Environmental chemistry:
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| Main Author: | |
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| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
Boca Raton [u.a.]
CRC Press
2005
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| Edition: | 8. ed. |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Physical Description: | 783 S., [12] Bl. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |
| ISBN: | 1566706335 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Environmental chemistry |c Stanley E. Manahan |
| 250 | |a 8. ed. | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a Boca Raton [u.a.] |b CRC Press |c 2005 | |
| 300 | |a 783 S., [12] Bl. |b Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. | ||
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| 650 | 4 | |a Umwelttoxikologie | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Ökologische Chemie | |
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| _version_ | 1804131851824005120 |
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| adam_text | Contents
Chapter 1 Environmental Chemistry: Chemical Fate and Transport.........................................1
1.1 What Is Environmental Science?...........................................................................................1
1.2 Chemistry and the Environment............................................................................................1
1.3 Water, Air, Earth, Life, and Technology................................................................................2
1.3.1 Water and the Hydrosphere.....................................................................................3
1.3.2 Air and the Atmosphere..........................................................................................3
1.3.3 Earth.........................................................................................................................3
1.3.4 Life...........................................................................................................................4
1.3.5 The Anthrosphere and Technology.........................................................................4
1.4 Ecology, Ecotoxicology, and the Biosphere..........................................................................5
1.4.1 The Biosphere..........................................................................................................5
1.4.2 Ecology....................................................................................................................6
1.4.3 Ecotoxicology..........................................................................................................6
1.5 Energy and Cycles of Energy................................................................................................7
1.5.1 Light and Electromagnetic Radiation......................................................................7
1.5.2 Energy Flow and Photosynthesis in Living Systems..............................................8
1.5.3 Energy Utilization....................................................................................................8
1.6 Matter and Cycles of Matter..................................................................................................9
1.6.1 Endogenic and Exogenic Cycles...........................................................................10
1.6.2 Carbon Cycle.........................................................................................................12
1.6.3 Nitrogen Cycle.......................................................................................................12
1.6.4 Oxygen Cycle........................................................................................................13
1.6.5 Phosphorus Cycle..................................................................................................14
1.6.6 Sulfur Cycle...........................................................................................................14
1.7 Human Impact and Pollution...............................................................................................15
1.7.1 Some Definitions Pertaining to Pollution.............................................................15
1.7.2 Pollution of Various Spheres of the Environment................................................17
1.8 Chemical Fate and Transport...............................................................................................17
1.8.1 Physical Transport.................................................................................................18
1.8.2 Reactivity...............................................................................................................19
1.8.3 The Mass Balance Expression..............................................................................19
1.8.4 Distribution among Phases....................................................................................20
1.9 Chemical Fate and Transport in the Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, and Geosphere...............20
1.9.1 Pollutants in the Atmosphere................................................................................20
1.9.2 Pollutants in the Hydrosphere...............................................................................21
1.9.3 Pollutants in the Geosphere...................................................................................21
Questions and Problems...................................................................................................................22
Literature Cited................................................................................................................................23
Supplementary References...............................................................................................................23
Chapter 2 The Anthrosphere, Environmental Chemistry, and Green Chemistry....................25
2.1 The Anthrosphere.................................................................................................................25
2.1.1 Components of the Anthrosphere..........................................................................25
2.2 Technology and the Anthrosphere.......................................................................................26
2.2.1 Engineering............................................................................................................27
2.3 Infrastructure........................................................................................................................27
2.4 Dwellings.............................................................................................................................29
2.5 Transportation......................................................................................................................30
2.6 Communications...................................................................................................................31
2.7 Food and Agriculture...........................................................................................................31
2.8 Manufacturing......................................................................................................................33
2.8.1 Automation............................................................................................................33
2.8.2 Robotics.................................................................................................................34
2.8.3 Computers..............................................................................................................34
2.9 Effects of the Anthrosphere on Earth..................................................................................35
2.10 Integration of the Anthrosphere into the Total Environment..............................................36
2.10.1 The Anthrosphere and Industrial Ecology............................................................38
2.11 Environmental Chemistry....................................................................................................38
2.12 Green Chemistry..................................................................................................................39
2.12.1 Green Synthetic Chemistry...................................................................................40
2.12.2 Risk Reduction......................................................................................................41
2.12.3 Specific Aspects of Green Chemistry...................................................................41
2.12.4 Three Undesirable Characteristics of Chemicals:
Persistence, Bioaccumulation, and Toxicity.........................................................42
2.12.5 Green Chemistry and Environmental Chemistry..................................................42
Questions and Problems...................................................................................................................42
Literature Cited................................................................................................................................43
Supplementary References...............................................................................................................44
Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Aquatic Chemistry.......................................................................47
3.1 The Importance of Water.....................................................................................................47
3.1.1 Sources and Uses of Water: The Hydrologic Cycle.............................................48
3.2 The Properties of Water, a Unique Substance.....................................................................50
3.2.1 The Water Molecule..............................................................................................50
3.3 The Characteristics of Bodies of Water...............................................................................52
3.4 Aquatic Life.........................................................................................................................53
3.5 Introduction to Aquatic Chemistry......................................................................................54
3.6 Gases in Water.....................................................................................................................55
3.6.1 Oxygen in Water....................................................................................................55
3.7 Water Acidity and Carbon Dioxide in Water......................................................................56
3.7.1 Carbon Dioxide in Water.......................................................................................57
3.8 Alkalinity..............................................................................................................................60
3.8.1 Contributors to Alkalinity at Different pH Values................................................61
3.8.2 Dissolved Inorganic Carbon and Alkalinity..........................................................62
3.8.3 Influence of Alkalinity on CO2 Solubility............................................................63
3.9 Calcium and Other Metals in Water....................................................................................63
3.9.1 Hydrated Metal Ions as Acids...............................................................................64
3.9.2 Calcium in Water...................................................................................................65
3.9.3 Dissolved Carbon Dioxide and Calcium Carbonate Minerals.............................65
3.10 Complexation and Chelation...............................................................................................67
3.10.1 Occurrence and Importance of Chelating Agents in Water..................................69
3.11 Bonding and Structure of Metal Complexes.......................................................................70
3.11.1 Selectivity and Specificity in Chelation................................................................70
3.12 Calculations of Species Concentrations..............................................................................70
3.13 Complexation by Deprotonated Ligands.............................................................................71
3.14 Complexation by Protonated Ligands.................................................................................72
3.15 Solubilization of Lead Ion from Solids by NTA................................................................74
3.15.1 Reaction of NTA with Metal Carbonate...............................................................76
3.15.2 Effect of Calcium Ion upon the Reaction of Chelating Agents
with Slightly Soluble Salts....................................................................................77
3.16 Polyphosphates and Phosphonates in Water........................................................................79
3.16.1 Polyphosphates......................................................................................................79
3.16.2 Hydrolysis of Polyphosphates...............................................................................80
3.16.3 Complexation by Polyphosphates.........................................................................80
3.16.4 Phosphonates..........................................................................................................80
3.17 Complexation by Humic Substances...................................................................................81
3.18 Complexation and Redox Processes....................................................................................83
Questions and Problems...................................................................................................................83
Literature Cited................................................................................................................................85
Supplementary References...............................................................................................................86
Chapter 4 Oxidation-Reduction................................................................................................87
4.1 The Significance of Oxidation-Reduction...........................................................................87
4.2 Electron and Redox Reactions.............................................................................................89
4.3 Electron Activity and pE......................................................................................................91
