The Hausa language: an encyclopedic reference grammar
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| Main Author: | |
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| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
New Haven [u.a.]
Yale Univ. Press
2000
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| Series: | Yale language series
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| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Physical Description: | XXXIX, 760 S. graph. Darst., Kt. |
| ISBN: | 0300081898 9780300081893 |
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| 100 | 1 | |a Newman, Paul |d 1937- |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)124555039 |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a The Hausa language |b an encyclopedic reference grammar |c Paul Newman |
| 264 | 1 | |a New Haven [u.a.] |b Yale Univ. Press |c 2000 | |
| 300 | |a XXXIX, 760 S. |b graph. Darst., Kt. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 490 | 0 | |a Yale language series | |
| 650 | 7 | |a Haoussa (langue) - Grammaire |2 ram | |
| 650 | 7 | |a Hausa (taal) |2 gtt | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Grammatik | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Hausa language |x Grammar | |
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| _version_ | 1804127765594636288 |
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| adam_text | Contents
List of Tables and Figures...............................................................xxxiii
Preface.................................................................................. xxxv
Symbols and Abbreviations................................................................xxxvii
Glossaiy of Hausa Words Untranslated in Examples........................................ xxxix
Maps.........................................................................................xl
Introduction.........................................................................................1
1. History of Hausa Linguistics.................................................................2
2. Recent Pedagogical Works on Hausa ..........................................................2
3. Data Sources for the Grammar.................................................................2
4. Transcription System........................................................................3
5. Organization of the Grammar.................................................................4
1. Abstract Nouns (Derived).........................................................................5
1. Segmental Shape of the Abstract Suffixes.....................................................5
1.1. With disyllabic stems....................................................................6
1.2. With polysyllabic stems..................................................................8
2. Tone....................................................................................... 8
2.1. The suffix -cl)HL........................................................................8
2.2. The suffix -taka)LHL.....................................................................8
2.3. The suffix-ta............................................................................8
3. Abutting Consonant Adjustments...............................................................9
4. Special Forms of the Base................................................................. 10
5. Alternative Forms...........................................................................11
2. Abstract Nouns of Sensory Quality and Their Derivatives.........................................13
1. ANSQs.......................................................................................13
1.1. Attenuation.............................................................................14
2. Derived Adjectives of Sensory Quality (DASQ)................................................15
3. Derived Verbs of Sensory Quality (DVSQ).....................................................17
3. Adjectival Past Participles.....................................................................19
1. Form........................................................................................19
2. Use....................................................................................... 20
3. Expansion...................................................................................20
4. Adjectives.................................................................................... 22
1. Introduction................................................................................22
2. Morphological Classes of Adjectives.........................................................22
2.1. Simple adjectives.......................................................................23
2.2. Derived adjectives......................................................................24
2.2.1. Agential adjectives................................................................24
2.2.2. Ethnonymic adjectives..............................................................25
2.2.3. Adjectival past participles........................................................25
viii Contents
2.2.4. Derived adjectives of sensory quality................................................25
2.2.5. Augmentative adjectives..............................................................25
2.2.6. Diminutive adjectives................................................................26
2.2.7. H-L reduplicated ideophonic adjectives...............................................26
2.2.8. LL-HL reduplicated adjectives........................................................26
2.2.9. Reduplicated adjectives (‘X-like’)...................................................26
2.3. Attenuated reduplicated adjectives (‘-ish*).............................................27
2.3.1. ANSQs................................................................................28
2.4. Compound adjectives.....................................................................29
3. Syntax......................................................................................29
3.1. Predicate adjectives....................................................................29
3.2. Attributive adjectives................................................................ 30
3.2.1. Alternative word orders..............................................................30
3.2.2. Strictly post-nominal adjectives.....................................................30
3.2.3. Gender/number agreement with conjoined NPs...........................................31
3.2.4. Headless adjectives..................................................................32
3.3. The “quality-with-pronoun” construction.................................................33
4. Comparative/Superlative.....................................................................33
5. Adverbs..........................................................................................34
1. Introduction................................................................................34
2. Basic/Simple Adverbs........................................................................35
2.1. Spatial.................................................................................35
2.2. Temporal................................................................................35
2.3. Deictics: Both spatial and temporal................................................... 36
2.3.1. Form.................................................................................36
2.3.2. Meaning..............................................................................36
2.4. Manner, intensity, and other miscellaneous adverbs......................................38
3. Derived Adverbs.............................................................................39
3.1. Denominal adverbs.......................................................................39
3.2. Deverbal statives.......................................................................41
4. Reduplication...............................................................................41
4.1. Strengthening...........................................................................41
4.2. Attenuation.............................................................................42
4.3. Distributives...........................................................................42
5. Prepositional Phrases......................................................................43
5.1. Spatial.................................................................................43
5.2. Temporal................................................................................44
5.3. Manner..................................................................................44
5.4. Instrumental............................................................................45
6. Nonprepositional Phrasal Adverbs ..........................................................45
7. Compounds..................................................................................46
8. Even.................,.....................................................................46
9. A Little / A Lot / Entirely................................................................47
10. Exactly................................................................................. 47
11. Especially................................................................................48
6. Afterthought (Right Dislocation)...............................................................49
7. Agent, Location, and Instrument (raa- Forms)...................................................51
1. Agent (ma-...-l)...........................................................................51
Contents ix
1.1. Form.................................................................................51
1.2. Verb stems with -TA..................................................................52
1.3. Meaning..............................................................................53
1.4. Gender restrictions..................................................................53
1.5. Productivity and alternatives........................................................53
1.6. Agent nouns with objects.............................................................54
1.6.1. Full-form agentives with objects.................................................54
1.6.2. Plural agentives with objects....................................................54
1.6.3. Short-form agentives with objects................................................55
1.7. Adjectival usage.....................................................................56
2. Location (ma-...-a / 57
3. Instrument (ma-...-I)....................................................................58
4. Frozen ma- Forms.........................................................................59
8. Apposition...................................................................................61
1. Introduction.............................................................................61
2. Weak Pronouns............................................................................62
3. Emphatic Reflexives......................................................................62
4. Prenominal Possessives................................................................. 62
5. ‘Kind of Phrases.........................................................................63
6. Unit Measures............................................................................63
7. Pronouns with Numerals...................................................................63
9. Aspectual Verbs..............................................................................64
1. Introduction.............................................................................64
2. Indirect Objects.........................................................................66
3. TAM......................................................................................67
4. The Embedded Complement and yi Deletion..................................................67
5. Deletion of Full Verbs in the Embedded Clause............................................69
6. Stacking of A Vs.........................................................................69
7. Subjunctive Complements..................................................................69
10. Associated Characteristics (Suffix -au).....................................................71
1. Group 1..................................................................................71
2. Group 2..................................................................................72
3. Group 3..................................................................................72
4. Group 4..................................................................................72
5. Group 5........................................................................... ...72
6. Group 6..................................................................................73
7. Group 7..................................................................................73
11. Augmentatives and Diminutives...............................................................74
1. Augmentative Adjectives..................................................................74
1.1. Augmentative-1 (A D forms)...........................................................75
1.1.1. Augmentative-lb: The B-form -eCe/1^..............................................75
1.1.2. Plurals -a x 2)H L...............................................................76
1.1.3. Augmentative-la: The A-form -I)**................................................76
1.2. Augmentative-2: The C-form -i)LHLH...................................................77
2. Related Derivations......................................................................78
2.1. Exclamations.........................................................................78
2.2. Ideophonic qualifiers................................................................78
3. Diminutive Adjectives....................................................................79
x Contents
