Life: the science of biology
Gespeichert in:
| Format: | Buch |
|---|---|
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Sunderland, Mass.
Sinauer [u.a.]
2004
|
| Ausgabe: | 7. ed. |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | Bis 4. Aufl. u.d.T.: Purves, William K.: Life |
| Beschreibung: | Getr. Zählung Ill., graph. Darst. 1 CD-ROM |
| ISBN: | 0716798565 |
Internformat
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Life |b the science of biology |c William K. Purves ... |
| 250 | |a 7. ed. | ||
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| 300 | |a Getr. Zählung |b Ill., graph. Darst. |e 1 CD-ROM | ||
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| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 500 | |a Bis 4. Aufl. u.d.T.: Purves, William K.: Life | ||
| 650 | 4 | |a Biologie | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Biyoloji | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Biology | |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804131851921522689 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | William K Purves Emeritus, Harvey Mudd College • Claremont, California
David Sadava The Claremont Colleges • Claremont, California
Gordon H Orians Emeritus, The University of Washington • Seattle, Washington
H Craig Heller Stanford University • Stanford, California
Contents in Brief
1 An Evolutionary Framework for Biology 1
Part The Cell
2 Life and Chemistry: Small Molecules 15
3 Life and Chemistry: Large Molecules 35
4 Cells: The Basic Units of Life 61
5 Cellular Membranes 87
6 Energy, Enzymes, and Metabolism 106
7 Cellular Pathways That Harvest Chemical Energy 125
8 Photosynthesis: Energy from the Sun 145
Part 2 Information and Heredity
9 Chromosomes, the Cell Cycle, and Cell Division 164
10 Genetics: Mendel and Beyond 187
11 DNA and Its Role in Heredity 213
12 From DNA to Protein: Genotype to Phenotype 233
13 The Genetics of Viruses and Prokaryotes 257
14 The Eukaryotic Genome and Its Expression 279
15 Cell Signaling and Communication 301
16 Recombinant DNA and Biotechnology 317
17 Molecular Biology and Medicine 339
18 Natural Defenses against Disease 364
Part 3 Development ^
19 Differential Gene Expression in Development 390
20 Animal Development: From Genes to Organism 408
21 Development and Evolutionary Change 430
Part 4 Evolutionary Processes
22 The History of Life on Earth 442
23 The Mechanisms of Evolution Species and Their Formation 460
24 Species and Their Formation 481
25 Reconstructing and Using Phytogenies 496
26 Molecular and Genomic Evolution 510
Part 5 The Evolution of Diversity
27 Bacteria and Archaea: The Prokaryotic Domains 524
28 Protists and the Dawn of the Eukarya 543
29 Plants Without Seeds: From Sea to Land 570
30 The Evolution of Seed Plants 588
31 Fungi: Recyclers, Pathogens, Parasites, and Plant Partners 603
32 Animal Origins and the Evolution of Body Plans 619
33 Ecdysozoans:The Molting Animals 641
34 Deuterostomate Animals 655
Part The Biology of Flowering Plants
35 The Plant Body 682
36 Transport in Plants 701
37 Plant Nutrition 716
38 Regulation of Plant Growth 729
39 Reproduction in Flowering Plants 749
40 Plant Responses to Environmental Challenges 765
Part 7 The Biology of Animals
41 Physiology, Homeostasis, and Temperature Regulation 780
42 Animal Hormones 799
43 Animal Reproduction 820
44 Neurons and Nervous Systems 844
45 Sensory Systems 865
46 The Mammalian Nervous System:
Structure and Higher Functions 885
47 Effectors: Making Animals Move 903
48 Gas Exchange in Animals 922
49 Circulatory Systems 940
50 Nutrition, Digestion, and Absorption 961
51 Salt and Water Balance and Nitrogen Excretion 985
52 Animal Behavior 1002
Part $ Ecology and Biogeography
53 Behavioral Ecology 1024
54 Population Ecology 1037
55 Community Ecology 1055
56 Biogeography 1069
57 Conservation Biology 1094
58 Earth System Science 1107
Contents
1 An Evolutionary Framework for Biology 1
What Is Life? 2
Metabolism involves conversions of matter and energy 2
Reproduction continues life and provides the basis for evolution 3
Biological Evolution: Changes over Billions of Years 3