4.4 The Nernst Equation............................................................................................................92
4.5 Reaction Tendency: Whole Reaction from Half-Reactions................................................93
4.6 The Nernst Equation and Chemical Equilibrium................................................................95
4.7 The Relationship of pE to Free Energy..............................................................................95
4.8 Reactions in Terms of 1 Electron-Mole..............................................................................96
4.9 The Limits of pE in Water...................................................................................................97
4.10 pE Values in Natural Water Systems...................................................................................99
4.11 pE-pH Diagrams................................................................................................................100
4.12 Humic Substances as Natural Reductants.........................................................................103
4.13 Photochemical Processes in Oxidation-Reduction............................................................104
4.14 Corrosion............................................................................................................................105
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................106
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................107
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................107
Chapter 5 Phase Interactions..................................................................................................109
5.1 Chemical Interactions Involving Solids, Gases, and Water..............................................109
5.2 Importance and Formation of Sediments..........................................................................109
5.2.1 Formation of Sediments......................................................................................110
5.2.2 Organic and Carbonaceous Sedimentary Materials............................................111
5.3 Solubilities..........................................................................................................................112
5.3.1 Solubilities of Solids...........................................................................................112
5.3.2 Solubilities of Gases............................................................................................114
5.4 Colloidal Particles in Water...............................................................................................115
5.4.1 Contaminant Transport by Colloids in Water.....................................................115
5.4.2 Occurrence of Colloids in Water.........................................................................116
5.4.3 Kinds of Colloidal Particles................................................................................116
5.4.4 Colloid Stability...................................................................................................117
5.5 The Colloidal Properties of Clays.....................................................................................119
5.6 Aggregation of Particles....................................................................................................120
5.6.1 Flocculation of Colloids by Polyelectrolytes......................................................121
5.6.2 Flocculation of Bacteria by Polymeric Materials...............................................121
5.7 Surface Sorption by Solids................................................................................................122
5.8 Solute Exchange with Bottom Sediments.........................................................................123
5.8.1 Trace-Level Metals in Suspended Matter and Sediments..................................124
5.8.2 Phosphorus Exchange with Bottom Sediments..................................................125
5.8.3 Organic Compounds on Sediments and Suspended Matter...............................125
5.8.4 Bioavailability of Sediment Contaminants.........................................................127
5.9 Interstitial Water.................................................................................................................128
5.10 Phase Interactions in Chemical Fate and Transport..........................................................129
5.10.1 Rivers...................................................................................................................129
5.10.2 Lakes and Reservoirs...........................................................................................129
5.10.3 Exchange with the Atmosphere...........................................................................130
5.10.4 Exchange with Sediments...................................................................................130
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................131
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................133
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................133
Chapter 6 Aquatic Microbial Biochemistry...........................................................................135
6.1 Aquatic Biochemical Processes.........................................................................................135
6.1.1 Microorganisms at Interfaces..............................................................................136
6.2 Algae..................................................................................................................................136
6.3 Fungi...................................................................................................................................138
6.4 Protozoa..............................................................................................................................138
6.5 Bacteria...............................................................................................................................139
6.5.1 Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Bacteria.............................................................140
6.5.2 Aerobic and Anaerobic Bacteria.........................................................................140
6.5.3 Marine Bacteria...................................................................................................140
6.6 The Prokaryotic Bacterial Cell..........................................................................................141
6.7 Kinetics of Bacterial Growth.............................................................................................142
6.8 Bacterial Metabolism.........................................................................................................143
6.8.1 Factors Affecting Bacterial Metabolism.............................................................144
6.8.2 Microbial Oxidation and Reduction....................................................................145
6.9 Microbial Transformations of Carbon...............................................................................145
6.9.1 Methane-Forming Bacteria..................................................................................147
6.9.2 Bacterial Utilization of Hydrocarbons................................................................148
6.9.3 Microbial Utilization of Carbon Monoxide........................................................148
6.10 Biodegradation of Organic Matter.....................................................................................149
6.10.1 Oxidation..............................................................................................................149
6.10.1.1 Microbial Oxidation of Hydrocarbons..............................................149
6.10.2 Other Biochemical Processes in Biodegradation of Organics............................150
6.11 Microbial Transformations of Nitrogen.............................................................................151
6.11.1 Nitrogen Fixation.................................................................................................152
6.11.2 Nitrification..........................................................................................................153
6.11.3 Nitrate Reduction.................................................................................................154
6.11.4 Denitrification......................................................................................................155
6.11.5 Competitive Oxidation of Organic Matter by Nitrate Ions and
Other Oxidizing Agents.......................................................................................155
6.12 Microbial Transformations of Phosphorus and Sulfur Phosphorus Compounds.............156
6.12.1 Sulfur Compounds...............................................................................................156
6.12.1.1 Oxidation of H2S and Reduction of Sulfate by Bacteria..................157
6.12.2 Microorganism-Mediated Degradation of Organic Sulfur Compounds.............158
6.13 Microbial Transformations of Halogens and Organohalides............................................158
6.14 Microbial Transformations of Metals and Metalloids.......................................................160
6.14.1 Acid Mine Waters................................................................................................161
6.14.2 Microbial Transitions of Selenium......................................................................162
6.14.3 Microbial Corrosion............................................................................................163
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................163
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................166
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................166
Chapter 7 Water Pollution.......................................................................................................169
7.1 Nature and Types of Water Pollutants...............................................................................169
7.2 Elemental Pollutants..........................................................................................................169
7.3 Heavy Metals.....................................................................................................................171
7.3.1 Cadmium..............................................................................................................171
7.3.2 Lead......................................................................................................................171
7.3.3 Mercury................................................................................................................172
7.4 Metalloids...........................................................................................................................173
7.5 Organically Bound Metals and Metalloids........................................................................174
7.5.1 Organotin Compounds.........................................................................................175
7.6 Inorganic Species...............................................................................................................176
7.6.1 Cyanide................................................................................................................176
7.6.2 Ammonia and Other Inorganic Pollutants..........................................................177
7.6.3 Asbestos in Water................................................................................................178
7.7 Algal Nutrients and Eutrophication...................................................................................178
7.8 Acidity, Alkalinity, and Salinity........................................................................................179
7.9 Oxygen, Oxidants, and Reductants...................................................................................180
7.10 Organic Pollutants..............................................................................................................181
7.10.1 Sewage.................................................................................................................181
7.10.2 Soaps, Detergents, and Detergent Builders.........................................................182
7.10.2.1 Soaps..................................................................................................182
7.10.2.2 Detergents..........................................................................................183
7.10.3 Pharmaceuticals and Their Degradation Products..............................................185
7.10.4 Bactericides..........................................................................................................186
7.10.5 Estrogenic Substances in Wastewater Effluents..................................................186
7.10.6 Biorefractory Organic Pollutants.........................................................................186
7.10.7 Naturally Occurring Chlorinated and Brominated Compounds.........................188
7.10.8 Microbial Toxins..................................................................................................188
7.11 Pesticides in Water.............................................................................................................189
7.11.1 Natural Product Insecticides, Pyrethrins, and Pyrethroids.................................189
7.11.2 DDT and Organochlorine Insecticides................................................................190
7.11.3 Organophosphate Insecticides.............................................................................191
7.11.4 Carbamates...........................................................................................................193
7.11.5 Fungicides............................................................................................................193
7.11.6 Herbicides............................................................................................................193
7.11.6.1 Bipyridilium Compounds...................................................................194
7.11.6.2 Herbicidal Heterocyclic Nitrogen Compounds.................................195
7.11.6.3 Chlorophenoxy Herbicides................................................................195
7.11.6.4 Miscellaneous Herbicides..................................................................196
7.11.7 By-Products of Pesticide Manufacture................................................................197
7.12 Polychlorinated Biphenyls.................................................................................................199