12. Causatives (and Related Formations).........................................................81
1. Causatives................................................................................81
1.1. Causatives with finite clause complements.............................................81
1.1.1. Negation........................................................................84
1.1.2. Adverbs..........................................................................85
1.1.3. Q-word questions.................................................................85
1.1.4. Relativization, focus, and topicalization........................................85
1.2. Causatives with NP complements........................................................86
2. Permissives and Prohibitives.............................................................87
2.1. Permissives..........................................................................87
2.2. Prohibitives.........................................................................88
13. Cognate Accusative...........................................................................89
1. Cognate Accusative Type 1 (Adverbial).....................................................89
1.1. Cognate accusative with modifier.....................................................89
1.1.1. Focus and relativization.........................................................91
1.2. Cognate accusative with numeral.......................................................91
2. Cognate Accusative Type 2 (Direct Object)................................................91
2.1. Cognate accusative-2 plus cognate accusative-1.......................................91
3. Cognate Accusative Type 3 (na + VN).....................................................92
14. Comparison...................................................................................93
1. Comparison at a Higher Degree.............................................................93
1.1. Adverbial comparison.................................................................94
1.2. Agentive and stative phrases.........................................................95
1.3. Other ‘exceed1 verbs................................................................95
2. Comparison at an Equal Degree............................................................95
3. Comparison at a Lower Degree.............................................................96
4. Clausal Comparison.......................................................................96
15. Complementation..............................................................................97
1. VP Complements............................................................................97
1.1. ‘That’ complements....................................................................97
1.2. ‘To’ complements......................................................................99
2. Propositional Complements................................................................99
2.1. Kinds of complement-taking expressions (CTEs).......................................101
2.2. Negation............................................................................103
2.3. Question words, focus, topicalization...............................................104
2.3.1. Constituents in the CP.........................................................104
2.3.2. The CP.........................................................................105
2.3.3. The CTE........................................................................106
2.4. Yes/No questions...................................................................107
16. Compounds..................................................................................109
1. External: Part of Speech ...............................................................110
1.1. Nouns...............................................................................110
1.1.1. Gender.........................................................................110
1.1.2. Plurality......................................................................112
1.2. Adjectives..........................................................................113
1.3. Adverbs........................................................................... 113
1.4. Verbs............................................................................ 114
2. Internal Structure of Compounds.........................................................114
Contents xi
2.1. Noun-linked compounds (N.L + N).....................................................114
2.2. Adjective-Noun compounds (Adj.L + N).................................................116
2.3. V + X compounds......................................................................116
2.3.1. Special L-tone compound form.....................................................116
2.3.2. Imperative verb form.............................................................118
2.3.3. Infinitives..................................................................... 119
2.4. Phrasal compounds................................................................... 119
2.5. Juxtaposed compounds.................................................................119
2.6. Agentive compounds...................................................................120
2.7. Sentential compounds.................................................................120
3. Fused Compounds..........................................................................120
4. Loans..................................................................................121
5. Productivity.............................................................................122
5.1. d*an-................................................................................122
5.2. ábókin-..............................................................................123
5.3. ruwan-...............................................................................123
5.4. ban-.................................................................................123
17. Conditionals and Concessives..............................................................125
1. Regular Conditionals...................................................................125
1.1. Formation............................................................................125
1.2. Meaning .............................................................................126
2. Counterfactual Conditionals..............................................................127
2.1. Formation............................................................................127
2.2. Meaning..............................................................................128
3. Concessive Conditionals..................................................................128
3.1. Formation............................................................................128
3.2. Meaning..............................................................................129
4. Hypothetical Concessive Conditionals.....................................................129
5. Universal (Indefinite) Concessive Conditionals...........................................130
6. Concessives..............................................................................131
18. Conjunctions................................................................................132
1. Basic Coordinating Conjunctions..........................................................132
1.1. And..................................................................................132
1.2. Or...................................................................................132
1.3. But..................................................................................133
2. The Words har and sai....................................................................133
3. Subordinating Conjunctions...............................................................134
19. Coordination................................................................................135
1. NP Coordination..........................................................................135
1.1. And..................................................................................135
1.1.1. Ellipsis in coordinate phrases...................................................136
1.1.2. Asymmetric coordination .......................................................136
1.1.3. Concord phenomena................................................................137
1.2. Or...................................................................................137
1.3. But..................................................................................138
2. Coordination of Sentences................................................................138
2.1. And..................................................................................138
2.1.1. TAM deletion.....................................................................140
xii Contents
2.1.2. Reduction of repeated NPs......................................*....................*41
2.1.3. Verbal ellipsis.....................................................................
2.2. Or.......................................................................................142
2.3. But and however..........................................................................*4^
20. Definite Article.................................................................................143
1. Form.........................................................................................I44
2. Double Definite Articles.....................................................................*46
21. Demonstratives and Determiners...................................................................147
1. The wa- Words................................................................................147
1.1. Definite (deictic) demonstratives........................................................ 148
1.1.1. Short-form definite demonstratives................................................. 149
1.1.2. Short-form and long-form definite demonstratives contrasted..........................150
1.2. Interrogative demonstratives..............................................................152
1.3. Relative pronouns.........................................................................153
1.4. Specific indefinite demonstratives........................................................153
1.5. Unspecified pronouns......................................................................154
2. Pronouns as Determiners/Specifiers...........................................................155
3. Isolator.....................................................................................155
22. Deverbal Nouns...................................................................................156
1. DVNs with Verbal Noun Morphology.............................................................156
1.1. Weak VNs...................................................................-...........157
1.2. Stem-derived VNs........................................................................157
1.3. Base-derived VNs........................................................................157
1.3.1. -1...................................................................................157
1.3.2. -fl..................................................................................157
1.3.3. -e...................................................................................157
1.3.4. -6...................................................................................157
1.3.5. -a (variable gender).................................................................158
2. DVNs without Regular Verbal Noun Morphology..................................................158
2.1. DVNs with -iya and -uwa.................................................................158
2.2. DVNs with -e)HL.........................................................................158
2.3. DVNs with-ko............................................................................158
23. Equational Sentences..........................................................................160
1. Basic Structure............................................................................160
2. Identificational Sentences............................................................... 161
3. Alternative Have Expressions...............................................................161
4. Pleonastic Independent Pronouns............................................................162
5. Resumptive Independent Pronouns...........................................................162
6. Concord....................................................................................162
7. Negation...................................................................................163
8. Omission of the Stabilizer.................................................................164
8.1. Names, times, places, occupations, numbers.............................................164
8.2. Exclamatory expressions.............................................................. 164
8.3. Reduction of multiple stabilizers......................................................165
9. Position of the Stabilizer.................................................................166
9.1. Focus..................................................................................166
9.1.1. Focusing of the Y..................................................................166
9.1.2. Question words.....................................................................167
Contents xiii
9.2. Heavy predicate shift................................................................167
24. Ethnonyms....................................................................................170
1. Basic Form and Meaning (bà-)................................................................170
2. Alternative Constructions...................................................................172
3. The -âwâ Suffix............................................................................ 172
3.1. Plural ethnonyms......................................................................172