Darwin provided a mechanistic explanation of biological evolution 4
Major Events in the History of Life on Earth 4
Life arose from nonlife via chemical evolution 4
Biological evolution began when cells formed 4
Photosynthesis changed the course of evolution 5
Part One • THE CELL
2 Life and Chemistry: Small Molecules 15
Water and the Origin of Life s Chemistry 16
Atoms: The Constituents of Matter 16
An element is made up of only one kind of atom 17
The number of protons identifiesthe element 18
Isotopes differ in number of neutrons 18 —
Electron behavior determines chemical bonding 18
Chemical Bonds: Linking Atoms Together 19
Covalent bonds consist of shared pairs of electrons 21
Hydrogen bonds may form within or between atoms with polar
covalent bonds 23
Ionic bonds form by electrical attraction 23
Polar and nonpolar substances interact best among themselves 24
Chemical Reactions: Atoms Change Partners 25
Water: Structure and Properties 26
Water has a unique structure and special properties 26
Water is the solvent of life 28
Acids, Bases, and the pH Scale 28
Acids donate H+, bases accept H+ 28
The reactions between acids and bases may be reversible 29
Water is a weak acid 29
pH is the measure of hydrogen ion concentration 29
Buffers minimize pH change 30
Cells with complex internal compartments arose 6
Multicellular^y arose and cells became specialized 6
Sex increased the rate of evolution 6
Levels of Organization of Life 6
The Evolutionary Tree of Life 7
Biology Is a Science 10
Conceptual tools guide scientific research 10
Hypotheses are tested in two major ways 10
Not all forms of inquiry are scientific 13
Biology has implications for public policy 13
Properties of Molecules 30
Functional groups give specific properties to molecules 31
Isomers have different arrangements of the same atoms 32
3 Life and Chemistry: Large Molecules 35
Theories of the Origin of Life 35
Could life have come from outside Earth? 36
Did life originate on Earth? 36
Macromolecules: Giant Polymers 37
Condensation and Hydrolysis Reactions 38
Proteins: Polymers of Amino Acids 38
Proteins are composed of amino acids 39
Peptide linkages covalently bond amino acids together 40
The primary structure of a protein is its amino acid sequence 41
The secondary structure of a protein requires hydrogen bonding 41
CONTENTS XXi
The tertiary structure of a protein is formed by bending and
folding 41
The quaternary structure of a protein consists of subunits 43
The surfaces of proteins have specific shapes 43
Protein shapes are sensitive to the environment 44
Chaperonins help shape proteins 45
Carbohydrates: Sugars and Sugar Polymers 45
Monosaccharides are simple sugars 46
Glycosidic linkages bond monosaccharides together 46
Polysaccharides serve as energy stores or structural materials 48
Chemically modified carbohydrates contain other groups 48
Lipids: Water-Insoluble Molecules 50
Fats and oils store energy 50
Phospholipids form the core of biological membranes 52
Carotenoids and steroids 52
Some lipids are vitamins 53
Wax coatings repel water 53
Nucleic Acids: Informational MacromoleculesThat Can
Be Catalytic 54
The nucleic acids have characteristic chemical properties 54
The uniqueness of a nucleic acid resides in its nucleotide
sequence 54
DNA is a guide to evolutionary relationships 56
RNA may have been the first biological catalyst 57
Nucleotides have other important roles 57
All Life from Life 57
4 Cells: The Basic Unitsj f Life 61
The Cell:The Basic Unit of Life 62
Cells may have come from stable Bubbles-62
Cell size is limited by the surface area-to-volume ratio 62
Microscopes are needed to visualize cells 63
Cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane 65
Cells show two organizational patterns 65
Prokaryotic Cells 65
Prokaryotic cells share certain features 65
Some prokaryotic cells have specialized features 65
Eukaryotic Cells 66
Compartmentalization is the key to eukaryotic cell function 67
Organelles can be studied by microscopy or isolated for chemical
analysis 67
Organelles that Process Information 70
The nucleus contains most of the cell s DNA 70
Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis 72
