The distribution of vegetation in the United States, as related to climatic conditions:
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Washington
Carnegie Inst.
1921
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| Schriftenreihe: | Publication
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| Beschreibung: | XVI, 590 S. |
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| 100 | 1 | |a Livingston, Burton Edward |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a The distribution of vegetation in the United States, as related to climatic conditions |c Burton E. Livingston and Forrest Shreve |
| 264 | 1 | |a Washington |b Carnegie Inst. |c 1921 | |
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| adam_text | THE DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION IN THE
- UNITKH STATKS VS RKI ATKM Id
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
• I
BURTON E LIVINGSTON
AND
FORREST SHREVE
I
Carne,;:ie/B t ;,
Be^dsitum i
• r£D£ :i:v-••-•••
VA RCAR?-* ~ -
PUBLISHED BY THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
^ 1921
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE IX
PART I THE VEGETATION OF THE UNITED STATES
INTRODUCTION:
I The distribution of vegetation in general, as related to climatic conditions 3
II Study of the distribution of individual species 7
III Manifold operation of environmental conditions 12
IV Growth-forms of plants - 14
TABLE 1 —Analysis of Drude s criteria for distinguishing
growth-forms ; , 19
V Plant communities 22
VI Delimitation of vegetational areas 26
DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION IN THE UNITED STATES:
I Methods used in securing and presenting the distributional data 29
II Leading vegetation types of the United States and their geographical areas 32
III Distributional areas of conformic groups of plants 46
IV Distributional areas of selected individual species : 64
PART II ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
INTRODUCTION 95
GENERAL INFLUENCE OF THE ENVIRONMENT ON PLANT LIFE:
I External and internal conditions and plant activity 97
II Theory of physiological limits 99
III Relation of plant distribution- to, the physiological limits of the various
developmental phases 101
IV Genetic continuity of protoplasm and its cyclic activities, in connection
with problems of distribution 104
CHIEF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND THE GENERAL NATURE OF THEIR
EFFECTS UrpN PLANTS:
1 General classification of environmental factors J 109
II Moisture:
1 Water requirement within the plant Ill
2 Supply of water to the plant 115
3 Relations between water-requirement and water-supply 119
III Temperature:
1 Temperature requirement within the plant 126
2 The relation of temperature within the plant to conditions of
environment i : 128
3 The duration aspect of the temperature relation 131
IV Light:
1 General nature of light 135
2 Effect of light upon plants 136
3 Duration aspect ,of light relation of ordinary plants 137
V Chemical conditions:
1 Requirement of material within the plant 138
2 Material exchanges between the plant and its surroundings 139
3 Chemical environment in nature 141
4 Duration aspect of chemical conditions 143
VI Mechanical conditions:
1 General considerations 143
2 Destructive influences of mechanical conditions x 144
3 Favorable influences of-mechanical conditions 145
VII Interrelations of the environmental conditions : 146
VIII Experimental determination of relations between plant activity and
environmental conditions 147
IV CONTENTS
, PAGE
THE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS OF THP UNITED STATES:
1 I ntroductory 149
II Temperature conditions
1 Duration of temperature conditions
A Preliminary considerations 154
B The length of the period of the average frostless season (table 2, •
plate 34) 157
TABLE 2 —Frost (lata and length of average frostless sea
son for 1803 stations in the United States 161
C Length of period of average frost season 197
D Length of period of high normal daily mean temperatures
(table 3, plate 35) 197
TABLE 3 —Length of period with normal daily mean tem
peratures of 68° F or above, and of period with similar
means of 32° F or below, within the year 200
E Length of period of low normal daily mean temperatures
(table 3, plate 36) • 204
2 Intensity of temperature conditions
A Preliminary considerations 205
(1) Direct indices of temperature efficiency for plant growth 208