3.2. Singular/plural asymmetry............................................................173
3.3. Followers of.........................................................................174
3.4. Toponyms.............................................................................174
4. Adjectives..................................................................................175
4.1. Plural of adjectival ethnonyms.......................................................175
4.2. Common nouns from adjectival ethnonyms...............................................175
25. Exclamations / Interjections.................................................................176
1. Nonderived Lexical Exclamations.......................................................... 176
2. Derived Exclamations -i)FL(H)............................................................177
26. Existential and Other Nonverbal Sentences....................................................178
1. Existential Sentences.....................................................................178
1.1. Existentials expressing attributes....................................................179
1.2. Negative..............................................................................179
1.2.1. Times and numbers................................................................180
1.2.2. Negative-HAVE....................................................................180
1.2.3. The bâ X bâ Y construction.......................................................181
2. Presentational Sentences.................................................................181
3. Qualitative Sentences................................................................... 182
4. Rather Sentences........................................................................ 182
27. Expressives of Contempt......................................................................183
1. Introduction..............................................................................183
2. Form.....................................................................................183
2.1. Basic formation.......................................................................183
2.2. Compounds and phrases................................................................ 184
2.3. Consonant-final words................................................................184
2.4. Nasal-final words....................................................................184
2.5. Monosyllabic words...................................................................185
2.6. Palatal(ized) consonants........................................................... 185
2.7. Prepausal glottal stop...............................................................186
28. Focus........................................................................................187
1. Introduction..............................................................................187
2. Form and Structure.......................................................................188
2.1. Focus with sai........................................................................190
2.2. Equational sentences..................................................................190
3. Focus from Lower Clause................................................................ 191
4. Role of the Focused Element............................................................. 192
5. Negation and Focus.......................................................................194
6. Pseudo-Cleft Sentences...................................................................194
29. Fréquentatives...............................................................................196
1. Form......................................................................................196
2. Function................................................................................ 197
2.1. Plurals of common nouns...............................................................197
xiv Contents
2.2. Repeated action verbal nouns..........................................................197
30. Games and Activities (Nominal Derivation)......................................................199
31. Gender.........................................................................................200
1. Intrinsic Gender............................................................................200
1.1. Lexically specific.................................................................... 201
1.1.1. Variation...........................................................................201
1.2. Set gender classes......................................................................203
1.2.1. Geographical locations..............................................................203
1.2.2. Months and days of the week.........................................................204
1.2.3. Prayer times........................................................................204
1.2.4. Temporal and other adverbial nouns..................................................204
1.2.5. Adverbs and prepositional phrases...................................................205
1.2.6. Numerals............................................................................205
1.2.7. Letters of the alphabet.............................................................206
1.2.8. Abbreviations and acronyms..........................................................206
1.2.9. Infinitives, verbal noun phrases, and whole sentences.............................206
2. Phonological Marking........................................................................208
3. Gender Marking: Derivation and Inflection..................................................209
3.1. The feminine suffix {-a} ...............................................................210
3.2. The feminine suffix {-lya}............................................................ 212
3.3. The feminine suffix {-nya}..............................................................212
4. Overt Characterization (Historical)........................................................213
32. Grammatical Agreement.........................................................................216
1. Stabilizer..................................................................................216
2. Linker.....................................................................................216
3. Definite Article...........................................................................217
4. Personal Pronouns..........................................................................217
5. Demonstratives and Nonpersonal Pronouns....................................................217
6. Adjectives.................................................................................218
7. Diminutive.................................................................................219
8. Dependent Heads............................................................................219
9. MAI and Related Items......................................................................220
10. Absence of Gender Concord...............................................................221
33. HAVE Sentences..............................................................................222
1. Formation (Affirmative).....................................................................222
2. Negative-HAVE...............................................................................223
3. Meaning and Function.......................................................................223
3.1. Possession.............................................................................223
3.2. Predicative qualities..................................................................224
3.3. “Tough” and “quick” constructions......................................................224
3.3.1. “Tough construction”...............................................................224
3.3.2. “Quick construction”...............................................................225
4. Other Means of Expressing Have.............................................................225
34. Historical Sound Laws.......................................................................227
1. Changes Affecting Consonants................................................................227
1.1. *r y/i...............................................................................227
1.2. Initial *0 ’ and h...................................................................228
1.3. The sequence tfiy ’y.................................................................229
Contents xv
1.4. Word-final *N 0...................................................................230
1.5. Klingenheben’s Law..................................................................230
1.5.1. Syllable-final velars..........................................................230
1.5.2. Syllable-final labials.........................................................231
1.5.3. Syllable-final coronals........................................................233
1.6. Law of Codas in Reduplication.......................................................234
1.6.1. Gemination.....................................................................234
1.6.2. Rhotacism .....................................................................235
2. Changes Affecting Vowels................................................................235
2.1. Medial *1 e and *u o............................................................235
2.1.1. Synchronic alternations........................................................236
2.2. Lowering of final *u 6............................................................237
2.3. Monophthongization of *iu and *ui...................................................238
3. Changes Affecting Tone .................................................................239
3.1. Monosyllabic H F by tone bending..................................................239
3.2. Low-tone raising (LTR)..............................................................240
35. Ideophones................................................................................242
1. Phonology...............................................................................242
1.1. Distinctiveness.....................................................................242
1.1.1. Consonant-final................................................................242
1.1.2. Diphthongs.....................................................................243
1.1.3. L-L long.......................................................................243
1.1.4. Vowel peculiarities............................................................243
1.1.5. Tone in reduplication..........................................................243
1.2. Canonical shapes....................................................................243
1.2.1. CVC............................................................................244
1.2.2. CViCViC........................................................................244
1.2.3. CViCCVjC.......................................................................245
1.2.4. CVVCVC.........................................................................245
1.2.5. CViCjViCjVi....................................................................245
1.2.6. CVViCjVViCjVVi.................................................................246
1.2.7. CViCCjVjCkCjViCk...............................................................246
1.2.8. CVCCVC x 2)»-l.................................................................246
1.2.9. CVjCVi x 2.....................................................................246
1.2.10. Base x 2)L H..................................................................247
1.2.11. CVCVVx2)H‘L...................................................................248
1.2.12. Polysyllabic all L............................................................249
1.2.13. Miscellaneous.................................................................249
2. Function and Use........................................................................249
2.1. Adverbials..........................................................................249
2.1.1. VP modifiers...................................................................250
2.1.2. Specifiers / Intensifies.......................................................250
2.2. Adjectivals.........................................................................251
2.3. Nominals............................................................................252
2.3.1. Pseudonominals.................................................................253
2.3.2. Ideophones in other nominal slots..............................................253
3. Fixed Collocations......................................................................253
4. Synchronic Cognates.....................................................................255
xvi Contents
5. Intonation (Key Raising, Register Shift)...................................................256
6. Ideophonic Nouns (Sounds and Movements)....................................................258
6.1. Related reduplicated ideophones with the shape Base x 2)L~H............................258
36. Idiomatic Phrasal Verbs.........................................................................260
37. Imperative......................................................................................262
1. Introduction................................................................................262
2. The Form of the Imperative..................................................................263
2.1. Basic L-H pattern.......................................................................263
2.2. Grade 2 verbs...........................................................................264
2.2.1. A-form with final -i................................................................264
2.2.2. B-form with pronoun objects.........................................................264
2.3. Monosyllabic and H-H grO verbs.........................................................265
2.3.1. A-form..............................................................................265