The Endomembrane System 72
The endoplasmic reticulum is a complex factory 72
The Golgi apparatus stores, modifies, and packages proteins 73
Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes 74
Organelles that Process Energy 75
Mitochondria are energy transformers 75
Plastids photosynthesize or store materials 76
Endosymbiosis may explain the origin of mitochondria and
chloroplasts 77
Other Organelles 78
Peroxisomes house specialized chemical reactions 78
Vacuoles are filled with water and soluble substances 79
The Cytoskeleton 79
Microfilaments function in support and movement 79
Intermediate filaments are tough supporting elements 80
Microtubules are long and hollow 81
Microtubules power cilia and flagella 81
Motor proteins move along microtubules 82
Extracellular Structures 82
The plant cell wall consists largely of cellulose 83
Animal cells have elaborate extracellular matrices 83
5 Cellular Membranes 87
Membrane Composition and Structure 87
Lipids constitute the bulk of a membrane 88
Membrane proteins are asymmetrically distributed 89
Membrane carbohydrates are recognition sites 91
Cell Recognition and Adhesion 91
Cell recognition and adhesion involve proteins at the cell surface 92
Specialized cell junctions 93
Passive Processes of Membrane Transport 94
The physical nature of diffusion 94
Simple diffusion takes place through the membrane bilayer 96
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across membranes 96
Diffusion may be aided by channel proteins 97
Carrier proteins aid diffusion by binding substances 98
Active Transport 98
Active transport is directional 99
Primary and secondary active transport rely on different energy
sources 99
Endocytosis and Exocytosis 100
Macromolecules and particles enter the cell by endocytosis 101
Receptor-mediated endocytosis is highly specific 101
Exocytosis moves materials out of the cell 102
Membranes Are Not Simply Barriers 102
Membranes Are Dynamic 103
6^ Energy, Enzymes, and Metabolism 106
Energy and Energy Conversions 107
Energy changes are related to changes in matter 107
XXii CONTENTS
The first law: Energy is neither created nor destroyed 108
The second law: Not all energy can be used, and disorder
tends to increase 109
Chemical reactions release or take up energy 110
Chemical equilibrium and free energy are related 110
ATP:Transferring Energy in Cells 111
ATP hydrolysis releases energy 111
ATP couples exergonic and endergonic reactions 112
Enzymes: Biological Catalysts 113
For a reaction to proceed, an energy barrier must be overcome 113
Enzymes bind specific reactant molecules 114
Enzymes lower the energy barrier but do not affect equilibrium 115
What are the chemical events atactive site^ofenzymes? 115
Molecular Structure Determines Enzyme Function 117
The active site is specific to the substrate 117
An enzyme changes shape when it binds a substrate 117
Some enzymes require other molecules in order to operate 117
Substrate concentration affects reaction rate 118
Metabolism and the Regulation of Enzymes 119
Metabolism is organized into pathways 119
Enzyme activity is subject to regulation by inhibitors 119
Allosteric enzymes control their activity by changing their shape 120
Allosteric effects regulate metabolism 121
Enzymes are affected by their environment 122
7 Cellular Pathways that Harvest Chemical Energy 125
Energy and Electrons from Glucose 125
Cells trap free energy while metabolizing glucose 126
Redox reactions transfer electrons and energy 126
The coenzyme NAD is a key electron carrier in redox reactions 127
An Overview: Releasing Energy from Glucose 128
Glycolysis: From Glucose to Pyruvate 128
The energy-investing reactions of glycolysis require ATP 130
The energy-harvesting reactions of glycolysis yield NADH + H+ and
ATP 130
Pyruvate Oxidation 131
The Citric Acid Cycle 131
The citric acid cycle produces two C02 molecules and reduced
carriers 131
The Respiratory Chain: Electrons, Protons, and ATP
Production 134
The respiratory chain transports electrons and releases energy 134
Proton diffusion is coupled to ATP synthesis 135
Fermentation: ATP from Glucose, without 02 137
Some fermenting cells produce lactic acid and some produce