(2) Remainder indices of temperature efficiency for plant
growth, Merriam s chart (plate 37) 209
(3) Exponential indices of temperature efficiency for plant
growth 211
TABLE 4 —Exponential indices of temperature
efficiency for plant growth, based on a coefficient
of 2 0 for each rise in temperature of 18° above
40° F , for each temperature from 41° to 100° F 212
(4) Physiological indices of temperature efficiency for
plant growth 213
, TABLE 5 —Physiological indices of temperature
/ efficiency for plant growth, based on Lehen-
bauer s 12-hour exposures with maize seedlings 214
B Summations of direct indices of temperature efficiency for
period of average frostless season 216
C Summations of remainder indices of temperature* efficiency
for period of average frostless season (table 6, plate 38) 216
TABLE 6 —Summations of normal daily mean remainder
indices of temperature efficiency for plant growth, for
period of average frostless season, the daily indices
being derived by subtracting 0, 32, 39, or 50, from the
values of the normal daily mean temperature on the
Fahrenheit scale 217
D Summations of exponential indices of temperature efficiency
for period of average frostless season (table 7, plate 39) 225
TABLE 7 —Summation of normal daily indices of tem
perature efficiency for plant growth, for period of aver
age frostless season, the mean daily efficiency indices
being derived from the corresponding temperature
indices, (1) by the exponential equation of chemical
reaction velocities and (2) by the empirical growth-
rate coefficients for maize seedlings as found by Lehen-
bauer for a 12-hour exposure to maintained tempera
ture The temperature efficiency for 40° F is taken as
- - unity in both cases 226
E Summations of physiological indices of temperature efficiency
for period of average frostless season (table 7, plate 40, and
fig 1) 232
F Absolute temperature maxima 233
CONTENTS V
THE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS OP THE UNITED STATES-—continued PAGE
II Temperature conditions—continued , ,
2 Intensity of temperature conditions—continued
G Absolute temperature minima (plates 41 and; 42) 234
H Average daily normal temperature for, coldest 14 days of year
(table 8, plate 43) 237
TABLE 8 —Average normal daily temperatures for
coldest 14 days of the year 238
I Merriam s mean normal temperature for hottest six weeks of
year (plate 44) 242
J Normal mean annual temperature, U S Weather Bureau
(plate 45) :• 242
3 Conclusions from the study of temperature conditions 244
III Moisture conditions
1 Introductory 246
2 Supply of water to the plant
A Preliminary considerations 247
B Precipitation
(1) Introductory 249
(2) Normal mean daily precipitation for period of average
frostless season (P/S) (table 11, plate 46, and fig 2) 250
TABLE 11 —Precipitation and evaporation data for
the period of the average frostless season 253
(3) Total normal-precipitation for period of average frost-
less season plus preceding 30 days, divided by number
of days in average frostless season (v/S) (table 11) 260
(4) Number of normallyi rainy days in period of average
frostless season (table 13, plate 47) 260
TABLE 13 —^Number of days in period of average
frostless season with normal precipitation of
more than 0 10 inch and with normal precipita
tion of 0 10 inch or less, the latter also expressed
J as percentage of the number of days in the aver
age frostless season -: !: 264
(5) Number of normally, dry days in period of average
frostless season (table 13, plate 48) 266
(6) Percentage of days in period of average frostless season
that are dry days (with normal daily precipitation of
0 10 inch or less) (table 13, plate 49) 267
(7) Length of longest normally rainy period in period of
average frostless season (table 14, plate 50) 267
TABLE 14 —Beginning, ending, and duration of
each normally dry period and of longest
normally rainy period within period of average
frostless season 272
(8) Length of longest normally dry period in period of aver
age frostless season (table 14, plate 51) 279
(9) Normal annual precipitation, after Gannett (plate 52) 279
(10) Conclusions from study of precipitation conditions 281
3 Removal of water from plant
A Introductory
(1) General control of water-loss : 283
(2) Atmospheric evaporating power 284
Vapor-tension deficit 287
Relative humidity V 288
-Wind 7 289
(3) Absorbed radiation 290
B Atmospheric evaporating power in the United States
(1) Very limited nature of available data 291