2.3.2. C-form............................................................................ 266
2.3.3. B-form..............................................................................266
2.3.4. D-form..............................................................................267
2.4. Grade 1 and gTade 4 verbs...............................................................267
2.4.1. A-form and B-form...................................................................267
2.4.2. D-form..............................................................................267
2.4.3. C-form..............................................................................268
2.5. Short-form grade 5 verbs................................................................268
2.6. Polysyllabic grade 3 verbs..............................................................268
2.7. Verbs go and come.......................................................................269
38. Impersonal......................................................................................270
1. Form......................................................................................270
2. Function..................................................................................270
2.1. Normal uses of the impersonal..........................................................270
2.2. Oblique Impersonal Construction........................................................271
2.2.1. Anomalous plurality ................................................................272
2.2.2. Persons.............................................................................272
2.2.3. Animacy.............................................................................272
2.2.4. Tense/aspect, negation, questions...................................................272
2.2.5. Sequence of clauses............................................................... 273
2.2.6. Topic, focus, and relativization....................................................273
2.2.7. Reflexives..........................................................................274
2.2.8. Semantics and pragmatics of the OIC.................................................274
39. Indirect Objects..............................................................................276
1. Form: Nonpronominal Indirect Objects.......................................................276
1.1. Usual SH forms.........................................................................276
1.2. Dialectal forms........................................................................277
1.3. The verb give..........................................................................278
2. Form: Personal Pronoun Indirect Objects....................................................279
3. Close Bonding of Verb and IOM.............................................................280
4. The Strict Verb Requirement................................................................281
4.1. yi deletion........................................................................... 281
5. Pre-I.O. Verb Forms (The D-form)...........................................................282
5.1. The D-form: Most verbs.................................................................282
5.2. The D-form: Grade 0 Ci verbs...........................................................282
Contents xvii
5.3. Clipped forms.........................................................................282
5.4. The pre-dative suffix (pds)...........................................................283
6. Grade Shift...............................................................................284
7. Intransitive Verbs........................................................................285
8. Word Order................................................................................285
9. Meaning and Use...........................................................................286
40. Infinitives and Gerundives....................................................................288
1. Infinitive Phrases........................................................................288
1.1. Object requirement for infinitives....................................................290
1.2. The continuous TAMs...................................................................291
2. Gerundives...............................................................................291
3. Gender....................................................................................292
41. Languages and Attributes......................................................................293
1. Form......................................................................................293
2. Meaning...................................................................................293
2.1. Languages.............................................................................293
2.2. Attributes............................................................................294
2.3. Adjectival directionals...............................................................295
42. Linguistic Play...............................................................................296
1. Play on Words.............................................................................296
2. Language Games............................................................................297
2.1. Suffixation...........................................................................297
2.2. Prefixation...........................................................................298
2.3. Syllable permutation..................................................................298
43. Linker........................................................................................300
1. Free Linker...............................................................................300
1.1. Form..................................................................................300
1.1.1. Free linker with short vowel......................................................300
1.1.2. Préfixai linker with long vowel (independent possessive pronouns).................300
1.2. Use...................................................................................301
1.2.1. Non-adjacent possessor............................................................301
1.2.2. Headless possessor................................................................301
1.2.3. Ordinal numerals..................................................................301
1.2.4. Alternative to the clitic.........................................................302
1.2.5. Loanwords.........................................................................302
2. Bound Linker with Zero Vowel..............................................................302
2.1. Allomorphs (-n /-r)...................................................................302
2.1.1. Gender conflict in the form of the linker with compounds..........................303
2.1.2. Enclitic short vowel linkers......................................................305
2.1.3. Form of the noun to which the linker is attached..................................306
2.1.4. Consonant-final words before the linker: Insertion of an epenthetic vowel.........307
2.1.5. The connect or tfi-...............................................................308
2.1.6. Word-final /n/....................................................................309
2.2. Use...................................................................................309
2.2.1. Possessives.......................................................................309
2.2.2. Miscellaneous N of N..............................................................310
2.2.3. Part of...........................................................................310
2.2.4. Quantity of.......................................................................310
xviii Contents
22.5. Genitive prepositions.............................................................310
2.2.6. Diminutives, persons of...........................................................311
2.2.7. Compounds.........................................................................311
2.2.8. Prenominal adjectives.............................................................311
2.2.9. Object genitives..................................................................311
2.2.10. Subject genitives................................................................312
44. Loanwords.................................................................................... 313
1. Source of Loanwords.......................................................................313
1.1. English .............................................................................313
1.2. French...............................................................................314
1.3. Arabic...............................................................................314
1.4. Fulani...............................................................................314
1.5. Kanuri...............................................................................315
1.6. Tuareg...............................................................................315
1.7. Other................................................................................315
2. Incorporation of Loanwords..............................................................316
2.1. Phonological adjustment of loanwords.................................................316
2.1.1. Segmental replacement of consonant phonemes........................................316
2.1.2. Avoidance of word-final consonants...............................................317
2.1.3. Elimination of consonant clusters................................................317
2.1.4. Tone assignment..................................................................318
2.2. Phonological impact of loanwords.....................................................319
2.3. Gender of loanwords..................................................................321
2.3.1. Natural gender....................................................................321
2.3.2. Analogy...........................................................................321
2.3.3. Phonological patterning...........................................................322
45. MAI and MARAS................................................................................323
1. MAI......................................................................................323
1.1. Modifiers............................................................................323
1.2. Derivative noun phrases..............................................................324
1.3. Continuity in past...................................................................324
2. MARAS....................................................................................325
46. Modal Particles..............................................................................326
1. Introduction.............................................................................326
2. Inventory...............................................................................326
2.1. fa...................................................................................326
2.2. dai..................................................................................327
2.3. kuma.................................................................................327
2.4. ma...................................................................................327
2.5. kdwa...............................................................................328
2.6. k m................................................................................329
3. Multiple Modal Particles................................................................329
4. Syntactic Position of Occurrence........................................................330
4.1. Verbal sentences...................................................................330
4.2. Indirect objects...................................................................332
4.3. Question words.....................................................................332
4.4. Existential and presentational sentences...........................................333
4.5. Topicalization.....................................................................333
Contents xix
4.6. Complementation........................................................................333
4.7. Within an NP...........................................................................333
4.8. Adverbials and exclamations............................................................334
47. Mutuality......................................................................................335
1. Mutuality-1: -ayya)LHL.....................................................................335
2. Mutuality-2: -eCeniya)^PPLH................................................................336
2.1. Variant with gemination................................................................336
3. Comparison of Mutuality-1 and Mutuality-2..................................................336
48. Names (Proper Nouns)...........................................................................338
1. Personal Names.............................................................................338
1.1. Birth names (sunan yanka)..............................................................338
1.2. Gender.................................................................................339
1.3. Short forms............................................................................341
1.4. Plurals of names.......................................................................342
1.5. Everyday names: Morphophonological shape...............................................342
1.5.1. Vowel shortening of common nouns...................................................343
1.5.2. Suffix -au.........................................................................343
1.5.3. The genitive na/ta + N ............................................................343
1.5.4. The formative m i + N..............................................................344
1.5.5. Compounds with (fan................................................................344