alcohol 139
Contrasting Energy Yields 139
Relationships between Metabolic Pathways 140
Catabolism and anabolism involve interconversions using carbon
skeletons 140
Catabolism and anabolism are integrated 141
Regulating Energy Pathways 142
Photosynthesis:
Energy from the Sun 145
Identifying Photosynthetic Reactants and
Products 146
The Two Pathways of Photosynthesis: An Overview 147
Light behaves as both a particle and a wave 147
Absorbing a photon puts a pigment in an excited state 148
Absorbed wavelengths correlate with biological activity 149
Photosynthesis uses energy absorbed by several pigments 149
Light absorption results in photochemical change 149
Exc i ted ch lo rophy llin the reac t ion cen te r ac ts as a reduc ing agen t fo r
electron transport 150
Noncyclic electron transport produces ATP and NADPH 151
Cyclic electron transport produces ATP but no NADPH 152
Chemiosmosis is the source of the ATP produced in
photophosphorylation 153
Making Carbohydrate from C02:
The Calvin-Benson Cycle 154
Isotope labeling experiments revealed the steps of the
Calvin-Benson cycle 154
The Calvin-Benson cycle is made up of three processes 155
Rubisco catalyzes RuBP reaction with 02 as well as C02 156
C4 plants can bypass photorespiration 157
CAM plants also use PEP carboxylase 159
Metabolic Pathways in Plants 159
LIFE ESSAY: What is science? By Sal Restivo 163
CONTENTS xxiii
Part Two • INFORMATION AND HEREDITY
Chromosomes, the Cell Cycle;
and Cell Division 164
Systems of Cell Reproduction 165
Prokaryotes divide by fission 165
Eukaryotic cells divide by mitosis or meiosis 166
Interphase and the Control of Cell Division 167
Cydins and other proteins signal events in the cell cycle 168
Growth factors can stimulate cells to divide 169
Eukaryotic Chromosomes 169
Mitosis: Distributing Exact Copies of Genetic
Information 171
The centrosomes determine the plane of cell division 171
Chromatids become visible and the spindle forms during prophase 171
Chromosome movements are highly organized 172
Nuclei re-form during telophase 174
Cytokinesis:The Division of the Cytoplasm 174
Reproduction: Asexual and Sexual 175
Reproduction by mitosis results in genetic constancy 175
Reproduction by meiosis results in genetic diversity 175
The number, shapes, and sizes of the metaphase chromosomes con
stitute the karyotype 176
Meiosis: A Pair of Nuclear Divisions 177
The first meiotic division reduces the chromosome number 177
The second meiotic division separates the chromatids 181
Meiosis leads to genetic diversity-181
Meiotic Errors 182
Aneuploidy can give rise to genetic abnormalities 182
Polyploids can have difficulty in cell division 184
Cell Death 184
Genetics: Mendel and Beyond 187
The Foundations of Genetics 187
Plant breeders showed that both parents contribute equally to inheri
tance 188
Mendel brought new methods to experiments on inheritance 188
Mendel s Experiments and the Laws of Inheritance 189
Mendel devised a careful research plan 189
Mendel s experiment 1 examined a monohybrid cross 190
Mendel s first law says that alleles segregate 192
Mendel verified his hypothesis by performing a test cross 192
Mendel s second law says that alleles of different genes assort inde
pendently 194
Punnett squares or probability calculations: A choice of methods 195
Mendel s laws can be observed in human pedigrees 196
Alleles and Their Interactions 197
New alleles arise by mutation 198
Many genes have multiple alleles 198
Dominance is not always complete 198
In codominance, both alleles are expressed 199
Some alleles have multiple phenotypic effects 199
Gene Interactions 200
Some genes alter the effects of other genes 200
Hybrid vigor results from new gene combinations and interactions 200
The environment affects gene action 201
Most complex phenotypes are determined by multiple genes and
environment 201
Genes and Chromosomes 202
Genes on the same chromosome are linked 202
Genes can be exchanged between chromatids 203
Geneticists can make maps of chromosomes 203
Sex Determination and Sex-Linked Inheritance 205
Sex is determined in different ways in different species 205