7.12.1 Biodegradation of PCBs......................................................................................199
7.13 Radionuclides in the Aquatic Environment.......................................................................200
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................204
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................206
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................207
Chapter 8 Water Treatment.....................................................................................................209
8.1 Water Treatment and Water Use........................................................................................209
8.2 Municipal Water Treatment...............................................................................................209
8.3 Treatment of Water for Industrial Use..............................................................................210
8.4 Sewage Treatment..............................................................................................................211
8.4.1 Primary Treatment of Wastewater.......................................................................212
8.4.2 Secondary Wastewater Treatment by Biological Processes................................212
8.4.3 Tertiary Waste Treatment.....................................................................................215
8.4.4 Physical-Chemical Treatment of Municipal Wastewater....................................215
8.5 Industrial Wastewater Treatment........................................................................................216
8.6 Removal of Solids..............................................................................................................217
8.6.1 Membrane Filtration Processes...........................................................................218
8.7 Removal of Calcium and Other Metals.............................................................................219
8.7.1 Removal of Iron and Manganese........................................................................223
8.8 Removal of Dissolved Organics........................................................................................224
8.8.1 Removal of Herbicides........................................................................................225
8.9 Removal of Dissolved Inorganics......................................................................................225
8.9.1 Ion Exchange.......................................................................................................226
8.9.2 Electrodialysis......................................................................................................226
8.9.3 Reverse Osmosis..................................................................................................227
8.9.4 Phosphorus Removal...........................................................................................228
8.9.5 Nitrogen Removal................................................................................................229
8.10 Sludge.................................................................................................................................230
8.11 Water Disinfection.............................................................................................................232
8.11.1 Chlorine Dioxide.................................................................................................233
8.11.2 Ozone and Other Oxidants..................................................................................234
8.12 Natural Water Purification Processes.................................................................................235
8.12.1 Industrial Wastewater Treatment by Soil............................................................235
8.13 Water Reuse and Recycling...............................................................................................236
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................237
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................239
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................239
Chapter 9 The Atmosphere and Atmospheric Chemistry......................................................241
9.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................241
9.1.1 Photochemistry and Some Important Terms.......................................................241
9.1.2 Atmospheric Composition...................................................................................242
9.1.3 Gaseous Oxides in the Atmosphere....................................................................242
9.1.4 Atmospheric Methane..........................................................................................243
9.1.5 Hydrocarbons and Photochemical Smog............................................................244
9.1.6 Paniculate Matter.................................................................................................244
9.1.7 Primary and Secondary Pollutants......................................................................244
9.2 Importance of the Atmosphere..........................................................................................244
9.3 Physical Characteristics of the Atmosphere......................................................................245
9.3.1 Variation of Pressure and Density with Altitude................................................245
9.3.2 Stratification of the Atmosphere..........................................................................246
9.4 Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere...................................................................................248
9.4.1 Earth s Radiation Budget.....................................................................................249
9.5 Atmospheric Mass Transfer, Meteorology, and Weather..................................................250
9.5.1 Atmospheric Water in Energy and Mass Transfer..............................................251
9.5.2 Air Masses...........................................................................................................251
9.5.3 Topographical Effects..........................................................................................252
9.5.4 Movement of Air Masses....................................................................................252
9.5.5 Global Weather....................................................................................................253
9.5.6 Weather Fronts and Storms.................................................................................254
9.6 Inversions and Air Pollution..............................................................................................255
9.7 Global Climate and Microclimate.....................................................................................255
9.7.1 Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide and Human Modifications of Climate................256
9.7.2 Microclimate........................................................................................................257
9.7.3 Effects of Urbanization on Microclimate............................................................257
9.8 Chemical and Photochemical Reactions in the Atmosphere............................................258
9.8.1 Photochemical Processes.....................................................................................259
9.8.2 Ions and Radicals in the Atmosphere.................................................................261
9.8.2.1 Free Radicals......................................................................................262
9.8.3 Hydroxyl and Hydroperoxyl Radicals in the Atmosphere.................................263
9.8.4 Chemical and Biochemical Processes in the Evolution of the Atmosphere......265
9.9 Acid-Base Reactions in the Atmosphere...........................................................................266
9.10 Reactions of Atmospheric Oxygen....................................................................................267
9.10.1 Ozone in the Stratosphere...................................................................................269
9.10.2 Ozone in the Troposphere...................................................................................270
9.10.3 Oxygen-Containing Ions in the Atmosphere.......................................................271
9.11 Reactions of Atmospheric Nitrogen..................................................................................271
9.12 Atmospheric Water.............................................................................................................272
9.13 Influence of the Anthrosphere............................................................................................273
9.14 Chemical Fate and Transport in the Atmosphere..............................................................273
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................274
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................276
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................277
Chapter 10 Particles in the Atmosphere...................................................................................279
10.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................279
10.2 Physical Behavior of Particles in the Atmosphere............................................................280
10.2.1 Size and Settling of Atmospheric Particles.........................................................281
10.3 Physical Processes for Particle Formation........................................................................282
10.4 Chemical Processes for Particle Formation.......................................................................283
10.4.1 Inorganic Particles...............................................................................................283
10.4.2 Organic Particles..................................................................................................284
10.4.3 PAH Synthesis.....................................................................................................284
10.5 The Composition of Inorganic Particles............................................................................285
10.5.1 Fly Ash.................................................................................................................287
10.5.2 Asbestos...............................................................................................................288
10.6 Toxic Metals.......................................................................................................................288
10.6.1 Atmospheric Mercury..........................................................................................288
10.6.2 Atmospheric Lead................................................................................................288
10.6.3 Atmospheric Beryllium.......................................................................................289
10.7 Radioactive Particles..........................................................................................................289
10.8 The Composition of Organic Particles..............................................................................290
10.8.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons.....................................................................290
10.8.2 Carbonaceous Particles from Diesel Engines.....................................................291
10.9 Effects of Particles.............................................................................................................291
10.9.1 Partitioning of Semi volatile Organic Substances between Air
and Particles.........................................................................................................292
10.10 Water as Paniculate Matter................................................................................................293
10.11 Atmospheric Chemical Reactions Involving Particles......................................................293
10.12 Control of Paniculate Emissions.......................................................................................295
10.12.1 Particle Removal by Sedimentation and Inertia.................................................295
10.12.2 Particle Filtration.................................................................................................296
10.12.3 Scrubbers..............................................................................................................296
10.12.4 Electrostatic Removal..........................................................................................297
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................298
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................299
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................300
Chapter 11 Gaseous Inorganic Air Pollutants..........................................................................301
11.1 Inorganic Pollutant Gases..................................................................................................301
11.2 Production and Control of Carbon Monoxide...................................................................301
11.2.1 Control of CO Emissions....................................................................................302
11.3 Fate of Atmospheric CO....................................................................................................302
11.4 Sulfur Dioxide Sources and the Sulfur Cycle...................................................................302
11.5 Sulfur Dioxide Reactions in the Atmosphere....................................................................304
11.5.1 Effects of Atmospheric Sulfur Dioxide...............................................................306
11.5.2 Sulfur Dioxide Removal......................................................................................306
11.6 Nitrogen Oxides in the Atmosphere..................................................................................310
11.6.1 Atmospheric Reactions of NOX...........................................................................312
11.6.2 Harmful Effects of Nitrogen Oxides...................................................................314
11.6.3 Control of Nitrogen Oxides.................................................................................315
11.7 Acid Rain...........................................................................................................................316