(2) Russell s data of evaporation in the United States 292
VI CONTENTS
THE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS OF THE UNITED STATES—continued, I PAGE
III Moisture conditions—contwiueo
3 Removal,of water from plant—coiiiinued !j
B Atmospheric evaporating power in United States—continued
(2) Russell s data of evaporation in United States—continued
Evaporation intensities for the period of the average 1
! frostless season (table 11, plate 53, and fig 14) 292
1 Annual evaporation intensities (table 15, plate 54) 296
Evaporation intensities for the three summer months
(table 15, plate 55) 298
TABLE la!—Precipitation and evaporation data
for the year and for the three summer months 298
(3) Evaporation studies in 1908
Presentation of data 304
TABLE 16 —Weeldy precipitation (P) and weekly
rates of evaporation (E), the latter from cylin
drical porous-cup atmometers, summer of 1908 306
Summer march of evaporation at selected stations 311
Mean evaporation values for 5-week periods and
for 15-week season (table 17, plate 56) 316
TABLE17 —Summary of precipitation and evapo
ration for summer of 1908, with averages and
precipitation-evaporation ratios (P/E) for the
15 weeks, May 26 to Sept 7 318
Comparison between plates 55 and 56 320
Summer evaporation, 1908, as shown by geographic
profiles (fig 13) 322
(4) Conclusions from study of evaporation conditions(fig l4) 323
C Ratios iof precipitation to evaporation
(1) Preliminary considerations 326
(2)1 Ratios of total precipit ation, for the period of the average
frostless season, to total evaporation for the same
period, July 1887 to June 1888 (P/E) (table 11,
plate 57, and fig l(i)! 326
• (3) Ratios of total precipitation to total evaporation, for
the period of the average! frostless season, July 1887
to June 1888 (P /E) (table 18 plate 58) 328
TABLE 18 —Data of precipitation and evaporation
for the period of the average frostless season,
for the year July 1887 to June 1888, and corre
sponding ratios of precipitation to evaporation,
together with similar ratios derived by employ
ing normal dat a of precipitation instead of those
for this single year 329
(4) Ratios of normal total precipitation, for the period of
the average frostless season plus 30 days, to total
evaporation for the same period, July 1887 to June
1888 (ir/E) (table 11, plate 59) 333
(5) Ratios of normal total annual precipitation to total
annual evaporation, July 1887 to June 188S
(Pa/Ea) (1 able 15,- plate 60) 333
(6) Ratios of normal total precipitation for the three sum
mer months, June to August, to total evaporation for
Ju ly a nd Augus t 1887 and June 1888 (P s /E s )
(table 15, plate-61 ) 338
(7) Ratios of total precipitation for 15 weeks, summer of
1908, to total evaporation for the same period and
year (Ps ms/E, 19I8) (table 17, plate 62) 339
(8) Conclusions from study of precipitation-evaporation
ratios (fig 16) 342
CONTENTS VII
THE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS OF THE UNITED,STATES—continued PAGE
III Moisture conditions—continued
3 Removal of water from plant—continued
D Aqueous-vapor pressure
(1) Preliminary considerations 344
(2) Normal mean aqueous-vapor pressures for the period
of the average frostless season (table 19, plate 63) 344
TABLE ] 9 —Normal mean relative humidities, for
year and for period of average frostless season,
mean relative humidities for the three summer
montlis, 1908, and normal mean vapor-pressures
for the year and for period of average frostless
season 344
(3) Normal mean aqueous-vapor pressure for the year
(table 19, plate 64) 349
E Relative air humidity
• (1) Preliminary considerations 349
(2) Percentages representing normal mean relative air
humidity for period of average frostless season
(table 19, plate 65 and fig , 17) 351
(3) Percentages representing normal mean relative air
humidity for the year (table 19, plate 66) 354
(4) Percentages representing mean relative air humidity
for June, July, and August 1908 (table 19, plate 67) 354
(5) Generalizations from the three charts of relative humid
ity values (plates 65 to 67 and fig 17) 355
F Wind (table 20, plate 68) : 359
TABLE*20— Average wind velocities for the year
and for, the period of the average frostless
season 360
G Sunlight as a condition influencing water-loss from plants
(table 21, plate 69) 363
1 TABLE 21 —Normal total number of hours of sunshine
within the period of the-average frostless season 369
IV Moisture-temperature indices !