The X and Y chromosomes have different functions 206
Genes on sex chromosomes are inherited in special ways 207
Humans display many sex-linked characters 208
Non-Nudear Inheritance 209
11 DNA and Its Role in Heredity 213
DNA: The Genetic Material 213
DNA from one type of bacterium genetically transforms another type
The transforming principle is DNA 215
XX lV CONTENTS
Viral replication experiments confirm that DNA is the genetic
material 215
The Structure of DNA 217
X-ray crystallography provided clues to DNA structure 217
The chemical composition of DNA was known 217
Watson and Crick described the double helix 217
Four key features define DNA structure 218
The double helical structure of DNA is essential to its function 220
Determining the DNA Replication Mechanism 220
Three modes of DNA replication appeared possible 220
Meselson and Stahl demonstrated that DNA replication is
semiconservative 221
The Molecular Mechanisms of DNA Replication 222
DNA is threaded through a replication complex 222
Small, circular DNAs replicate from a single origin 223
Large, linear DNAs have many origins 223
DNA polymerases need a primer 224
Cells contain several different DNA polymerases 224
The lagging strand is synthesized from Okazaki fragments 225
Telomeres are not fully replicated 226
DNA Proofreading and Repair 227
Proofreading mechanisms ensure that DNA replication is
accurate 227
Mismatch repair mechanisms correct base-pairing errors 227
Excision repair mechanisms repair chemical damage 228
Practical Applications of DNA Replication 228
The polymerase chain reaction makes multiple copies of DNA 229
The nucleotide sequence of DNA can be determined 231
From DNA to Protein:
Genotype to Phenotype 233
One Gene, One Polypeptide 233
DNA, RNA, and the Flow of Information 236
RNA differs from DNA 236 v
Information flows in one direction when genes are expressed 236
RNA viruses modify the central dogma 237
Transcription: DNA-Directed RNA Synthesis 237
Initiation of transcription requires a promoter and RNA
polymerase 237
RNA polymerase elongates the transcript 239
Transcription terminates at particular base sequences 239
The Genetic Code 239
The genetic code is redundant but not ambiguous 240
The genetic code is (nearly) universal 240
Biologists deciphered the genetic code by using artificial
messengers 240
Preparation for Translation: Linking RN As, Amino
Acids, and Ribosomes 241
Transfer RNAs carry specific amino acids and bind to specific
codons 241
Activating enzymes link the right tRNAs and amino acids 242
The ribosome is the workbench for translation 242
Translation: RNA-Directed Polypeptide Synthesis 244
Translation begins with an initiation complex 244
The polypeptide elongates from the N terminus 244
Elongation continues and the polypeptide grows 245
A release factor terminates translation 245
Regulation of Translation 246
Some antibiotics and bacterial toxins work by inhibiting
translation 246
Polysome formation increases the rate of protein synthesis 247
Posttranslational Events 247
Chemical signals in proteins direct them to their cellular
destinations 247
Many proteins are modified after translation 249
Mutations: Heritable Changes in Genes 250
Point mutations are changes in single nucleotides 251
Chromosomal mutations are extensive changes in the genetic
material 252
Mutations can be spontaneous or induced 253
Mutations are the raw material of evolution 254
The Genetics of Viruses and
Prokaryotes 257
Probing the Nature of Genes 258
Viruses: Reproduction and Recombination 258
Scientists studied viruses before they could see them 258
Viruses reproduce only with the help of living cells 258
There are many kinds of viruses 259
Bacteriophage reproduce by a lytic cycle or a lysogenic cycle 259
Lytic bacteriophage could be useful in treating bacterial
infections 261
Animal viruses have diverse reproductive cycles 261
Many plant viruses spread with the help of vectors 263
Prokaryotes: Reproduction and Recombination 263
The reproduction of prokaryotes gives rise to clones 264
In recombination, bacteria conjugate 264
In transformation, cells pick up genes from their environment 266