11.8 Ammonia in the Atmosphere.............................................................................................317
11.9 Fluorine, Chlorine, and Their Gaseous Compounds.........................................................317
11.9.1 Chlorine and Hydrogen Chloride........................................................................318
11.10 Reduced Sulfur Gases........................................................................................................319
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................321
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................322
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................323
Chapter 12 Organic Air Pollutants............................................................................................325
12.1 Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere...........................................................................325
12.1.1 Loss of Organic Substances from the Atmosphere.............................................325
12.1.2 Global Distillation and Fractionation of Persistent Organic Pollutants.............325
12.2 Biogenic Organic Compounds...........................................................................................326
12.2.1 Removal of Atmospheric Organic Compounds by Plants..................................328
12.3 Pollutant Hydrocarbons......................................................................................................329
12.3.1 Aromatic Hydrocarbons......................................................................................331
12.3.2 Reactions of Atmospheric Aromatic Hydrocarbons...........................................333
12.4 Carbonyl Compounds: Aldehydes and Ketones................................................................334
12.5 Miscellaneous Oxygen-Containing Compounds...............................................................336
12.5.1 Alcohols...............................................................................................................336
12.5.2 Phenols.................................................................................................................337
12.5.3 Ethers...................................................................................................................337
12.5.4 Oxides..................................................................................................................338
12.5.5 Carboxylic Acids.................................................................................................338
12.6 Organonitrogen Compounds..............................................................................................339
12.7 Organohalide Compounds..................................................................................................341
12.7.1 Chlorofluorocarbons............................................................................................343
12.7.2 Atmospheric Reactions of Hydrofluorocarbons and
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons...................................................................................345
12.7.3 Perfluorocarbons..................................................................................................345
12.7.4 Chlorinated Dibenzo-/?-Dioxins and Dibenzofurans...........................................346
12.7.5 Marine Sources of Organohalogen Compounds.................................................346
12.8 Organosulfur Compounds..................................................................................................346
12.9 Organic Paniculate Matter.................................................................................................347
12.10 Hazardous Air Pollutants: Organic Compounds...............................................................348
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................351
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................352
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................353
Chapter 13 Photochemical Smog..............................................................................................355
13.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................355
13.2 Smog-Forming Emissions..................................................................................................356
13.2.1 Control of Exhaust Hydrocarbons.......................................................................356
13.2.2 Automotive Emission Standards.........................................................................359
13.2.3 Polluting Green Plants.........................................................................................360
13.3 Smog-Forming Reactions of Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere............................360
13.3.1 Photochemical Reactions of Methane.................................................................360
13.4 Overview of Smog Formation...........................................................................................362
13.5 Mechanisms of Smog Formation.......................................................................................363
13.5.1 Nitrate Radical.....................................................................................................370
13.5.2 Photolyzable Compounds in the Atmosphere.....................................................371
13.6 Reactivity of Hydrocarbons...............................................................................................371
13.7 Inorganic Products from Smog..........................................................................................372
13.8 Effects of Smog..................................................................................................................373
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................375
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................376
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................377
Chapter 14 The Endangered Global Atmosphere.....................................................................379
14.1 Climate Change and Anthropogenic Effects.....................................................................379
14.1.1 Changes in Climate.............................................................................................380
14.2 Global Warming.................................................................................................................381
14.2.1 Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide..............................................................................381
14.2.2 Methane and Other Greenhouse Gases...............................................................384
14.2.3 Particles and Global Warming.............................................................................385
14.2.4 The Outlook for Global Warming.......................................................................386
14.2.5 Serious Concern over Changes in Climate.........................................................387
14.3 Acid Rain...........................................................................................................................388
14.4 Ozone Layer Destruction...................................................................................................391
14.4.1 Chlorofluorocarbon Substitutes and Ozone Depletion.......................................394
14.5 Photochemical Smog..........................................................................................................394
14.6 Nuclear Winter...................................................................................................................397
14.6.1 Doomsday Visitors from Space...........................................................................398
14.7 What Is To Be Done?........................................................................................................398
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................401
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................401
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................402
Chapter 15 The Geosphere and Geochemistry.........................................................................405
15.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................405
15.2 The Nature of Solids in the Geosphere.............................................................................406
15.2.1 Structure and Properties of Minerals..................................................................406
15.2.2 Kinds of Minerals................................................................................................407
15.2.3 Evaporites............................................................................................................407
15.2.4 Volcanic Sublimates.............................................................................................408
15.2.5 Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic Rocks.................................................408
15.2.5.1 Rock Cycle.........................................................................................409
15.2.5.2 Stages of Weathering.........................................................................409
15.3 Physical Form of the Geosphere.......................................................................................410
15.3.1 Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift.................................................................410
15.3.2 Structural Geology...............................................................................................411
15.4 Internal Processes...............................................................................................................411
15.4.1 Earthquakes..........................................................................................................412
15.4.2 Volcanoes.............................................................................................................412
15.5 Surface Processes...............................................................................................................413
15.6 Sediments...........................................................................................................................414
15.7 Clays...................................................................................................................................415
15.8 Geochemistry.....................................................................................................................417
15.8.1 Physical Aspects of Weathering..........................................................................417
15.8.2 Chemical Weathering...........................................................................................417
15.8.3 Biological Aspects of Weathering.......................................................................419
15.9 Groundwater in the Geosphere..........................................................................................419
15.9.1 Water Wells..........................................................................................................421
15.9.2 Qanats..................................................................................................................421
15.10 Environmental Aspects of the Geosphere..........................................................................421
15.10.1 Natural Hazards...................................................................................................423
15.10.2 Anthropogenic Hazards.......................................................................................423
15.11 Earthquakes........................................................................................................................423
15.12 Volcanoes............................................................................................................................424
15.13 Surface Earth Movement...................................................................................................425
15.14 Stream and River Phenomena............................................................................................426
15.15 Phenomena at the Land-Ocean Interface..........................................................................428
15.15.1 The Threat of Rising Sea Levels.........................................................................429
15.16 Phenomena at the Land-Atmosphere Interface.................................................................430
15.17 Effects of Ice......................................................................................................................431
15.18 Effects of Human Activities...............................................................................................431
15.18.1 Extraction of Geospheric Resources: Surface Mining........................................432
15.18.2 Environmental Effects of Mining and Mineral Extraction.................................432
15.19 Air Pollution and the Geosphere.......................................................................................432
15.20 Water Pollution and the Geosphere...................................................................................433
15.21 Waste Disposal and the Geosphere...................................................................................434
15.21.1 Municipal Refuse.................................................................................................434
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................436
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................437
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................438
Chapter 16 Soil and Agricultural Environmental Chemistry...................................................441
16.1 Soil and Agriculture...........................................................................................................441
16.1.1 Agriculture...........................................................................................................441
16.1.2 Pesticides and Agriculture...................................................................................442
16.2 Nature and Composition of Soil........................................................................................443
16.2.1 Water and Air in Soil...........................................................................................444
16.2.2 The Inorganic Components of Soil.....................................................................446
16.2.3 Organic Matter in Soil.........................................................................................446
