The Grizzly Bears of Yellowstone: their ecology in the Yellowstone ecosystem, 1959 - 1992
Gespeichert in:
| Hauptverfasser: | , , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Washington, Wash.
Island Press
1995
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| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | XXII, 535 S. |
| ISBN: | 1559634561 |
Internformat
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| 100 | 1 | |a Craighead, John D. |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a The Grizzly Bears of Yellowstone |b their ecology in the Yellowstone ecosystem, 1959 - 1992 |c John D. Craighead ; Jay S. Sumner ; John A. Mitchell |
| 264 | 1 | |a Washington, Wash. |b Island Press |c 1995 | |
| 300 | |a XXII, 535 S. | ||
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| 650 | 4 | |a Ökologie | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Bear populations |z Yellowstone National Park | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Grizzly bear |x Ecology |z Yellowstone National Park | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Grizzly bear |z Yellowstone National Park | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Wildlife conservation |z Yellowstone National Park | |
| 700 | 1 | |a Sumner, Jay S. |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
| 700 | 1 | |a Mitchell, John A. |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
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| adam_text | The Grizzly Bears
of Yellowstone
THEIR ECOLOGY IN THE YELLOWSTONE ECOSYSTEM, 1959-1992
John J Craighead, Jay S Sumner, and John A Mitchell
CRAIGHEADWILDLIFE-WILDLANDSINSTITUTE
ISLAND PRESS
Washington,DC • Covelo,California
Contents
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xix
SECTION I; THE STUDY (1959-70)
CHAPTER 1 HISTORICAL PRELUDE
Introduction 1
Major Physical, Biological, and Political Features 3
The Park 3
The Ecosystem 7
Scientific Research 9
Advisory Committees 11
CHAPTER 2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Introduction 13
Early History 14
Native Americans 14
Hunters and Trappers 14
Exploration and Creation of Yellowstone National Park 14
Early Civilian Administration 15
Military Administration 16
Creation of thW~National Park Service 17
Early Developments that Affected Wildlife 19
Road Construction and Transportation 19
Tourist Accommodations 20
Human Visitation 24
Backcountry Visitation 24
Early Estimates of Wildlife Populations 27
Wildlife Protection and Animal Control 28
Early Populations of Bears 32
Bear Control Measures 36
Personal Injury and Property Damage 40
Analysis of Early Management Efforts 41
Waste Disposal 44
Grizzly Bear Research 47
CHAPTER 3 STUDY METHODS
Capture and Immobilization 49
Determination of Bear Age 50
Radio-location Technology 50
Vegetation Mapping 51
The Population under Study 52
Census Methods 52
Determination of Social Hierarchy 56
ix
Recording and Analyzing Reproductive Parameters 58
Reproductive Cycles 58
Cycle Length Determinants 59
Minimum Mean Cycle Lengths 61
Reproductive Rates Based on Cycles 63
Productivity Rates Based on Term of Observation 64
Methods of Calculating Population Productivity Rates 66
Evaluation of Calculation Methods 68
Between-population Comparisons of Productivity Rates 71
Data Management and Statistical Analysis 73
CHAPTER 4 THE GRIZZLY BEAR POPULATION
IN THE YELLOWSTONE ECOSYSTEM
Introduction 77
Population Characteristics 79
Population Size and Spatial Structure 79
Population Densities 81
Age Structure—Life 81
Age Structure—Death 82
Sex Ratios 82
Reproductive Cycles and Reproductive Rates 84
Summary 86
CHAPTER 5 THE TROUT CREEK GRIZZLY BEAR AGGREGATION
Introduction 89