In transduction, viruses carry genes from one cell to another 266
Plasmids are extra chromosomes in bacteria 267
Transposable elements move genes among plasmids and
chromosomes 268
Regulation of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes 269
Regulation of transcription conserves energy 269
A single promoter controls the transcription of adjacent genes 270
Operons are units of transcription in prokaryotes 270
Operator-repressor control that induces transcription:
Thelacoperon 271
Operator-repressor control that represses transcription:
Thetrpoperon 272
CONTENTS XXV
Many eukaryotic genes are members of gene families 286
RNA Processing 288
The primary transcript of a protein-coding gene is modified at both
ends 289
Splicing removes introns from the primary transcript 289
Transcriptional Regulation of Gene Expression 290
Specific genes can be selectively transcribed 290
Genes can be inactivated by chromatin structure 293
A DNA sequence can be moved to a new location to activate
transcription 295
Selective gene amplification results in more templates for
transcription 295
Posttranscriptional Regulation 296
Different mRNAs can be made from the same gene by alternative
splicing 296
The stability of mRNA can be regulated 297
RNA can be edited to change the encoded protein 297
Translational and Posttranslational Regulation 298
The translation of mRNA can be regulated 298
The proteasome controls the longevity of proteins after translation
Protein synthesis can be controlled by increasing promoter
efficiency 273
Control of Transcription in Viruses 273
Prokaryotic Genomes 275
Functional genomics relates gene sequences to functions 275
The sequencing of prokaryotic genomes has medical
applications 276
What genes are required for cellular life? 276
7 A The Eukaryotic Genome
1 ± and Its Expression 279
The Eukaryotic Genome 279
The eukaryotic genome is larger and more complex than the
prokaryotic genome 279
The yeast genome adds some eukaryotic functions to a prokaryotic
model 280
The nematode genome adds developmental complexity 281
The fruit fly genome has surprisingly few genes 282
The puffer fish is a vertebrate with a compact genome 282
The rice genome reflects that of a model plant, Arabidopsis 282
Repetitive Sequences in the Eukaryotic Genome 283
Highly repetitive sequences are present in large numbers of
copies 283
Some moderately repetitive sequences are transcribed 284
Transposons move about the genome 284
The Structures of Protein-Coding Genes 285
Protein-coding genes contain noncoding internal and flanking
sequences 285
t ZT Cell Signaling and Communication
U 301
Cells receive signals from the physical environment
and from other cells 302
A signal transduction pathway involves a signal, a receptor, transduc
tion, and effects 302
Receptors have specific binding sites for their signals 304
There are several types of receptors 305
Protein kinase cascades amplify a response to receptor binding 307
Cyclic AMP is a common second messenger 309
Two second messengers are derived from lipids 310
Calcium ions are involved in many signal transduction pathways 310
Nitric oxide is a gas that can act as a second messenger 311
Signal transduction is highly regulated 311
Ion channels are opened 312
Enzyme activities are changed 312
Different genes are transcribed 313
Animal cells communicate by gap junctions 314
Plant cells communicate by plasmodesmata 314
1 Recombinant DNA
IU and Biotechnology 317
Cleaving and Rejoining DNA 318
Restriction enzymes cleave DNA at specific sequences 318
Gel electrophoresis identifies the sizes of DNA fragments 319
Recombinant DNA can be made in the test tube 320
XXVi CONTENTS
Getting New Genes into Cells 321
Genes can be inserted into prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells 321
Vectors can carry new DNA into host cells 322
Reporter genes identify host cells containing recombinant DNA 323
Sources of Genes for Cloning 324
Gene libraries contain pieces of a genome 324
A DNA copy of mRNA can be made by reverse transcriptase 325
DNA can be synthesized chemically in the laboratory 325
DNA can be mutated in the laboratory 326
Some Additional Tools for DNA Manipulation 326