16.2.4 Soil Humus..........................................................................................................447
16.2.5 The Soil Solution.................................................................................................449
16.3 Acid-Base and Ion Exchange Reactions in Soils..............................................................449
16.3.1 Production of Mineral Acid in Soil.....................................................................449
16.3.2 Adjustment of Soil Acidity..................................................................................450
16.3.3 Ion Exchange Equilibria in Soil..........................................................................450
16.4 Macronutrients in Soil.......................................................................................................451
16.5 Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium in Soil...................................................................452
16.5.1 Nitrogen...............................................................................................................453
16.5.2 Phosphorus...........................................................................................................455
16.5.3 Potassium.............................................................................................................455
16.6 Micronutrients in Soil........................................................................................................456
16.6.1 Hyperaccumulators..............................................................................................456
16.7 Fertilizers............................................................................................................................457
16.7.1 Fertilizer Pollution...............................................................................................458
16.8 Pollutants from Livestock Production...............................................................................459
16.9 Pesticides and Their Residues in Soil...............................................................................459
16.9.1 Soil Fumigants.....................................................................................................460
16.10 Wastes and Pollutants in Soil............................................................................................461
16.10.1 Biodegradation and the Rhizosphere..................................................................463
16.11 Soil Loss and Degradation.................................................................................................463
16.11.1 Soil and Water Resources....................................................................................465
16.12 Genetic Engineering and Agriculture................................................................................465
16.13 Green Chemistry and Sustainable Agriculture..................................................................466
16.14 Agriculture and Health.......................................................................................................469
16.14.1 Chemical Contamination.....................................................................................469
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................469
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................470
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................471
Chapter 17 Industrial Ecology and Green Chemistry..............................................................473
17.1 Introduction and History....................................................................................................473
17.1.1 Sustainability........................................................................................................474
17.1.2 Earth Systems Engineering and Management....................................................474
17.2 Industrial Ecosystems........................................................................................................474
17.3 The Five Major Components of an Industrial Ecosystem................................................476
17.3.1 Primary Materials and Energy Producers...........................................................477
17.3.2 Materials Processing and Manufacturing Sector................................................478
17.3.3 Consumer Sector..................................................................................................478
17.3.4 Waste Processing Sector......................................................................................478
17.4 Industrial Metabolism........................................................................................................478
17.4.1 Industrial Metabolism and Biological Analogies................................................479
17.5 Levels of Materials Utilization..........................................................................................481
17.6 Links to Other Environmental Spheres.............................................................................482
17.6.1 Fossil Fuel Combustion.......................................................................................482
17.6.2 Industrial Manufacturing and Processing............................................................482
17.6.3 Crop Production...................................................................................................483
17.6.4 Livestock Production (Domestic Animals).........................................................483
17.7 Consideration of Environmental Impacts in Industrial Ecology.......................................483
17.8 Three Key Attributes: Energy, Materials, and Diversity...................................................484
17.8.1 Unlimited Energy.................................................................................................485
17.8.2 Industrial Ecology and Material Resources........................................................485
17.8.2.1 Dematerialization...............................................................................486
17.8.2.2 Substitution of Materials...................................................................486
17.8.2.3 Recycling............................................................................................487
17.8.2.4 Extraction of Useful Materials from Wastes.....................................488
17.8.3 Diversity and Robust Character of Industrial Ecosystems.................................488
17.9 Life Cycles: Expanding and Closing the Materials Loop.................................................489
17.9.1 Product Stewardship............................................................................................490
17.9.2 Embedded Utility.................................................................................................490
17.10 Life Cycle Assessment.......................................................................................................491
17.10.1 Scoping in Life Cycle Assessment......................................................................492
17.11 Consumable, Recyclable, and Service (Durable) Products...............................................492
17.11.1 Desirable Characteristics of Consumables..........................................................492
17.11.2 Desirable Characteristics of Recyclables............................................................493
17.11.3 Desirable Characteristics of Service Products....................................................493
17.12 Design for Environment.....................................................................................................494
17.12.1 Products, Processes, and Facilities......................................................................494
17.12.2 Key Factors in Design for Environment.............................................................495
17.12.3 Hazardous Materials in Design for Environment...............................................495
17.13 Overview of an Integrated Industrial Ecosystem..............................................................495
17.14 The Kalundborg Example..................................................................................................497
17.15 Inherent Safety...................................................................................................................498
17.15.1 Increased Safety with Smaller Size.....................................................................499
17.16 Societal Factors and the Environmental Ethic..................................................................500
17.17 Twelve Principles of Green Engineering...........................................................................500
17.17.1 Industrial Ecology and Ecological Engineering.................................................502
17.18 Green Polymers..................................................................................................................502
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................503
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................504
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................504
Chapter 18 Industrial Ecology, Resources, and Energy...........................................................507
18.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................507
18.2 Minerals in the Geosphere.................................................................................................507
18.2.1 Evaluation of Mineral Resources........................................................................508
18.3 Extraction and Mining.......................................................................................................508
18.4 Metals.................................................................................................................................510
18.5 Metal Resources and Industrial Ecology...........................................................................512
18.5.1 Aluminum............................................................................................................512
18.5.2 Chromium............................................................................................................512
18.5.3 Copper..................................................................................................................513
18.5.4 Cobalt...................................................................................................................514
18.5.5 Lead......................................................................................................................514
18.5.6 Zinc......................................................................................................................515
18.5.7 Potassium.............................................................................................................515
18.6 Nonmetal Mineral Resources.............................................................................................515
18.7 Phosphates..........................................................................................................................517
18.8 Sulfur..................................................................................................................................518
18.9 Gypsum..............................................................................................................................518
18.10 Wood: A Major Renewable Resource...............................................................................519
18.11 The Energy Problem..........................................................................................................520
18.12 World Energy Resources....................................................................................................520
18.13 Energy Conservation..........................................................................................................521
18.14 Energy Conversion Processes............................................................................................523
18.14.1 Fuel Cells.............................................................................................................525
18.15 Petroleum and Natural Gas................................................................................................525
18.16 Coal....................................................................................................................................528
18.16.1 Coal Conversion..................................................................................................529
18.17 Using Fossil Fuels with Carbon Sequestration.................................................................530
18.18 Nuclear Fission Power.......................................................................................................531
18.19 Nuclear Fusion Power........................................................................................................533
18.20 Geothermal Energy............................................................................................................534
18.21 The Sun: An Ideal Energy Source.....................................................................................535
18.21.1 The Surprising Success of Wind Power..............................................................537
18.22 Energy from Biomass........................................................................................................537
18.22.1 Gasohol................................................................................................................538
18.23 Future Energy Sources.......................................................................................................539
18.24 Extending Resources through the Practice of Industrial Ecology....................................540
18.24.1 Metals...................................................................................................................540
18.24.2 Plastics.................................................................................................................540
18.24.3 Lubricating Oil....................................................................................................541
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................541
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................542
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................543
Chapter 19 Nature, Sources, and Environmental Chemistry of Hazardous Wastes................545
19.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................545