1.5.6. Verb-based compounds...............................................................344
1.6. Everyday names: Semantic/pragmatic characteristics................................... 344
1.6.1. Day names..........................................................................345
1.6.2. Names relating to other times.................................................... 345
1.6.3. Names relating to birth sequence and related events................................345
1.6.4. Names relating to physical features................................................346
1.6.5. Names derived from titles, occupations, and kin terms..............................346
1.6.6. Names indicating ethnicity or place of origin......................................346
1.6.7. Names with fixed associations......................................................347
1.7. Nicknames..............................................................................347
1.8. Hypocoristics..........................................................................347
1.8.1. Suffixal reduplication -:CV)^PP....................................................348
1.8.2. Suffix -:tl)LHH....................................................................348
1.8.3. Suffix -alo)H = -aIa)H.............................................................348
1.8.4. Suffix (-lle)H.....................................................................349
1.8.5. Suffix -(:)Ie......................................................................349
1.8.6. Suffix -ndi........................................................................349
1.8.7. Suffix (-awa)LH....................................................................349
1.8.8. Double hypocoristics...............................................................350
1.9. Surnames...............................................................................350
1.10. Titles................................................................................350
1.10.1. Tone change H-L — L-L...........................................................351
1.10.2. Vowel shortening.............................................*...................351
1.10.3. Lack of final vowel...............•’.............................................352
1.10.4. No change.........................................................................352
1.10.5. Titles vs. compounds..............................................................352
2. Place Names................................................................................352
2.1. Unanalyzable names.....................................................................353
xx Contents
2.2. Analyzable names......................................................................353
2.2.1. Common noun names..................................................................353
2.2.2. Derivatives with the suffix -awá..................................................354
2.2.3. Derivatives with locational ma-....................................................354
2.2.4. Compounds with cfan / ’yan...................... .................................354
2.2.5. Adjective + noun compounds.........................................................355
2.2.6. Noun of noun compounds.............................................................355
2.3. Foreign names........................................................................355
3. Temporal Names............................................................................355
49. Negation......................................................................................357
1. Negative with TAMs other than the Continuous and Subjunctive (bá(a)...ba)................357
2. Negative in the Continuous (bá)...........................................................360
3. Negative of Existential and HAVE Sentences (bábü / bá)....................................361
4. Negative of Equational Sentences, NPs, Adverbs (bá...ba)..................................362
4.1. Predicate negation....................................................................362
4.2. Adverbs, prepositional phrases, NPs...................................................362
4.3. Sentence negation.....................................................................363
4.4. Negation and focus....................................................................364
5. Prohibitive Marker used in the Subjunctive (kadá/kár)....................................364
50. Noun Derivation by Affixation: An Overview....................................................366
1. Abstract Nouns............................................................................366
2. Languages/Attributes......................................................................366
3. Agent/Location/Instrument.................................................................366
3.1. Agent: ma-...-I ......................................................................366
3.2. Location: ma-...-á / ma-...-I.........................................................367
3.3. Instrument: ma-...-I..................................................................367
4. Ethnonyms.................................................................................367
5. Abstract Nouns of Sensory Quality (ANSQ)..................................................367
6. Mutuality.................................................................................367
6.1. Subtype mutuality-1: -ayya)LHL........................................................367
6.2. Subtype mutuality-2: -éCéniyá)LH^L^...................................................368
7. Sounds and Movement..................................................................... 368
7.1. Related ideophones...................................................................368
8. Systems/Eras..............................................................................368
9. Associated Characteristics................................................................368
10. Games and Activities.....................................................................369
51. Noun Phrase: Structure and Word Order.....................................................370
1. The Head..................................................................................370
2. Prenominal Elements.......................................................................370
2.1. Specifiers...........................................................................370
2.2. Adjectives......................................................................... 371
3. Postnominal Elements......................................................................371
3.1. Postnominal specifiers...............................................................372
3.1.1. Definite article.................................................................372
3.1.2. Demonstrative determiners........................................................372
3.1.3. Possessives......................................................................372
3.1.4. Numerals and other quantiñers....................................................373
3.2. Postnominal modifiers................................................................373
Contents xxi
3.2. L Adjectives.......................................................................374
3.2.2. The words indicating ‘different (kinds)’.........................................374
3.2.3. Genitival nouns..................................................................374
3.2.4. The MAI construction (and its negative counterparts).............................374
3.2.5. The comparative modifier construction............................................375
3.2.6. Prepositional phrases............................................................375
3.2.7. Stative phrases..................................................................375
3.2.8. Relative clauses.................................................................376
3.2.9. The wai construction.............................................................376
52. Noun Subcategorization.......................................................................377
1. Nondynamic................................................................................377
1.1. Concrete nouns.......................................................................377
1.2. Abstract nouns.......................................................................377
2. Dynamic..................................................................................378
53. Numerals and Other Quantifiers...............................................................379
1. Numerals..................................................................................379
1.1. Cardinal numbers.....................................................................379
1.2. Enumerators..........................................................................381
1.3. Distributives...................................................................... 381
1.4. Nouns with numerals (and other quantifiers)..........................................382
1.5. Numerals with pronouns ..............................................................382
1.6. Word order with attributive quantifiers..............................................382
1.7. Unit measures with noncount nouns....................................................383
1.8. Numerals as equational predicates....................................................384
1.9. Coordination and numerals............................................................385
1.10. Ordinals............................................................................386
1.11. Times/multiples.....................................................................387
1.12. Modifying/emphasizing numerals......................................................387
1.13. Numerals as nouns...................................................................387
1.14. Numerals as pro-forms...............................................................388
2. All......................................................................................388
2.1. Determiner...........................................................................388
2.2. Pronoun..............................................................................389
2.3. Adverbial ...........................................................................390
3. Other Quantifiers........................................................................390
54. Phonology....................................................................................392
1. Phonological Inventory....................................................................392
1.1. Consonants...........................................................................392
1.1.1. The twoR’s.......................................................................394
1.1.2. Glides/semivowels................................................................395
1.1.3. Geminates........................................................................397
1.2. Vowels...............................................................................398
1.2.1. Vowel length.....................................................................400
1.2.2. Half-long vowels with glottal stop...............................................401
1.2.3. Diphthongs.......................................................................402
1.3. Tone.................................................................................403
2. Syllable Structure and Phonotactic Constraints......................................... 403
2.1. Coda consonants......................................................................404
xxii Contents
2.1.1. Nasal diphthongs.....................................................................405
3. Syllable Weight...............................................................................407
3.1. Falling tone..............................................................................407
3.2. Canonical shape...........................................................................407
3.3. Rhythmic weight polarity..................................................................408
3.4. Syllable weight and tone..................................................................408
4. Word Structure...............................................................................408
4.1. Number of syllables.......................................................................409
4.2. Final vowel length........................................................................409
5. Phonotactic Co-occurrence Restrictions........................................................410
5.1. Sonorants.................................................................................410
5.2. Globalized consonants.....................................................................410
5.3. High vowels...............................................................................411
6. (Morpho)Phonological Processes and Alternations...............................................412
6.1. Syllable-final nasals...............................................................%....412
6.1.1. Assimilation to position.............................................................412
6.1.2. Full assimilation of /n/ to liquids..................................................413
6.2. Rhotacism.................................................................................413
6.3. Gemination................................................................................413
6.4. Palatalization............................................................................414
6.4.1. Palatalization as an active process..................................................414
6.4.2. Sporadic anticipatory palatalization ................................................417
6.4.3. Depalatalization.....................................................................417
6.5. Labialization.............................................................................417
6.6. Alternation of /f/ and /h/................................................................418
6.6.1. f —» h...............................................................................418