Genes can be inactivated by homologous recombination 326
DNA chips can reveal DNA mutations and RNA expression 327
Antisense RNA and RNA interference can prevent the expression of
specific genes 328
The two-hybrid system shows which proteins interact in a cell 329
Biotechnology: Applications of DNA
Manipulation 330
Expression vectors can turn cells into protein factories 330
Medically useful proteins can be made by biotechnology 331
DNA manipulation is changing agriculture 331
There is public concern about biotechnology 334
DNA fingerprinting is based on the polymerase chain reaction 335
j 7 Molecu lar B io logy and Medic ine 339
Abnormal or Missing Proteins: The Mutant
Phenotype 340
Dysfunctional enzymes can cause diseases 340
Abnormal hemoglobin is the cause of sickle-cell disease 341
Altered membrane proteins cause many diseases 341
Altered structural proteins can cause disease-342
Prion diseases are disorders of protein conformation 343
Most diseases are caused by both genes and environment 343
Human genetic diseases have several patterns of inheritance 343
Mutations and Human Diseases 344
One way to identify a gene is to start with its protein 345
Chromosome deletions can lead to gene and then protein
isolation 345
Genetic markers can point the way to important genes 346
Human gene mutations come in many sizes 347
Expanding triplet repeats demonstrate the fragility of some human
genes 347
Genomic imprinting shows that mammals need both a mother
and a father 348
Detecting Genetic Variations: Screening for Human
Diseases 348
Screening for abnormal phenotypes can make use of protein
expression 349
Several screening methods can find abnormal genes 349
Cancer: A Disease of Genetic Changes 350
Cancer cells differ from their normal counterparts 351
Some cancers are caused by viruses 352
Most cancers are caused by genetic mutations 352
Two kinds of genes are changed in many cancers 353
The pathway from normal cell to cancerous cell is complex 354
Treating Genetic Diseases 355
One approach to treatment is to modify the phenotype 355
Gene therapy offers the hope of specific treatments 356
Sequencing the Human Genome 357
There are two approaches to genome sequencing 358
The sequence of the human genome has been determined 359
The human genome sequence has many applications 360
How should genetic information be used? 360
The proteome is more complex than the genome 361
Natural Defenses against Disease 364
Animal Defense Systems 365
Blood and lymph tissues play important roles in defense
systems 365
White blood cells play many defensive roles 366
Immune system proteins bind pathogens or signal other cells 367
Nonspecific Defenses 367
Barriers and local agents defend the body against invaders 368
Nonspecific defenses include chemical and cellular processes 368
A cell signaling pathway stimulates defense 370
Specific Defenses:The Immune System 370
Four features characterize the immune system 370
There are two interactive immune responses 371
Genetic processes and clonal selection generate the characteristics of
the immune response 371
Immunity and immunological memory result from clonal
selection 372
Vaccines are an application of immunological memory 372
Animals distinguish self from nonself and tolerate their own
antigens 374
B Cells:The Humoral Immune Response 374
Some B cells develop into plasma cells 374
Different antibodies share a common structure 374
Hybridomas produce monoclonal antibodies 375
T Ceils:The Cellular Immune Response 377
T cell receptors are found on two types of T cells 378
The major histocompatibility complex encodes proteins that present
antigens to the immune system 378
Helper T cells and MHCII proteins contribute to the humoral immune
response 379
Cytotoxic T cells and MHC I proteins contribute to the cellular
immune response 381
CONTENTS XXVii
MHC proteins underlie the tolerance of self 381
MHC proteins are responsible for transplant rejection 381
The Genetic Basis of Antibody Diversity 381
Antibody diversity results from DNA rearrangement and other
mutations 382
The constant region is involved in class switching 383
Disorders of the Immune System 384