19.1.1 History of Hazardous Substances........................................................................545
19.1.2 Legislation............................................................................................................546
19.2 Classification of Hazardous Substances and Wastes.........................................................547
19.2.1 Characteristics and Listed Wastes.......................................................................547
19.2.2 Hazardous Wastes................................................................................................548
19.2.2.1 Hazardous Wastes and Air and Water Pollution Control..................548
19.3 Sources of Wastes..............................................................................................................548
19.3.1 Types of Hazardous Wastes.................................................................................549
19.3.2 Hazardous Waste Generators...............................................................................550
19.4 Flammable and Combustible Substances..........................................................................550
19.4.1 Combustion of Finely Divided Particles.............................................................551
19.4.2 Oxidizers..............................................................................................................551
19.4.3 Spontaneous Ignition...........................................................................................552
19.4.4 Toxic Products of Combustion............................................................................553
19.5 Reactive Substances...........................................................................................................553
19.5.1 Chemical Structure and Reactivity......................................................................553
19.6 Corrosive Substances.........................................................................................................555
19.6.1 SulfuricAcid........................................................................................................555
19.7 Toxic Substances................................................................................................................556
19.7.1 Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure.......................................................556
19.8 Physical Forms and Segregation of Wastes.......................................................................556
19.9 Environmental Chemistry of Hazardous Wastes...............................................................557
19.10 Physical and Chemical Properties of Hazardous Wastes..................................................558
19.11 Transport, Effects, and Fates of Hazardous Wastes..........................................................559
19.11.1 Physical Properties of Wastes..............................................................................559
19.11.2 Chemical Factors.................................................................................................560
19.11.3 Effects of Hazardous Wastes...............................................................................560
19.11.4 Fates of Hazardous Wastes..................................................................................560
19.12 Hazardous Wastes and the Anthrosphere..........................................................................561
19.13 Hazardous Wastes in the Geosphere..................................................................................562
19.14 Hazardous Wastes in the Hydrosphere..............................................................................564
19.15 Hazardous Wastes in the Atmosphere...............................................................................566
19.16 Hazardous Wastes in the Biosphere..................................................................................567
19.16.1 Microbial Metabolism in Waste Degradation.....................................................568
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................569
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................570
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................571
Chapter 20 Industrial Ecology for Waste Minimization, Utilization, and Treatment.............573
20.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................573
20.2 Waste Reduction and Minimization..................................................................................574
20.3 Recycling............................................................................................................................576
20.3.1 Examples of Recycling........................................................................................576
20.3.2 Waste Oil Utilization and Recovery....................................................................577
20.3.2.1 Recycling Waste Oil..........................................................................577
20.3.2.2 Waste Oil Fuel...................................................................................577
20.3.3 Waste Solvent Recovery and Recycling..............................................................577
20.3.4 Recovery of Water from Wastewater...................................................................578
20.4 Physical Methods of Waste Treatment..............................................................................579
20.4.1 Methods of Physical Treatment...........................................................................579
20.4.1.1 Phase Separations...............................................................................580
20.4.1.2 Phase Transition.................................................................................580
20.4.1.3 Phase Transfer....................................................................................581
20.4.1.4 Molecular Separation.........................................................................582
20.5 Chemical Treatment: An Overview...................................................................................582
20.5.1 Acid-Base Neutralization....................................................................................583
20.5.1.1 Acid Recovery....................................................................................583
20.5.2 Chemical Precipitation........................................................................................584
20.5.2.1 Precipitation of Metals.......................................................................584
20.5.2.2 Coprecipitation of Metals..................................................................585
20.5.3 Oxidation-Reduction............................................................................................585
20.5.4 Electrolysis...........................................................................................................586
20.5.5 Hydrolysis............................................................................................................587
20.5.6 Chemical Extraction and Leaching.....................................................................587
20.5.7 Ion Exchange.......................................................................................................588
20.6 Green Waste Treatment by Photolyis and Sonolysis........................................................588
20.7 Thermal Treatment Methods..............................................................................................589
20.7.1 Incineration..........................................................................................................590
20.7.1.1 Incinerable Wastes.............................................................................590
20.7.2 Hazardous Waste Fuel.........................................................................................590
20.7.3 Incineration Systems............................................................................................590
20.7.4 Types of Incinerators...........................................................................................591
20.7.5 Combustion Conditions.......................................................................................592
20.7.6 Effectiveness of Incineration...............................................................................592
20.7.7 Wet Air Oxidation................................................................................................592
20.7.8 UV-Enhanced Wet Oxidation..............................................................................593
20.8 Biodegradation of Wastes..................................................................................................593
20.8.1 Biodegradability...................................................................................................593
20.8.2 Aerobic Treatment...............................................................................................594
20.8.3 Anaerobic Treatment...........................................................................................594
20.8.4 Reductive Dehalogenation...................................................................................594
20.9 Phytoremediation...............................................................................................................595
20.10 Land Treatment and Composting......................................................................................595
20.10.1 Land Treatment....................................................................................................595
20.10.2 Composting..........................................................................................................596
20.11 Preparation of Wastes for Disposal...................................................................................596
20.11.1 Immobilization.....................................................................................................596
20.11.2 Stabilization.........................................................................................................597
20.11.3 Solidification........................................................................................................597
20.11.3.1 Sorption to a Solid Matrix Material..................................................597
20.11.3.2 Thermoplastics and Organic Polymers..............................................597
20.11.3.3 Vitrification........................................................................................598
20.11.3.4 Solidification with Cement................................................................598
20.11.3.5 Solidification with Silicate Materials................................................598
20.11.3.6 Encapsulation.....................................................................................599
20.11.3.7 Chemical Fixation..............................................................................599
20.12 Ultimate Disposal of Wastes..............................................................................................599
20.12.1 Aboveground Disposal........................................................................................599
20.12.2 Landfills...............................................................................................................599
20.12.3 Surface Impoundment of Liquids........................................................................600
20.12.4 Deep-Well Disposal of Liquids...........................................................................600
20.13 Leachate and Gas Emissions.............................................................................................601
20.13.1 Leachate...............................................................................................................601
20.13.1.1 Hazardous Waste Leachate Treatment...............................................601
20.13.2 Gas Emissions......................................................................................................601
20.14 In Situ Treatment................................................................................................................602
20.14.1 In Situ Immobilization.........................................................................................602
20.14.2 Vapor Extraction..................................................................................................602
20.14.3 In Situ Solidification............................................................................................602
20.14.4 In Situ Detoxification...........................................................................................603
20.14.5 Permeable Bed Treatment...................................................................................603
20.14.6 In Situ Thermal Processes...................................................................................603
20.14.7 Soil Washing and Flushing..................................................................................604
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................604
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................605
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................606
Chapter 21 Environmental Biochemistry.................................................................................609
21.1 Biochemistry......................................................................................................................609
21.1.1 Biomolecules........................................................................................................610
21.2 Biochemistry and the Cell.................................................................................................610
21.2.1 Major Cell Features.............................................................................................610
21.3 Proteins...............................................................................................................................611
21.3.1 Protein Structure..................................................................................................612
21.3.2 Denaturation of Proteins......................................................................................614
21.4 Carbohydrates.....................................................................................................................614
21.5 Lipids..................................................................................................................................616
21.6 Enzymes.............................................................................................................................619
