.2.
Broca's Aphasia
367
21.12.3.
Wernicke's Aphasia
368
21.12.4.
Conductive Aphasia
368
21.12.5.
Global Aphasia
368
21.13.
Alexia
368
21.14.
Apraxia
368
21.15.
Gerstmann's Syndrome
369
21.16.
Agnosia
369
21.17.
Dyslexia
369
Further Reading
369
Chapter
22:
Blood Supply to the Central
Nervous System
373
22.1.
Cerebral Circulation
373
22.2.
Aortic Arch, Brachiocephalic Trunk, and
Subclavian Vessels
374
22.3.
Vertebral-Basilar Arterial System
374
22.3.1.
Branches of the Vertebral Arteries
375
22.4.
Blood Supply to the Spinal Cord
376
22.4.1.
Extramedullary Vessels
376
22.4.2.
Intramedullary Vessels
379
22.4.3.
Spinal Veins
380
22.5.
Blood Supply to the Brain Stem and
Cerebellum
380
22.5.1.
Extrinsic or Superficial Branches
380
22.5.2.
Branches of the
Basilar
Arteries
382
22.5.3.
Intrinsic or Penetrating Branches
383
22.5.4.
Classical Brain Stem Syndromes
385
22.6.
Common Carotid Artery
386
22.6.1.
External Carotid Artery
386
22.6.2.
Internal Carotid Artery: Cervical,
Petrous, and Cavernous Parts
387
22.7.
Blood Supply to the Cerebral
Hemispheres
387
22.7.1.
Internal Carotid Artery:
Cerebral Part
387
22.7.2.
Branches of the Internal
Carotid Artery
388
22.7.3.
Posterior Cerebral Artery and its
Cerebral Supply
391
22.8.
Cerebral Arterial Circle
392
22.8.1.
Types of Arteries Supplying
the Brain
392
22.9.
Embryological Considerations
392
22.10.
Vascular Injuries
392
22.10.1.
Brain Stem Vascular Injuries
393
22.10.2.
Visualization of Brain Vessels
393
Further Reading
393
CONTENTS
Chapter
23:
The
Meninges,
Ventricular
System
23.2.3.
Third Ventricle
401
and
Cerebrospinal
Fluid
395 23.2.4.
Aqueduct of Midbrain
402
23.2.5.
Fourth Ventricle
402
23.1.
The Cranial
Meninges
and Related Spaces
395 23.3.
Cerebrospinal
Fluid
403
23.1.1.
Cranial Dura Mater
395
Further Reading
403
23.1.2.
Cranial Arachnoid
395
23.1.3.
Cranial
Pia
Mater
398
References
406
23.1.4.
Dural
Projections
398
23.1.5.
Intracranial Herniations
399
Index
461
23.2.
Ventricular System
400
23.2.1.
Introduction
400
23.2.2.
Lateral Ventricles
400 |
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| author | Augustine, James R. |
| author_facet | Augustine, James R. |
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| bvnumber | BV021243013 |
| classification_rvk | CZ 1100 WW 2204 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)315740272 (DE-599)BVBBV021243013 |
| dewey-full | 611.8 |
| dewey-hundreds | 600 - Technology (Applied sciences) |
| dewey-ones | 611 - Human anatomy, cytology, histology |
| dewey-raw | 611.8 |
| dewey-search | 611.8 |
| dewey-sort | 3611.8 |
| dewey-tens | 610 - Medicine and health |
| discipline | Biologie Psychologie Medizin |
| discipline_str_mv | Biologie Psychologie Medizin |
| edition | 1. ed. |
| format | Book |
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| genre | (DE-588)4151278-9 Einführung gnd-content |
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| id | DE-604.BV021243013 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T13:37:26Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T20:33:40Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9780120682515 0120682516 |
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| spelling | Augustine, James R. Verfasser aut Human neuroanatomy [an introduction] James R. Augustine 1. ed. Amsterdam [u.a.] Elsevier, Acad. Press 2008 XVI, 494 S. Ill. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Neuroanatomy blmsh Neuroanatomie (DE-588)4171577-9 gnd rswk-swf Mensch (DE-588)4038639-9 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4151278-9 Einführung gnd-content Mensch (DE-588)4038639-9 s Neuroanatomie (DE-588)4171577-9 s b DE-604 Digitalisierung UB Regensburg application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=014564556&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Klappentext Digitalisierung UB Regensburg application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=014564556&sequence=000006&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Augustine, James R. Human neuroanatomy [an introduction] Neuroanatomy blmsh Neuroanatomie (DE-588)4171577-9 gnd Mensch (DE-588)4038639-9 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4171577-9 (DE-588)4038639-9 (DE-588)4151278-9 |
| title | Human neuroanatomy [an introduction] |
| title_auth | Human neuroanatomy [an introduction] |
| title_exact_search | Human neuroanatomy [an introduction] |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Human neuroanatomy [an introduction] |
| title_full | Human neuroanatomy [an introduction] James R. Augustine |
| title_fullStr | Human neuroanatomy [an introduction] James R. Augustine |
| title_full_unstemmed | Human neuroanatomy [an introduction] James R. Augustine |
| title_short | Human neuroanatomy |
| title_sort | human neuroanatomy an introduction |
| title_sub | [an introduction] |
| topic | Neuroanatomy blmsh Neuroanatomie (DE-588)4171577-9 gnd Mensch (DE-588)4038639-9 gnd |
| topic_facet | Neuroanatomy Neuroanatomie Mensch Einführung |
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