6.6.2. Recovered /f/........................................................................419
6.7. Vowel assimilation........................................................................419
6.8. Metathesis................................................................................420
6.9. Clipping, apocopation, contraction.......................................................421
6.9.1. Clipping.............................................................................421
6.9.2. Apocopation..........................................................................421
6.9.3. Contraction..........................................................................422
55. Pluractional Verbs...............................................................................423
1. Active Pluractionals.........................................................................423
1.1. Basic form: Préfixai reduplication.......................................................424
1.1.1. Ci VG-...............................................................................424
1.1.2. CiVC2-...............................................................................425
1.1.3. Tone.................................................................................425
1.2. Alternative archaic form: Antepenultimate reduplication..................................427
1.3. Difference in meaning between the two formations.........................................428
2. Frozen Pluractionals.........................................................................429
56. Plurals..........................................................................................430
1. Class 1: -OXI)H..............................................................................432
1.1. Plural type -ôCl)^.......................................................................432
1.2. Plural type ................................................432
2. Class 2: -ai)LH..............................................................................433
2.1. Plural type -ai)Lii......................................................................434
Contents xxiii
2.1.1. Gemination......................................................................... 435
2.1.2. Nasal insertion..................................................................... 435
2.2. Plural type -a...-ai)LH...................................................................436
2.3. Plural type -aiCai)HLH....................................................................437
3. Class 3: -aXe)HLH..............................................................................437
3.1. Plural type -aCe)^LH......................................................................437
3.2. Plural type -aye)HLH......................................................................438
3.3. Plural type -a-e)HLH......................................................................439
4. Class 4: -{a)Xa)HLH............................................................................441
4.1. Plural type -Ga)^LH.......................................................................441
4.2. Plural type -aCa)HLH......................................................................442
4.3. Plural type -a-a)HLH......................................................................442
4.4. Plural type -a)^^.........................................................................443
5. Class 5: -aXu)HLH..............................................................................443
5.1. Plural type -a-u)^^.......................................................................443
5.2. Plural type -aCu)^^.......................................................................444
6. Class 6: -uXa)HL............................................................................. 444
6.1. Plural type -una)H^.......................................................................444
6.2. Plural type -uka)^........................................................................445
6.3. Plural type -uwa)HL.......................................................................446
6.4. Plural type -u-a)^L.......................................................................447
6.5. Plural type -uCCa)HL......................................................................448
6.6. Plural type -a)^..........................................................................448
7. Class 7: -aX ^H................................................................................448
7.1. Plural type -annl)LH......................................................................448
7.2. Plural type -aCCl.)LH.....................................................................449
7.3. Plural type -a(i)kU)LH....................................................................449
7.4. Plural type -a-I)LH.......................................................................449
8. Class 8: (...)-aXI)HLHH........................................................................450
8.1. Plural type -eC3anI)HLHH..................................................................450
8.2. Plural type -eC3aC4l)HLHH.................................................................450
8.2.1. Dual type -aC3VC4I)H1 HH..............................................................451
8.3. Plural type -CVC-...-akl)HLHH.............................................................451
8.4. Plural type -CVC-...-a l)HLHH.............................................................451
9. Class 9: -U/-I)LH..............................................................................452
9.1. Plural type -u)LI^ .......................................................................452
9.2. Plural type -1)LH.........................................................................453
10. Class 10: -Va =* -Vp..........................................................................453
10.1. Plural type -V (-u)**..................................................................453
10.2. Plural type-V = (-I)H..................................................................454
10.3. Plural type -V = (-a!)**...............................................................455
10.4. Plural type-V =» -a)H ..................................................................455
11. Class 11: -awa)kH~HH..........................................................................456
12. Class 12: x2 (redup)..........................................................................457
13. Class 13: -e)LH x2 (redup)....................................................................458
14. Class 14: x 2)H L (redup)................................................................... 458
14.1. Plural type -a x 2)H“L (redup).........................................................458
14.2. Plural type x 2)H L (redup).............................................................. 458
xxiv Contents
15. Class 15: CiCl x 2)H H.......................
16. Miscellaneous................................
17. Associative Plural su........................
18. Homophonous Plurals..........................
19. Alternative Plurals.............................
20. Double Plurals..............................
21. Erstwhile Plurals...........................
22. Singular Forms with Plural Meaning and Concord
22.1. Words without morphological plurals.....
22.2. Singulars with numerals.................
22.3. Collectives.............................
22.4. Generic nouns...........................
57. Prepositions.....................................
1. Basic Prepositions............................
1.1. Complex prepositions......................
2. Genitive Prepositions.........................
3. Preposition Stranding.........................
58. Pro-Verb yi......................................
1. Main Verb.....................................
2. Pro-Verb......................................
2.1. Dummy verb do.............................
2.2. Anaphoric replacement verb.................
3. yi deletion..................................
59. Pronouns.........................................
1. Personal Pronouns.............................
1.1. Non-subject pronouns......................
1.1.1. Independent pronouns................
1.1.2. Strong object pronouns..............
1.1.3. Weak object pronouns................
1.1.4. Indirect objects....................
1.1.5. Free possessives....................
1.1.6. Bound genitive pronouns.............
1.1.7. Reflexives..........................
1.1.8. Reciprocals.........................
1.2. Weak subject pronouns...................
1.2.1. Introduction........................
1.2.2. The impersonal......................
1.2.3. Heavy and light wsp paradigms.......
2. Non-Personal Pronouns.......................
60. Questions......................................
1. Q-Word Questions............................
1.1. Inventory...............................
1.1.1. Who?................................
1.1.2. What?...............................
1.1.3. Which?/Which one?...................
1.1.4. Where?..............................
1.1.5. When?...............................
1.1.6. How?................................
459
459
460
461
461
462
463
464
464
464
.464
.465
466
466
470
470
.471
.473
.473
.473
.473
.474
.474
.476
.476
.476
.477
.478
.479
.480
.481
.482
..485
..485
..485
..485
..486
..486
..487
..488
..488
.. 488
..488
..490
..490
..491
..491
... 492
Contents xxv
1.1.7. How many? How much?.................................................................492
1.1.8. Why?................................................................................492
1.2 The q-morpheme..........................................................................493
1.3. Word order..............................................................................493
2. Yes/No Questions............................................................................496
2.1. The q-morpheme..........................................................................497
2.2. Question intonation.....................................................................497
2.2.1. The “classic” pattern...............................................................497
2.2.2. The final raising pattern...........................................................498
2.3. Sentence-final interrogative tags ......................................................499
2.4. Sentence-initial interrogative words....................................................500
2.4.1. ko..................................................................................500
2.4.2. anya................................................................................501
2.4.3. shin................................................................................501
3. Indirect Questions..........................................................................501
61. Reason and Purpose..............................................................................503
1. Reason (‘because’)..........................................................................503
2. Reason (‘since’)............................................................................504
2.1. Basic formation.........................................................................504
2.2. Reduction of tun d yak ................................................................504
2.3. Subject fronting (topicalization).......................................................505
3. Purpose (‘in order to’).....................................................................506
62. Reduplication...................................................................................508
1. Function and Degree of Productivity.........................................................508
1.1. Active reduplication....................................................................508
1.2. Frozen (vestigial) reduplication........................................................509
2. Nature of the (Morpho)Phonological Process..................................................509
2.1. Pseudoreduplication.....................................................................511
3. Reduplicated Nouns (Lexically Frozen).......................................................511
3.1. Two-syllable reduplication to the right.................................................511
3.1.1. Segmental adjustments...............................................................512
3.1.2. Tone classes........................................................................513
3.2. One-syllable reduplication to the right............................................... 514
3.2.1. S)-S2-S2)LHL........................................................................514
3.2.2. Si-Si-Si)HLH.................................................................... 515
3.2.3. One-syllable reduplication to the right plus feminative suffix -ya / -wa............515
3.3. CVC plus suffix.........................................................................515
3.4. Full reduplication......................................................................516
3.4.1. x 2 with short final vowels.........................................................516
3.4.2. x 2 (consonant final)...............................................................516
3.5. Full (disyllabic) reduplication with LL-HL tone melody..................................516
4. Reduplicated Verbs (Lexically Frozen).......................................................518
4.1. Frozen pluractionals....................................................................518
4.1.1. Basic formation.....................................................................518
4.1.2. Anomalous nasal.....................................................................519
4.1.3. Short vowel.........................................................................519
4.1.4. Geminate/II/........................................................................520
4.2. Frozen reduplicates: C(x-Ca-C- and C-Cp-Cp- ............................................520
xxvi Contents
4.2.1 Pattern 1: CaaCaVCV(V)..........................................................520
4.2.2. Pattern 2: CVCpaCpV(V).........................................................521
63. Reflexives and Reciprocals................................................................522
1. Reflexives.............................................................................522
1.1. Basic reflexives..................................................................522
1.1.1. Inclusive reflexives...........................................................524
1.1.2. Nonreflexive coreferential pronouns............................................524
1.1.3. “Pseudo-emphatic” reflexives...................................................526
1.2. Emphatic reflexives................................................................. 527
2. Reciprocals...........................................................................529
64. Relative Clauses..........................................................................532
1. Basic Formation........................................................................532
2. Definite Article......................................................................533