The Aggregation 92
Seasonal Growth of Aggregation 92
Individual Visitation Patterns 92
Visitation According to Sex and Age 93
Visitation According to Sex 96
Visitation According to Age 96
Visitation According to Time since Weaning 96
Size of the Aggregation 97
Age and Longevity 97
Age and Sex Structure 101
Living Age Structure 101
Sex Ratio 102
Sex-biased Mortality 103
Movement of Aggregation Members 104
Summary 107
CHAPTER 6 THE GRIZZLY BEAR HIERARCHY
Introduction 109
Assigning Alpha Status 114
Assigning Beta and Contending Status 115
Aggressive Behaviors of Adult Males at the Trout Creek Ecocenter 117
Rank Determination 119
Chronology of Determination 119
Resolving Alpha Status 122
Time and Number of Major Encounters Required to Establish Alpha Rank 125
Seasons and Physical Attributes Required to Attain the Alpha Position at Trout Creek 126
The Alpha Male 128
Relative Aggressiveness of Alpha Males 128
Fate of Alpha Males 129
Tenure of Hierarchical Status 131
Changes in Status and Levels of Contention among Aggressive Members of the Male Hierarchy 132
Changes in Status and Levels of Contention among Nonaggressive Males 133
Relation of Visitation to Hierarchical Status 135
During the Breeding Season 135
After the Breeding Season 135
Interpretation of Male Visitation 135
The Aggregation Hierarchical Structure 138
Male Reproductive Activity 138
Status of Adult Females 140
Female Aggression and Reproductive Condition 141
Aggressive Actions by Adult Females 143
Aggressive Behavior in Defense of Offspring 144
Defense of Food Site 149
Defense of Personal Space 149
Positions in the Aggregation Hierarchy 150
Period of Social Tolerance 150
Evolutionary Aspects of Hierarchical Aggregations 151
Summary 151
CHAPTER 7 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Introduction 155
Breeding Season 156
Female Copulatory Behavior 157
Frequency of Copulation : 162
Duration of Copulation 164
Duration of Estrus 166
Estrous and Anestrous Periods 168
Mating Interval and Estrous Cycle 170
Induced Ovulation 171
Delayed Implantation 172
Production of Cubs 173
Litter Size 173
Reproductive Cycle Length 173
Productivity 175
Factors Affecting Production of Cubs 177
Female Age at First Reproduction 177
Age at First Pregnancy 178
Age at First Whelping 178
Female Age and Litter Size 179
Female Age and Probability of Litter Production 182
Contribution of Age Classes to Total Cub Production 182
Effect of Estrous Duration on Cub Production 183
Female Aggressiveness 184
Female Visitation at the Ecocenter 184
The Effects of Estrus on Visitation 188
Summary 190
CHAPTER 8 SURVIVORSHIP AND WEANING OF OFFSPRING
Magnitude of Cub Survivorship 193
All Cubs 193
Marked Cubs 193
Patterns of Cub Mortality 195
Effects of Differential Cub Mortality by Sex 195
Fate of Littermates 195
Effects of Litter Size 196
Infanticide 197
Conclusions Regarding Cub Survivorship 199
Weaning Age 199
Effect of Litter Sex Ratio 200
Effect of Female Age 200
Effect of Litter Size 201
Effect on Immediate Postwecming Survivorship 201
Effect on Survivorship of Female Grizzly Bears from Birth to Breeding Age 203
Conclusions Regarding Weaning Age 204
Adoptions 205
Abandonment 209
Fate of Orphaned Cubs 210
Adult Female Bonding 211
Juvenile Bands 217
Summary 217
CHAPTER 9 DENSITY-DEPENDENT
INFLUENCES ON POPULATION DYNAMICS
History 221
Estimating Density and Recruitment 223
Measurement of Density 223
Measurement of Recruitment 226
Univariate Tests Using Mean Annual Recruitment 226
Multivariate Analysis of Individual Reproductive Performance 227
Discussion : 228
Summary 231
CHAPTER 10 FOOD HABITS AND
FEEDING BEHAVIOROF THE GRIZZLY BEAR POPULATION
Introduction 233
Seasonal Feeding Pattern 234