A Introductory i 370
B Moisture-temperature indices based on temperature summa
tion-indices obtained by the remainder method/(above 39°
F ), for the period of the average frostless season (table 22,
plate 70) : 371
TABLE 22 —Moisture-temperature indices for the period
of the average frostless season, by remainder (above
39° F ), exponential, and physiological methods 373
C Moisture-temperature indices based on temperature summa
tion-indices obtained by the exponential method, for the
period of the average frostless season (table 22, plate 71) 375
D Moisture-temperature indices based on temperature summa-
tion-indices obtained by the physiological method, for the
period of the average frostless season (table 22, plate 72,
and fig 18) 375
E Conclusions from the study of the three forms of moisture-
temperature products (fig 18) 375
V Cartographical combination of temperature and moisture indices
(fig 19) X 379
VI General conclusions from the study of climatic conditions in the United
States v,- -r-rrT7 T 381
A Temperature conditions 383
B Moisture conditions 384
C Combinations of temperature and moisture conditions 386
II i!
I
PART III THE CORRELATION OF DISTRIBUTIONAL FEATURBS WITH CLIMATIC
CONDITIONS 1 •
•„ I1 PAGE
INTRODUCTION 389
PRESENTATION OF THE CORRELATION DATA
I Methods of correlation! 393
11 Climatic extremes for each of the various vegetational features ;39S
DISCUSSION AND PRELIMINARY INTERPRETATIONS OF,THE CORRELATION DATA
I Correlations as indicating controlling conditions 487
II Comparative climatic features of the nine general vegetational areas 490
s-IIl Conditions that probably determine the general vegetational areas
1 Observations fr jm the charts : 498
2 Discussion of the observations 515
IV Conditions that probably determine the life-zones of Merriam
1 Observations from the charts 519
2 Discussion of the observations 526
V Conditions that probably determine the distribution of growth-forms and
th6 ecological distribution of individual species
1 Growth-forms I 1 529
2 Species ; 537
VI Correlation of vegetational areas with generalized climatic provinces
1 Introductory 570
2 Temperature provinces 571
3 Moisture provinces 572
4 Temperature-moisture provinces based on product index 576
5 Two-dimensional climatic provinces 578
CONCLUSION 581
LITERATURE REFERENCES 1 587
|
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| geographic | USA United States Climate |
| geographic_facet | USA United States Climate |
| id | DE-604.BV015790398 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T19:09:42Z |
| institution | BVB |
| language | English |
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| physical | XVI, 590 S. |
| psigel | HUB-ZB011201006 |
| publishDate | 1921 |
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| publishDateSort | 1921 |
| publisher | Carnegie Inst. |
| record_format | marc |
| series2 | Publication |
| spelling | Livingston, Burton Edward Verfasser aut The distribution of vegetation in the United States, as related to climatic conditions Burton E. Livingston and Forrest Shreve Washington Carnegie Inst. 1921 XVI, 590 S. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Publication 284 Botany United States Phytogeography USA United States Climate Shreve, Forrest 1878-1950 Verfasser (DE-588)118856081 aut Carnegie Institution <Washington, DC> Publication 284 (DE-604)BV035415500 284 HEBIS Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=010127433&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Livingston, Burton Edward Shreve, Forrest 1878-1950 The distribution of vegetation in the United States, as related to climatic conditions Botany United States Phytogeography |
| title | The distribution of vegetation in the United States, as related to climatic conditions |
| title_auth | The distribution of vegetation in the United States, as related to climatic conditions |
| title_exact_search | The distribution of vegetation in the United States, as related to climatic conditions |
| title_full | The distribution of vegetation in the United States, as related to climatic conditions Burton E. Livingston and Forrest Shreve |
| title_fullStr | The distribution of vegetation in the United States, as related to climatic conditions Burton E. Livingston and Forrest Shreve |
| title_full_unstemmed | The distribution of vegetation in the United States, as related to climatic conditions Burton E. Livingston and Forrest Shreve |
| title_short | The distribution of vegetation in the United States, as related to climatic conditions |
| title_sort | the distribution of vegetation in the united states as related to climatic conditions |
| topic | Botany United States Phytogeography |
| topic_facet | Botany United States Phytogeography USA United States Climate |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=010127433&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| volume_link | (DE-604)BV035415500 |
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