3. The Relativizer and Relative Pronouns/Adverbs.........................................534
4. Generic Relatives.....................................................................536
5. Rel TAMs (Tense-Aspect-Mood Markers)..................................................536
6. Coreferential NPs: Deletion or Resumptive Pronoun.....................................537
7. Deeply Embedded NPs...................................................................538
8. Conjoined Relative Clauses............................................................539
9. Relative Clause Extraposition.........................................................540
10. Extended Relative Clauses............................................................540
11. Restrictive vs. Nonrestrictive.......................................................541
65. Sentence Types............................................................................543
1. Tensed Sentences.......................................................................543
1.1. Verbal sentences..................................................................543
1.2. Tensed nonverbal sentences........................................................543
2. Nontensed Sentences...................................................................544
2.1. Imperative sentences..............................................................544
2.2. Nonverbal sentences...............................................................544
66. Stabilizer ne / ce........................................................................545
1. Form...................................................................................545
2. Function..............................................................................545
2.1. Equational sentences..............................................................545
2.2. Focus marker.................................................................... 546
2.3. Reinforcement marker..............................................................546
3. ke nan................................................................................547
67. Statives..................................................................................549
1. Form................................................................................. 549
2. Function..............................................................................550
2.1. Predicates in “stative sentences”............................................... 550
2.1.1. Sociatives.....................................................................552
2.1.2. Focus..........................................................................552
2.2. Modifiers.........................................................................553
68. Systems and Eras (Suffix -iyya)...........................................................555
69. Temporal Clauses..........................................................................556
1. When..................................................................................556
1.1. Clause with d ‘when / (time) that ...............................................556
1.2. Clause with idan ‘if/when’........................................................557
Contents xxvii
2. Close Temporal Succession...............................................................558
2.1. Clause formed with d (zarar).......................................................558
2.2. Clause formed with ko d ............................................................558
2.3. Clause plus ke nan..................................................................559
2.4. Clause plus ke d wilya.............................................................559
2.5. Phrase formed with d plus verbal noun or infinitive ............................. 559
3. While, As........................................................................... 560
3.1. Conjoined clauses...................................................................560
3.2. Clause formed with tun.............................................................560
4. Until / Not Until / Up Until...........................................................560
5. After................................................................................ 561
6. Before.................................................................................561
6.1. The conjunction kafin ‘before’......................................................561
6.2. Construction with tun ‘since’.......................................................562
7. Since (Temporal).......................................................................562
70. Tense/Aspect/Mood (TAM)....................................................................564
1. The Person-Aspect Complex (PAC).........................................................564
1.1. Optional omission of the wsp........................................................564
2. The General / Relative / Negative Trichotomy............................................567
3. The Continuous /Noncontinuous Dichotomy.................................................568
4. Completive..............................................................................569
5. Preterite (Rel-Completive)..............................................................571
6. Negative-completive.....................................................................574
7. Continuous............................................................................ 575
7.1. Verbal.............................................................................576
7.2. Nonverbal..........................................................................577
8. Relative-continuous 1...................................................................578
9. Relative-continuous2....................................................................579
9.1. The WH aG form......................................................................581
10. Negative-continuous....................................................................581
11. Negative-HAVE..........................................................................582
12. Future.................................................................................584
13. Allative............................................................................. 585
14. Potential..............................................................................586
15. Rhetorical.............................................................................588
16. Habitual...............................................................................590
17. Subjunctive..........................................................*................591
18. Neutral (Unmarked Form)................................................................593
71. Tone and Intonation........................................................................597
1. Tonal Inventory.........................................................................597
1.1. Falling tone........................................................................597
1.1.1. Falling tone simplification....................................................598
1.2. Absence of rising tone..............................................................599
2. Function of Tone........................................................................599
3. Tone Domain, Tone Melodies, Tone Assignment.............................................600
3.1. Tone-bearing unit..................................................................600
3.2. Tone melodies......................................................................600
3.3. Tone-integrating suffixes..........................................................600
xxviii Contents
3.4. Tonal polarity........................................................................602
3.5. Toneless morphemes....................................................................603
4. Tone Preservation / Floating Tones.......................................................603
4.1. Creation and attachment of floating tones.............................................603
4.2. Underlying floating tones.............................................................604
4.3. Clipping vs. apocopation..............................................................604
5. Canonical Patterns.......................................................................605
5.1. Monosyllabic words....................................................................605
5.2. Disyllabic and polysyllabic words.....................................................605
5.2.1. L-L tone..........................................................................606
5.2.2. Falling tone......................................................................606
6. Dialect Features of Western Hausa........................................................607
6.1. Replacement of final L-L..............................................................607
6.1.1. Final L-L (short) corresponds to L-H /_# Katsina ................................607
6.1.2. Final L-L (heavy) L-F /___# Sokoto ............................................609
6.2. Falling tone simplification...........................................................609
6.2.1. F-H simplification Sokoto .......................................................610
6.2.2 Monosyllabic F -» L rule Maradi ..................................................610
7. The Rule of Low-Tone Raising (LTR).......................................................611
8. Tone / Segment Interaction...............................................................611
9. Intonation...............................................................................612
9.1. Neutral/declarative...................................................................612
9.2. Interrogative.........................................................................613
9.3. Sympathetic address...................................................................613
9.4. Vocative..............................................................................614
72. Topicalization...............................................................................615
1. Introduction.............................................................................615
2. Form and Structure.......................................................................616
3. Multiple Topics..........................................................................617
4. Role of the Topic........................................................................617
4.1. Deletion or pronominalization of underlying topic.....................................617
5. Part of Speech...........................................................................619
6. Special Topic Constructions..............................................................620
6.1. The construction ¿drinks d NP.......................................................620
6.2. The construction NP (possessive) d pronoun..........................................620
7. Topic and Focus..........................................................................620
73. Universals and Generic Relatives (ko- forms)................................................622
1. Form.....................................................................................622
2. Meaning/Function.........................................................................623
2.1. Universal pro-forms.................................................................623
2.1.1. Negation.........................................................................623
2.2. Generic relatives...................................................................624
3. Phrasal Nature of ko- forms............................................................625
74. Verb Grades..................................................................................627
1. General Discussion......................................................................627
1.1. Primary grades......................................................................628
1.2. Secondary grades....................................................................629
1.3. Irregular verbs.....................................................................629
Contents xxix
2. Grade 0: Basic Monotonal Verbs.....................................................................630
2.1. Form..........................................................................................630
2.2. Meaning and function..........................................................................631
3. Grade 1: Basic Verbs, Applicatives, Actor-Intransitives............................................632
3.1. Form..........................................................................................632
3.2. Meaning and function..........................................................................633
3.2.1. Basic verbs...............................................................................633
3.2.2. Applicatives..............................................................................634
3.2.3. Intransitives.............................................................................636
3.2.4. Sociatives................................................................................637
4. Grade 2: Basic Transitive Verbs and Partitives................................................... 637
4.1. Form..........................................................................................637
4.2. Meaning and function..........................................................................640
4.2.1. Basic verbs............................................................................. 641
4.2.2. Partitive/displacive......................................................................642
4.2.3. Figurative/metaphorical..................................................................643
5. Grade 3: Basic Intransitives.......................................................................643
5.1. Form..........................................................................................643
5.2. Meaning and function..........................................................................644
6. Grade 3a : Basic Intransitives (H-H)...............................................................645
6.1. Form..........................................................................................645
6.2. Meaning and function..........................................................................646
7. Grade 3b: Basic Intransitives (H-L)................................................................646
7.1. Form..........................................................................................646
7.2. Meaning and function..........................................................................647
8. Grade 4: Totality /Finality........................................................................647
8.1. Form..........................................................................................647
8.2. Meaning and function..........................................................................648