Feeding Habits as Determined from Fecal Analysis 241
Problems with Fecal Analysis 242
Correction Factors 243
Dietary Intake Index 243
Results of Fecal Analysis 243
Frequency of Occurrence and Fecal Volume 243
Composite Fecal Index 244
Dietary Intake Index 245
Nutritive Values of Grizzly Bear Foods 247
Nutritive Value of Food Plants 247
Nutritive Value of Animal Foods 250
Energy Values of the Grizzly Bear Diet 251
Use of the Plant Food Resource 253
Use of the Animal Food Resource 253
Carrion-feeding 255
Method of Observing and Examining Carcasses 255
Characteristics of Carcasses 255
Availability of Carcasses 258
Use of Carcasses 259
Number of Grizzlies Observed at Carcasses 260
Predatory Behavior 260
Elk and Moose 262
Bison 265
Rodents 265
Fish 265
Cannibalism 265
Annual Abundance of Food Resources 265
Estimates of Relative Abundance 267
Annual Composite Resource Values 267
Mean Composite and Total Resource Ratings 269
Garbage (Open-Pit Dumps) 269
Direct Measurements 270
Indirect Measurements 270
The Role of Garbage 270
Garbage Habituation and Human-Conditioning 270
Human Impact Evaluation 271
Visitor-animal Impacts 271
Garbage-feeding Bears and Population Health 272
Reproduction and Food Abundance 275
Summary 276
CHAPTER 11 DEMOGRAPHIC, SPATIAL, AND
TEMPORAL PATTERNS OF GRIZZLY BEAR MORTALITY
Introduction 279
Sex- and Age-specific Mortality 281
Yellowstone Ecosystem 281
Trout Creek Subpopulation 283
Cause-specific Mortality 284
Yellowstone Ecosystem 284
Trout Creek 286
Trends Associated with Demographic Distribution of Mortalities 286
Yellowstone Ecosystem: Excess Legal Kill of Nonadult Males and Adults of Both Sexes 287
Trout Creek: Excess Adult Mortality from Management Control 287
Trout Creek: Excess Nonadult Male Mortality from All Causes 287
The Spatial Distribution of Grizzly Bear Deaths 287
All Yellowstone Ecosystem Grizzly Bears 288
Trout Creek Grizzly Bears 289
Seasonal Patterns of Mortality 290
Mortality Rates 293
Annual Differences in Ecosystem-Wide Mortality Rates 294
Mortality Rates of Trout Creek Versus Non-Trout Creek Grizzly Bears 296
Discussion 300
Summary 302
CHAPTER 12 SPATIAL AND VEGETATION REQUIREMENTS
Introduction 303
Spatial Requirements 303
Vegetation Requirements 305
Major Vegetation Complexes Used by Grizzlies in Yellowstone 305
Mapping the Spatial Distribution of Vegetation 308
Vegetation Complexes Used by Grizzlies in Other Ecosystems 309
Applications of the Mapping System 310
Vegetation Components of Home Ranges and Core Areas 313
Summary 319
CHAPTER 13 ECOCENTERED RELATIONSHIPS
OF OTHER GRIZZLY BEAR POPULATIONS
Introduction 321
The Ecocenter Concept 321
A Perspective on Ecocenters 322
Prehistoric Evidence 322
Historical Evidence 326
Some Current Brown/Grizzly Bear Ecocentered Populations 328
Primary Ecocenters 329
McNeil River Falls—Alaska 329
Karluk Lake System, Kodiak Island—Alaska 330
Admiralty and Chichagof Islands—Alaska 331
Secondary Ecocenters 332
Susitna Hydroelectric Project—Alaska 332
The Cooke City Dump—Montana 332
Developing Ecocenters 333
Grain Spills 334
Boneyards 334
Insect Aggregations 340
Fish Aggregations 341
Winter-killed Ungulates 342
Some Current Non-ecocentered Grizzly Populations 342
Western Brooks Range—Alaska 342
Northcentral Range—Alaska 342
Greater Yelloivstone Ecosystem, 1975-89 343
Summary 343
Color Gallery 345
SECTION II: POPULATION COMPARISONS
CHAPTER 14 1974-1992: THE ERA OF DECREED RESEARCH
Introduction 361
Preclosure Management History (1959-70) 362
Postclosure Management History (1971-75) 363
Reorganization of the Interagency Grizzly Bear Study Team 366
CHAPTER 15 GRIZZLY BEAR DISTRIBUTION AND
MOVEMENTS FOLLOWING CATASTROPHIC EVENTS
Introduction 369