AIDS is an immune deficiency disorder 384
Part Three • DEVELOPMENT
Differential Gene Expression
in Development 390
The Processes of Development 391
Development consists of growth, differentiation, and
morphogenesis 391
As development proceeds, cells become more and more
specialized 392
The Role of Differential Gene Expression in Cell
Differentiation 393
With differentiation, there is generally no irreversible change in the
genome 393
Stem cells can be induced to differentiate by environmental
signals 396
Genes are differentially expressed in cell differentiation 396
The Roles of Cytoplasmic Segregation and Induction
in Cell Determination 397
Polarity results from cytoplasmic segregation 398
Tissues direct the development of their neighbors by secreting
inducers 399
Single cells can induce changes in their neighbors 399
The Role of Pattern Formation in Organ
Development 401
Some cells are programmed to die 401
Plants have organ identity genes 401
Morphogen gradients provide positional information 402
The Role of Differential Gene Expression in
Establishing Body Segmentation 403
Maternal effect genes encode morphogens that determine
polarity 403
Segmentation and homeotic genes act after the maternal effect
genes 404
Drosophila development results from a transcriptionally controlled
gene cascade 404
Homeotic mutations produce changes in segment identity 405
Homeobox-containing genes encode transcription factors 406
HIV infection and replication occur in TH cells 385
Treatments for HIV infection rely on knowing its molecular
biology 386
LIFE ESSAY: What are the ethical issues
surrounding genetic modification of nature?
by Gary Comstock 389
Development Begins with Fertilization 409
The sperm and the egg make different contributions to the zygote
Fertilization causes rearrangements of egg cytoplasm 409
Rearrangements of egg cytoplasm set the stage for determination
Cleavage: Repackaging the Cytoplasm 410
The amount of yolk influences cleavage 411
The orientation of mitotic spindles influences the pattern of
cleavage 411
Cleavage in mammals is unique 412
Specific blastomeres generate specific tissues and organs 413
Gastrulation: Producing the Body Plan 414
invagination of the vegetal pole characterizes gastrulation in the
sea urchin 414
Gastrulation in the frog begins at the gray crescent 415
The dorsal lip of the blastopore organizes embryo formation 416
Reptilian and avian gastrulation is an adaptation to yolky eggs 419
Mammals have no yolk, but retain the avian-reptilian gastrulation
pattern 420
Neurulation: Initiating the Nervous System 420
The stage is set by the dorsal lip of the blastopore 420
xxviii CONTENTS
Body segmentation develops during neurulation 421
Hox genes control development along the anterior-posterior axis 422
Extraembryonic Membranes 423
Extraembryonic membranes form with contributions from all germ
layers 423
Extraembryonic membranes in mammals form the placenta 423
The extraembryonic membranes provide means of detecting genetic
diseases 424
Human Development 424
Intrauterine development can be divided into three trimesters 424
Developmental changes continue throughout life 426
Development and Evolutionary
Change 429
Evolution and Development 430
Development uses the same sets of genes throughout the animal
kingdom 431
Part Four • EVOLUTIONARY
PROCESSES
The History of Life on Earth 442
Defining Biological Evolution 443
Determining Earth s Age 443 _ ___
Radioactivity provides a way to date rocks 443
Radioisotope dating methods have been expanded and
refined 444
The Changing Face of Earth 445
The continents have changed their positions 445
Earth s atmosphere has changed unidirectionally 445
Earth s climate shifts between hot/humid and cold/dry
conditions 447
Volcanoes occasionally changed the history of life 447
External events have triggered changes on Earth 448
The Fossil Record 448
Major Patterns in the History of Life on Earth 449
Life expanded rapidly during the Cambrian period 449
Major changes continued during the rest of the Paleozoic era 450
Geographic differentiation increased during the Mesozoic era 452
|
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