21.7 Nucleic Acids.....................................................................................................................621
21.7.1 Nucleic Acids in Protein Synthesis.....................................................................624
21.7.2 Modified DNA.....................................................................................................625
21.8 Recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering...................................................................625
21.9 Metabolic Processes...........................................................................................................625
21.9.1 Energy-Yielding Processes..................................................................................625
21.10 Metabolism of Xenobiotic Compounds.............................................................................626
21.10.1 Phase I and Phase II Reactions...........................................................................627
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................627
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................629
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................629
Chapter 22 Toxicological Chemistry........................................................................................631
22.1 Introduction to Toxicology and Toxicological Chemistry................................................631
22.1.1 Toxicology...........................................................................................................631
22.1.2 Synergism, Potentiation, and Antagonism..........................................................633
22.2 Dose-Response Relationships...........................................................................................633
22.3 Relative Toxicities..............................................................................................................634
22.3.1 Nonlethal Effects.................................................................................................635
22.4 Reversibility and Sensitivity..............................................................................................635
22.4.1 Hypersensitivity and Hyposensitivity..................................................................636
22.5 Xenobiotic and Endogenous Substances...........................................................................636
22.6 Toxicological Chemistry....................................................................................................637
22.6.1 Toxicants in the Body..........................................................................................637
22.6.2 Phase I Reactions.................................................................................................637
22.6.3 Phase II Reactions...............................................................................................638
22.7 Kinetic and Dynamic Phases.............................................................................................639
22.7.1 Kinetic Phase.......................................................................................................639
22.7.2 Dynamic Phase....................................................................................................640
22.7.2.1 Primary Reaction in the Dynamic Phase..........................................640
22.7.2.2 Biochemical Effects in the Dynamic Phase......................................640
22.7.2.3 Responses to Toxicants......................................................................641
22.8 Teratogenesis, Mutagenesis, Carcinogenesis, and Effects on the Immune and
Reproductive Systems........................................................................................................642
22.8.1 Teratogenesis........................................................................................................642
22.8.2 Mutagenesis.........................................................................................................642
22.8.2.1 Biochemistry of Mutagenesis............................................................642
22.8.3 Carcinogenesis.....................................................................................................644
22.8.3.1 Biochemistry of Carcinogenesis........................................................644
22.8.3.2 Alkylating Agents in Carcinogenesis................................................645
22.8.4 Testing for Carcinogens.......................................................................................646
22.8.4.1 Bruce Ames Test................................................................................647
22.8.5 Immune System Response...................................................................................647
22.8.6 Endocrine Disruption...........................................................................................647
22.9 Health Hazards...................................................................................................................648
22.9.1 Assessment of Potential Exposure......................................................................649
22.9.2 Epidemiological Evidence...................................................................................649
22.9.3 Estimation of Health Effects Risks.....................................................................649
22.9.4 Risk Assessment..................................................................................................649
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................650
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................650
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................651
Chapter 23 Toxicological Chemistry of Chemical Substances................................................653
23.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................653
23.1.1 ATSDR Toxicological Profiles............................................................................653
23.2 Toxic Elements and Elemental Forms...............................................................................653
23.2.1 Ozone...................................................................................................................653
23.2.2 White Phosphorus................................................................................................654
23.2.3 Elemental Halogens.............................................................................................655
23.2.4 Heavy Metals.......................................................................................................655
23.3 Toxic Inorganic Compounds..............................................................................................656
23.3.1 Cyanide................................................................................................................656
23.3.2 Carbon Monoxide................................................................................................656
23.3.3 Nitrogen Oxides...................................................................................................657
23.3.4 Hydrogen Halides................................................................................................657
23.3.4.1 Hydrogen Fluoride.............................................................................657
23.3.4.2 Hydrogen Chloride............................................................................657
23.3.5 Interhalogen Compounds and Halogen Oxides..................................................657
23.3.6 Inorganic Compounds of Silicon.........................................................................658
23.3.7 Asbestos...............................................................................................................658
23.3.8 Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds......................................................................658
23.3.9 Inorganic Compounds of Sulfur..........................................................................659
23.3.10 Perchlorate...........................................................................................................659
23.3.11 Organometallic Compounds................................................................................660
23.3.11.1 Organolead Compounds.....................................................................660
23.3.11.2 Organotin Compounds.......................................................................660
23.3.11.3 Carbonyls...........................................................................................661
23.3.11.4 Reaction Products of Organometallic Compounds...........................661
23.4 Toxicology of Organic Compounds...................................................................................661
23.4.1 Alkane Hydrocarbons..........................................................................................661
23.4.2 Alkene and Alkyne Hydrocarbons......................................................................661
23.4.3 Benzene and Aromatic Hydrocarbons.................................................................662
23.4.3.1 Toluene...............................................................................................663
23.4.3.2 Naphthalene........................................................................................663
23.4.3.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons...................................................663
23.4.4 Oxygen-Containing Organic Compounds...........................................................663
23.4.4.1 Oxides................................................................................................663
23.4.4.2 Alcohols.............................................................................................664
23.4.5 Phenols.................................................................................................................665
23.4.5.1 Aldehydes and Ketones.....................................................................666
23.4.5.2 Carboxylic Acids................................................................................666
23.4.5.3 Ethers..................................................................................................667
23.4.5.4 Acid Anhydrides................................................................................667
23.4.5.5 Esters..................................................................................................667
23.4.6 Organonitrogen Compounds................................................................................668
23.4.6.1 Aliphatic Amines...............................................................................668
23.4.6.2 Carbocyclic Aromatic Amines...........................................................668
23.4.6.3 Pyridine..............................................................................................669
23.4.6.4 Acrylamide: Toxic Potato Chips?......................................................669
23.4.6.5 Nitriles................................................................................................669
23.4.6.6 Nitro Compounds...............................................................................670
23.4.6.7 Nitrosamines......................................................................................670
23.4.6.8 Isocyanates and Methyl Isocyanate...................................................670
23.4.6.9 Organonitrogen Pesticides.................................................................670
23.4.7 Organohalide Compounds...................................................................................671
23.4.7.1 AlkylHalides.....................................................................................671
23.4.7.2 Alkenyl Halides.................................................................................671
23.4.7.3 Aryl Halides.......................................................................................672
23.4.8 Organohalide Pesticides.......................................................................................673
23.4.8.1 TCDD.................................................................................................673
23.4.8.2 Chlorinated Phenols...........................................................................674
23.4.9 Organosulfur Compounds....................................................................................674
23.4.9.1 Sulfur Mustards..................................................................................674
23.4.10 Organophosphorus Compounds...........................................................................675
23.4.10.1 Organophosphate Esters.....................................................................675
23.4.10.2 Phosphorothionate and Phosphorodithioate Ester Insecticides.........676
23.4.10.3 Organophosphorus Military Poisons.................................................676
23.5 Toxic Natural Products......................................................................................................677
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................678
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................679
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................680
Chapter 24 Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastewater........................................................681
24.1 General Aspects of Environmental Chemical Analysis.....................................................681
24.1.1 Error and Quality Control...................................................................................681
24.1.2 Water Analysis Methods......................................................................................682
24.2 Classical Methods..............................................................................................................682
24.3 Spectrophotometric Methods.............................................................................................683
24.3.1 Absorption Spectrophotometry............................................................................683
24.3.2 Atomic Absorption and Emission Analyses........................................................685
24.3.3 Atomic Emission Techniques..............................................................................686
24.4 Electrochemical Methods of Analysis...............................................................................687
24.5 Chromatography.................................................................................................................688
24.5.1 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography.......................................................689