Grizzly Bear Movements Following Phaseout of the Earth-filled Garbage Dumps (1968-70) 370
Dispersal of Individual Female Grizzlies in Response to
Reduced Food at the Trout Creek Dump During 1968-69 371
Dispersal of Individual Grizzlies in 1969-70 Following the Closure of Rabbit Creek 373
Grizzly Bear Movements During the Immediate Postclosure Period (1971-74) 377
Movement Inferred from Campground Captures 378
Movement Inferred from Bear Density Distribution 378
Gradual Dispersal of the Yellowstone Grizzly Bear Population, 1975-87 381
Change in Area of Mean Life Ranges 381
Change in Area of Mean Annual Ranges 382
Post-fire Dispersal of the Yellowstone Grizzly Bear Population, 1988-91 384
Summary 389
^CHAPTER 16 COMPARATIVE FOOD HABITS AND
FEEDING BEHAVIOR FOLLOWING ECOCENTER CLOSURES
Introduction 391
Seasonal Feeding 392
Comparative Use of Food Resources 393
Garbage 393
Whitebark Pine Seeds 393
Vertebrates 394
Forbs 394
Invertebrates 395
Grasses and Sedges 395
Fruits 395
Change in Use of Food Resources 395
Status of Food Plant Resources 396
Grasses and Sedges 396
Forbs 396
Berries and Fruits 397
Whitebark Pine Seeds 397
Status of Animal Food Resources 399
Availability and Use of Ungulate Carcasses 399
Predation 403
Rodents 403
Ungulates 403
Fish 404
Invertebrates 405
Nutritional Considerations 406
The Nutritional Imperative 409
Summary 410
CHAPTER 17 REPRODUCTION ASSESSMENT
AND DEMOGRAPHIC CONSIDERATIONS
Fundamental Reproductive Parameters 413
Female Age at First Reproduction 413
Fertility 414
Mean and Median Ages of Whelping 414
Litter Size 415
Age at Weaning 416
Composite Indices of Reproduction 418
Length of Reproductive Cycle 418
Female Productivity 419
Ecocenters and Productivity Rates 4 19
A Postclosure Rebound in Productivity? 422
Discussion 424
Bear Reproductive Ecology 425
Demographic Considerations 428
Summary 428
CHAPTER 18 GRIZZLY BEAR MORTALITY
FOLLOWING THE CLOSURE OF ECOCENTERS
Introduction 431
The Demographic Distribution of Mortality 431
All Causes of Mortality 432
Cause-specific Mortality 434
Influences of Age and Sex on Mortality 435
The Spatial Distribution of Mortality 435
Mortality Rates 436
Absolute Versus per Capita Mortality 436
Fate of Marked Bears in the Early Postclosure Period 437
Translocation of Marked Bears 437
Craighead Study Bears- 438
Interpretation of Translocation and Mortality Data 441
Summary 442
CHAPTER 19 ASSESSMENT OF SIZE AND TREND OF
THE YELLOWSTONE GRIZZLY BEAR POPULATION
Censusing the Population 445
Validity of the Adult-females-with-cubs Index 446
Accuracy of the Annual Counts of Adult Females with Cubs 448
Estimates of Population Size and Trend, 1959-74 452
Estimates of Population Size and Trend, 1975-94 453
Current Status of the Yellowstone Grizzly Bear Population 455
Summary 455
CHAPTER 20 POPULATION RECOVERY
AND LONG-TERM MANAGEMENT
Introduction 457
The Federal Plan for Recovery of Grizzly Bear Populations 459
The Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 460
Recast Interpretation of the Endangered Species Act 461
A Critique of Federal Recovery Plan Guidelines 462
Goals for Grizzly Bear Population Recovery 464
Present and Future Habitat Needs 465
Recovery Zones 465
Spatial Characteristics 467
Corridors 469
General Security Requirements 470
Specific Zonal Security Assets 470
Zones with National Park Cores 470
Zones with Designated Wilderness Cores 471
Zones with de Facto Wilderness 471
Specific Food Resource Requirements 472
Population Viability Analysis and the Ecocenter Concept 473
The Population Viability Concept 473
Population Viability Analysis of Grizzly Bears 474
Limitations of Viability Analyses 474
Population Viability Analysis and the Federal Recovery Plan 475