8.2.1. Totality/finality.........................................................................648
8.2.2. Deprivative/separative....................................................................649
8.2.3. Intransitive..............................................................................650
8.2.4. Neutral/unmarked (semantic devaluation)............................................. 650
9. Grade 5: Efferential...............................................................................651
9.1. Form..........................................................................................651
9.1.1. The short-form grade 5....................................................................652
9.1.2. The -she form.............................................................................653
9.1.3. Dialect variants..........................................................................654
9.2. Meaning and function..........................................................................655
9.2.1. Action away in a directional sense........................................................655
9.2.2. Action away in a conceptual sense.........................................................655
9.2.3. Semantically empty, stylistic preference..................................................656
9.2.4. Transitivizer.............................................................................656
9.3. Syntactic structure...........................................................................657
9.3.1. Grade 5 with indirect objects.............................................................659
9.3.2. Grade 5 and double objects................................................................660
10. Grade 5d: Decausative.............................................................................660
10.1. Form.........................................................................................660
11. Grade 6: Ventive..................................................................................663
xxx Contents
11.L Form......................................................................................661
11.2. Meaning and function.....................................................................663
1L3. Ventive plus efferential..................................................................663
12. Grade 7: Sustentative.......................................................................664
12.1. Form......................................................................................664
12.2. Meaning and function......................................................................665
12.2.1. Patient-oriented grade 7 (“passive”)..................................................665
12.2.2. Actor/experiencer-oriented grade 7....................................................668
13. The -K- Extension (Dialectal)................................................................670
13.1. Form: -K- extension plus totality.........................................................670
13.2. Meaning and function......................................................................670
13.3. Form: -K- extension plus efferential......................................................671
13.4. Meaning and function......................................................................672
14. Irregular Verbs..............................................................................672
15. Clipped Verbs................................................................................676
16. The Origin of the Grade System: A Historical Perspective....................................677
16.1. The grade system and its flaws............................................................677
16.2. Historical vowel-class / extension (VCE) model............................................678
16.2.1. Basic verb classes....................................................................679
16.2.2. Extensions............................................................................680
16.2.3. Grade system and VCE system contrasted................................................681
75. Verb Subcategorization.............................................................................683
1. Transitive Verbs..............................................................................683
1.1. Neutral/unmarked..........................................................................683
1.2. Phrasal VPs with yi ldo’ + a dynamic noun.................................................683
1.3. Applicatives...............................................................................684
1.4. Three-place verbs with i.o.................................................................684
1.5. Double object verbs ......................................................................685
2. Intransitive Verbs............................................................................687
2.1. Intransitives with actor/undergoer subject.................................................687
2.2. Intransitives with patient subject (“unaccusatives”).......................................688
2.3. Intransitives with affected subject (“passives”) and lexical reflexives....................688
3. Dative Verbs..................................................................................688
4. Sociative Verbs...............................................................................689
5. Efferential Verbs (Grade 5)...................................................................691
5.1. Differences between sociatives and efferentials............................................691
5.2. Grade 5/6 ventive/efferential verbs........................................................693
76. Verb Suffixes: Historical Remnants.................................................................694
L -y .............................................................................................694
2. -k ...........................................................................................695
3. -ga...........................................................................................696
4. -n ...........................................................................................696
5. -1 ...........................................................................................697
6. -sa...........................................................................................697
7. -cfa..........................................................................................698
8. -ta...........................................................................................698
77. Verbal Nouns.......................................................................................699
1. Verbal Nouns...................................................................................699
Contents xxxi
1.1. Finite vs. nonfinite VP environments....................................................699
1.1.1. Finite verb phrase environment......................................................700
1.1.2. Nonfinite verb phrase environment...................................................700
1.2. Weak vs. strong VNs.....................................................................700
1.3. Stem-derived vs. base-derived verbal nouns..............................................701
1.3.1. Stem-derived verbal nouns (SDVN)....................................................701
1.3.2. Base-derived verbal nouns (BDVN).................................................. 702
2. Deverbal Nouns..............................................................................704
3. The Form of Verbal Nouns and Deverbal Nouns.................................................704
3.1. Weak verbal nouns with -wa..............................................................704
3.1.1. Verbal nouns of grade 7.............................................................705
3.1.2. Simplification of the falling tone (dialect variants)...............................706
3.2. Non -wa stem-derived verbal nouns.......................................................706
3.2.1. 0 (grade 2).........................................................................706
3.2.2. Grade switching (grade 2)...........................................................708
3.2.3. :) (grade 3)........................................................................709
3.2.4. Grade switching (grade 3)...........................................................709
3.2.5. -a (grade 3b).......................................................................710
3.2.6. -:)L (grade 0)......................................................................710
3.3. Base-derived verbal nouns (BDVN)........................................................711
3.3.1. Class 1:-1..........................................................................711
3.3.2. Class 2: -0.........................................................................712
3.3.3. Class 3: -e.........................................................................713
3.3.4. Class 4: -o.........................................................................713
3.3.5. Class 5: -a.........................................................................714
3.3.6. Class 6: Ablaut)**1 (I...-a /u...-a)...............................................714
3.3.7. Class 7: -iya and -uwa..............................................................715
3.4. Multiple BDVNs..........................................................................717
78. Verbal Sentences: Simple Syntax.................................................................718
1. Subject.....................................................................................718
2. Person-Aspec Complex (PAC)..................................................................719
3. Verb Phrase (VP)............................................................................719
3.1. Objects............................................................................... 720
3.2. Locative goals..........................................................................720
3.3. VP modifiers............................................................................720
3.3.1. Post-VERB modifiers.................................................................720
3.3.2. Pre-VERB modifiers................................................................ 721
79. Verbalizer -TA..................................................................................722
1. Form........................................................................................722
1.1. -Vnta...................................................................................722
1.2. -(a)ta..................................................................................723
1.2.1. ....................................................................................723
1.2.2. -a(a)ta.............................................................................724
2. Verbalization of Verbal Nouns and Deverbal Nouns........................................ 725
3. Alternative Forms...........................................................................725
80. Writing Systems: Orthography.................................................................. 726
1. Introduction................................................................................726
2. Roman Script (boko).........................................................................726
xxxii Contents
2.1. Inventory............................................................................726
2.2. Spelling rules.......................................................................728
2.3. Word divisions.......................................................................728
2.4. Capitalization and punctuation.......................................................729
3. Arabic Script ( j mi)....................................................................729
3.1. Alphabet.............................................................................729
3.2. Sample texts.........................................................................735
3.2.1. Ajami text from Robinson.........................................................735
3.2.2. Ajami text from Rattray .........................................................738
Bibliography.....................................................................................741
Index............................................................................................755
|
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| dewey-sort | 3493 3725 |
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| discipline | Außereuropäische Sprachen und Literaturen Literaturwissenschaft |
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| id | DE-604.BV013068491 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T18:38:33Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 0300081898 9780300081893 |
| language | English |
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| physical | XXXIX, 760 S. graph. Darst., Kt. |
| publishDate | 2000 |
| publishDateSearch | 2000 |
| publishDateSort | 2000 |
| publisher | Yale Univ. Press |
| record_format | marc |
| series2 | Yale language series |
| spelling | Newman, Paul 1937- Verfasser (DE-588)124555039 aut The Hausa language an encyclopedic reference grammar Paul Newman New Haven [u.a.] Yale Univ. Press 2000 XXXIX, 760 S. graph. Darst., Kt. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Yale language series Haoussa (langue) - Grammaire ram Hausa (taal) gtt Grammatik Hausa language Grammar Hausa-Sprache (DE-588)4120193-0 gnd rswk-swf Grammatik (DE-588)4021806-5 gnd rswk-swf Hausa-Sprache (DE-588)4120193-0 s Grammatik (DE-588)4021806-5 s DE-604 Digitalisierung UB Regensburg - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=008903277&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Newman, Paul 1937- The Hausa language an encyclopedic reference grammar Haoussa (langue) - Grammaire ram Hausa (taal) gtt Grammatik Hausa language Grammar Hausa-Sprache (DE-588)4120193-0 gnd Grammatik (DE-588)4021806-5 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4120193-0 (DE-588)4021806-5 |
| title | The Hausa language an encyclopedic reference grammar |
| title_auth | The Hausa language an encyclopedic reference grammar |
| title_exact_search | The Hausa language an encyclopedic reference grammar |
| title_full | The Hausa language an encyclopedic reference grammar Paul Newman |
| title_fullStr | The Hausa language an encyclopedic reference grammar Paul Newman |
| title_full_unstemmed | The Hausa language an encyclopedic reference grammar Paul Newman |
| title_short | The Hausa language |
| title_sort | the hausa language an encyclopedic reference grammar |
| title_sub | an encyclopedic reference grammar |
| topic | Haoussa (langue) - Grammaire ram Hausa (taal) gtt Grammatik Hausa language Grammar Hausa-Sprache (DE-588)4120193-0 gnd Grammatik (DE-588)4021806-5 gnd |
| topic_facet | Haoussa (langue) - Grammaire Hausa (taal) Grammatik Hausa language Grammar Hausa-Sprache |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=008903277&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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