24.5.2 Chromatographic Analysis of Water Pollutants..................................................690
24.5.3 Ion Chromatography............................................................................................691
24.6 Mass Spectrometry.............................................................................................................691
24.7 Analysis of Water Samples................................................................................................691
24.7.1 Physical Properties Measured in Water...............................................................692
24.7.2 Water Sampling...................................................................................................692
24.7.2.1 Extractors...........................................................................................692
24.7.3 Water Sample Preservation..................................................................................693
24.7.4 Total Organic Carbon in Water...........................................................................694
24.7.5 Measurement of Radioactivity in Water..............................................................694
24.7.6 Biological Toxins.................................................................................................695
24.7.7 Summary of Water Analysis Procedures.............................................................695
24.8 Automated Water Analyses................................................................................................695
24.9 Speciation...........................................................................................................................695
24.10 Emerging Contaminants in Water Analysis.......................................................................698
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................698
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................699
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................700
Chapter 25 Analysis of Wastes and Solids...............................................................................701
25.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................701
25.2 Sample Digestion for Elemental Analysis.........................................................................702
25.3 Analyte Isolation for Organics Analysis...........................................................................702
25.3.1 Solvent Extraction...............................................................................................703
25.3.2 Supercritical Fluid Extraction.............................................................................703
25.3.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction and Subcritical Water Extraction.......................703
25.4 Sample Cleanup.................................................................................................................704
25.5 Sample Preparation for Volatile Organic Compounds......................................................705
25.6 Immunoassay Screening of Wastes....................................................................................706
25.7 Determination of Chelating Agents...................................................................................707
25.8 Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure......................................................................707
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................709
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................709
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................710
Chapter 26 Air and Gas Analysis.............................................................................................711
26.1 Atmospheric Monitoring....................................................................................................711
26.1.1 Air Pollutants Measured......................................................................................711
26.2 Sampling.............................................................................................................................712
26.3 Methods of Analysis..........................................................................................................714
26.4 Determination of Sulfur Dioxide.......................................................................................714
26.5 Nitrogen Oxides.................................................................................................................716
26.6 Analysis of Oxidants..........................................................................................................717
26.7 Analysis of Carbon Monoxide...........................................................................................717
26.8 Determination of Hydrocarbons and Organics..................................................................718
26.8.1 Determination of Specific Organics in the Atmosphere.....................................719
26.9 Analysis of Paniculate Matter...........................................................................................719
26.9.1 Collection by Filtration.......................................................................................719
26.9.2 Collection by Impactors......................................................................................721
26.9.3 Particle Analysis..................................................................................................721
26.9.4 X-Ray Fluorescence............................................................................................722
26.9.5 Determination of Lead in Paniculate Matter......................................................723
26.10 Direct Spectrophotometric Analysis of Gaseous Air Pollutants.......................................723
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................725
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................725
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................727
Chapter 27 Analysis of Biological Materials and Xenobiotics...............................................729
27.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................729
27.2 Indicators of Exposure to Xenobiotics..............................................................................729
27.3 Determination of Metals....................................................................................................731
27.3.1 Direct Analysis of Metals....................................................................................731
27.3.2 Metals in Wet-Ashed Blood and Urine...............................................................731
27.3.3 Extraction of Metals for Atomic Absorption Analysis.......................................731
27.4 Determination of Nonmetals and Inorganic Compounds..................................................732
27.5 Determination of Parent Organic Compounds..................................................................732
27.6 Measurement of Phase I and Phase II Reaction Products................................................733
27.6.1 Phase I Reaction Products...................................................................................733
27.6.2 Phase II Reaction Products..................................................................................734
27.6.3 Mercapturates.......................................................................................................735
27.7 Determination of Adducts..................................................................................................736
27.8 The Promise of Immunological Methods..........................................................................737
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................738
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................739
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................740
Chapter 28 Terrorism, Red Chemistry, and Threats to the Environment................................743
28.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................743
28.1.1 Environmental Chemistry, Green Chemistry, and Terrorism..............................744
28.2 The Vulnerable Infrastructure............................................................................................744
28.3 Protecting the Food Supply...............................................................................................746
28.4 Protecting the Water Supply..............................................................................................746
28.5 Protecting the Energy Supply............................................................................................747
28.6 Protecting Transportation Systems....................................................................................748
28.7 The Chemical Industry and National Security..................................................................748
28.8 Toxic Chemical Agents......................................................................................................749
28.8.1 Military Poisons...................................................................................................750
28.9 Biotoxins............................................................................................................................752
28.10 Infectious Agents................................................................................................................753
28.10.1 Designer Diseases................................................................................................754
28.11 Reactive, Flammable, and Explosive Substances..............................................................755
28.11.1 Detection of Hazardous Substances....................................................................756
28.11.2 Removing Hazardous Agents..............................................................................757
28.12 Nuclear and Radiation Hazards.........................................................................................757
28.12.1 Nuclear Explosives..............................................................................................757
28.12.2 Dispersion of Radioactive Substances: Dirty Bombs.........................................758
28.13 Detecting Threats...............................................................................................................758
28.14 The Role of Green Chemistry and Engineering................................................................759
28.14.1 Sustainable Prosperity for a Safer World............................................................760
Questions and Problems.................................................................................................................761
Literature Cited..............................................................................................................................762
Supplementary References.............................................................................................................763
Index..............................................................................................................................................765
|
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| author | Manahan, Stanley E. 1937- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)172247438 |
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| author_variant | s e m se sem |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV019271207 |
| callnumber-first | T - Technology |
| callnumber-label | TD193 |
| callnumber-raw | TD193 |
| callnumber-search | TD193 |
| callnumber-sort | TD 3193 |
| callnumber-subject | TD - Environmental Technology |
| classification_rvk | VN 9200 |
| classification_tum | BIO 146f UMW 150f |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)249388963 (DE-599)BVBBV019271207 |
| dewey-full | 628.50154 |
| dewey-hundreds | 600 - Technology (Applied sciences) |
| dewey-ones | 628 - Sanitary engineering |
| dewey-raw | 628.50154 |
| dewey-search | 628.50154 |
| dewey-sort | 3628.50154 |
| dewey-tens | 620 - Engineering and allied operations |
| discipline | Chemie / Pharmazie Biologie Bauingenieurwesen Umwelt |
| edition | 8. ed. |
| format | Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV019271207 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T19:43:30Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 1566706335 |
| language | English |
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| physical | 783 S., [12] Bl. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |
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| publisher | CRC Press |
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| spelling | Manahan, Stanley E. 1937- Verfasser (DE-588)172247438 aut Environmental chemistry Stanley E. Manahan 8. ed. Boca Raton [u.a.] CRC Press 2005 783 S., [12] Bl. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Umwelttoxikologie Ökologische Chemie Umweltverschmutzung (DE-588)4186812-2 gnd rswk-swf Ökologische Chemie (DE-588)4135167-8 gnd rswk-swf Umweltchemikalie (DE-588)4117281-4 gnd rswk-swf Ökologische Chemie (DE-588)4135167-8 s DE-604 Umweltverschmutzung (DE-588)4186812-2 s Umweltchemikalie (DE-588)4117281-4 s 1\p DE-604 HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=012034682&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis 1\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk |
| spellingShingle | Manahan, Stanley E. 1937- Environmental chemistry Umwelttoxikologie Ökologische Chemie Umweltverschmutzung (DE-588)4186812-2 gnd Ökologische Chemie (DE-588)4135167-8 gnd Umweltchemikalie (DE-588)4117281-4 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4186812-2 (DE-588)4135167-8 (DE-588)4117281-4 |
| title | Environmental chemistry |
| title_auth | Environmental chemistry |
| title_exact_search | Environmental chemistry |
| title_full | Environmental chemistry Stanley E. Manahan |
| title_fullStr | Environmental chemistry Stanley E. Manahan |
| title_full_unstemmed | Environmental chemistry Stanley E. Manahan |
| title_short | Environmental chemistry |
| title_sort | environmental chemistry |
| topic | Umwelttoxikologie Ökologische Chemie Umweltverschmutzung (DE-588)4186812-2 gnd Ökologische Chemie (DE-588)4135167-8 gnd Umweltchemikalie (DE-588)4117281-4 gnd |
| topic_facet | Umwelttoxikologie Ökologische Chemie Umweltverschmutzung Umweltchemikalie |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=012034682&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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