Incorporating the Ecocenter Concept in Population Viability Analysis 475
Establishing an Interim Recovery Target for Number of Adult Females with Cubs 477
Population Point Estimates 477
Comparison of Population Assessments 478
Estimate of Ecosystem Age Structure Using the Trout Creek Database 478
Estimate of Ecosystem Age-sex Structure and Mean Number of Adult Females 479
Managing for Grizzly Bear Population Recovery in the Yellowstone Ecosystem 479
Delineating the Recovery Zone 480
Standardizing Habitat Mapping 481
Maintaining Habitat Quality 483
Sanitation 483
Road Densities 483
Enhancing Natural Ecocenters 483
Establishing Ecocenters 484
Carcasses 484
Grains and Food Pellets 485
Processed Human Food 485
Multiple Food Resources 486
Population RecoveryJTarget 486
Managing for Grizzly Bear Population Recovery in the Conterminous 48 States 486
Reestablishment of Grizzly Bears by Translocation 488
A Vision for the Future 489
A Question of Values 491
Appendices 494
Literature Cited 503
Index 519
|
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| isbn | 1559634561 |
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| spelling | Craighead, John D. Verfasser aut The Grizzly Bears of Yellowstone their ecology in the Yellowstone ecosystem, 1959 - 1992 John D. Craighead ; Jay S. Sumner ; John A. Mitchell Washington, Wash. Island Press 1995 XXII, 535 S. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Ökologie Bear populations Yellowstone National Park Grizzly bear Ecology Yellowstone National Park Grizzly bear Yellowstone National Park Wildlife conservation Yellowstone National Park Sumner, Jay S. Verfasser aut Mitchell, John A. Verfasser aut HEBIS Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=009571060&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Craighead, John D. Sumner, Jay S. Mitchell, John A. The Grizzly Bears of Yellowstone their ecology in the Yellowstone ecosystem, 1959 - 1992 Ökologie Bear populations Yellowstone National Park Grizzly bear Ecology Yellowstone National Park Grizzly bear Yellowstone National Park Wildlife conservation Yellowstone National Park |
| title | The Grizzly Bears of Yellowstone their ecology in the Yellowstone ecosystem, 1959 - 1992 |
| title_auth | The Grizzly Bears of Yellowstone their ecology in the Yellowstone ecosystem, 1959 - 1992 |
| title_exact_search | The Grizzly Bears of Yellowstone their ecology in the Yellowstone ecosystem, 1959 - 1992 |
| title_full | The Grizzly Bears of Yellowstone their ecology in the Yellowstone ecosystem, 1959 - 1992 John D. Craighead ; Jay S. Sumner ; John A. Mitchell |
| title_fullStr | The Grizzly Bears of Yellowstone their ecology in the Yellowstone ecosystem, 1959 - 1992 John D. Craighead ; Jay S. Sumner ; John A. Mitchell |
| title_full_unstemmed | The Grizzly Bears of Yellowstone their ecology in the Yellowstone ecosystem, 1959 - 1992 John D. Craighead ; Jay S. Sumner ; John A. Mitchell |
| title_short | The Grizzly Bears of Yellowstone |
| title_sort | the grizzly bears of yellowstone their ecology in the yellowstone ecosystem 1959 1992 |
| title_sub | their ecology in the Yellowstone ecosystem, 1959 - 1992 |
| topic | Ökologie Bear populations Yellowstone National Park Grizzly bear Ecology Yellowstone National Park Grizzly bear Yellowstone National Park Wildlife conservation Yellowstone National Park |
| topic_facet | Ökologie Bear populations Yellowstone National Park Grizzly bear Ecology Yellowstone National Park Grizzly bear Yellowstone National Park Wildlife conservation Yellowstone National Park |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=009571060&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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