Electric contacts: theory and applications
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| adam_text | RAGNAR HOLM
ELECTRIC CONTACTS
THEORY AND APPLICATIONS
REPRINT
OF THE FOURTH COMPLETELY REWRITTEN EDITION 1967,
3RD PRINTING 2000
WITH A NEW PREFACE BY J. BRIAN P. WILLIAMSON
SPRINGER
CONTENTS
PAGE
LIST OF FREQUENTLY USED SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS XIII
PART I
STATIONARY CONTACTS
§ 1. INTRODUCTION. A SIMPLIFIED SUMMARY OF THE THEORY OF STATIONARY
ELECTRIC
CONTACTS 1
§ 2. THE CONTACT SURFACE 7
§ 3. THE CONTACT RESISTANCE. GENERAL THEORY 9
§ 4. CALCULATION OF CONSTRICTION RESISTANCES WITH CONSTANT RESISTIVITY Q
IN AN
ISOTROPIC MATERIAL 11
PROBLEM A. 13 - PROBLEM B. 14 - PROBLEM C. CONSTRICTION RESISTANCE OF AN
ELLIPTIC SPOT. 14 - PROBLEM D. 15 - PROBLEM E. 17 - PROBLEM F. THE IN-
FLUENCE OF THE ELLIPTIC SHAPE OF THE CONTACT AREA ON THE CONSTRICTION
RESIST-
ANCE EXPRESSED BY A SHAPE FACTOR. 18
§ 5. CONSTRICTION RESISTANCES *WHEN CONDITIONS DEVIATE FROM THOSE IN §
4, BUT
WITH Q STILL A CONSTANT 19
PROBLEM A. 20 * PROBLEM B. THE CONSTRICTION RESISTANCE OF ONE MEMBER
WHEN THE A-SPOT IS COVERED WITH A FILM. 20 - PROBLEM C. MULTISPOT
METALLIC
CONTACT REFERRED TO A SEMI-INFINITE MEMBER. 21 * PROBLEM D. 23 * PROBLEM
E. 24 - PROBLEM F. 24 - PROBLEM G. DISTORTED CONSTRICTIONS. 25 - PROBLEM
H. 26 - PROBLEM I. 26
§ 6. INTRODUCTION TO THIN FILMS ON CONTACTS. CONTACT CLEANING 27
§ 7. THE LOAD BEARING CONTACT AREA AS A FUNCTION OF LOAD AND ELASTIC AND
PLASTIC
PROPERTIES OF THE MEMBERS 29
A. INTRODUCTION. 29 - B. FLAT CONTACT. 30 - C. EXPERIMENTAL
DETERMINATION
OF A
B
. 32 - D. PERSISTENCE OF ASPERITIES IN INDENTATIONS. 37 - E. INFLUENCE
OF TEMPERATURE AND CONTACT DURATION ON THE CONTACT AREA. 37 - F. SPECIAL
APPLICATION OF EQ. (1,23) CONCERNING CREEP IN CONTACTS. 39
§ 8. THE RELATION BETWEEN CONTACT LOAD AND RESISTANCE, PARTICULARLY AT
MODERATE
AND HIGH LOAD 40
A. INTRODUCTION WITH DESCRIPTION OF FIG. (8.01). 40 - B. CROSSED ROD
CON-
TACTS. 42 - C. EXPLANATION OF THE DASHED LINES IN FIG. (8.01). 44 - D.
DI-
VERSIFIED RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS. 46 - E. USE OF DIAGRAM (8.01) IN
PRAC-
TICE. 47 - F. PRACTICALLY CLEAN CONTACTS, PRELOADED WITH A HIGH P. 47
§ 9. CONTACT RESISTANCE ON FRESHLY CLEANED RODS IN AIR AT VERY SMALL
CONTACT LOADS 48
A. OBSERVATIONS ON GOLD AND SILVER. 48 - B. OBSERVATIONS ON CARBON CON-
TACTS. 50 - C. METHOD OF WIRE PROBES FOR EXPLORING CONTACT SURFACES. 52
VI CONTENTS
§ 10. THE INDUCTANCE OF A CURRENT CONSTRICTION. SKIN EFFECT 52
A. INDUCTANCE. 52 - B. THE SKIN EFFECT. 54
§ 11. ELECTRODYNAMIC REPULSION IN A SYMMETRIC CONTACT OF NON-MAGNETIC
MATERIAL 55
§ 12. THE CAPACITANCE OF A CONTACT. ELECTROSTATIC ATTRACTION IN A
CONTACT 57
EXAMPLE A. CROSSED ROD METALLIC CONTACT. 58 - EXAMPLE B. 59 - EX-
AMPLE C. JOHNSEN-RAHBEK EFFECT. 59
§ 13. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND TEMPERATURE IN A
CURRENT
CONSTRICTION WHICH IS SYMMETRIC WITH RESPECT TO THE CONTACT SURFACE;
THAT
IS, THE ^-RELATION 60
A. INTRODUCTION. 60 - B. PROOF OF THE (P ^-RELATION IN A SYMMETRIC CON-
STRICTION. 61. C. JUSTIFICATION OF ASSUMPTIONS. 63 - D. THE PTF-RELATION
IN METALLIC CONSTRICTIONS. 63
§ 14. THE Y#-RELATION IN CASES OF DISSYMMETRY 64
CASE A. 64 - CASE B. CONTACT BETWEEN ELECTRODES DIFFERERING IN G AND A.
65 -
CASE C. 65 - CASE D. HEAT FLOWS ACROSS CONTACT SURFACE. 67 - CASE E. 67
-
CASE F. THOMSON EFFECT. 67 - CASE G. 68
§ 15. INFLUENCE OF A THIN FILM IN THE CONTACT ON THE P#-REJATION. KOHLEK
EFFECT 69
§ 16. THE INFLUENCE OF THE JO TILE HEAT ON CONSTRICTION RESISTENCES IN
SYMMETRIC
CONTACTS 71
EXAMPLE A WITH W-F LAW. 74 - EXAMPLE B. HEAT FLOWS ACROSS CONTACT
SURFACE. 75 - EXAMPLE C. INTEGRATION OF EQ. (16.09) WITHOUT USING WIBDE-
MANN-FRANZ LAW. 77
§ 17. DISTRIBUTION OF THE TEMPERATURE IN A SYMMETRIC CONSTRICTION WITH
CIRCULAR
CONTACT SURFACE AT GIVEN CURRENT 78
EXAMPLE A. 78 - EXAMPLE B. 79 - EXAMPLE C. 80
§ 18. THE (EQUILIBRIUM) TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN THE CONSTRICTION OF
A CON-
TACT BETWEEN TWO METALS WITH DIFFERENT CONDUCTIVITIES, BOTH OBEYING
WIEDEMANN-FBANZ LAW. THERMOELECTRIC EFFECTS 80
A. FEATURES OF THE THERMOELECTRIC EFFECTS. 80 - B. THE PROBLEM OF TEM-
PERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN THE CASE OF PELTIBE HEAT IN THE CONTACT. 82
§ 19. TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN THE CONSTRICTION OF A CONTACT BETWEEN
MEM-
BERS OF VERY DIFFERENT CONDUCTIVITIES 85
§ 20. RESISTANCE-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF CLEAN SYMMETRIC CONTACTS.
SOFTENING
AND MELTING VOLTAGES 87
A. INTRODUCTION. 87 - B. DISCUSSION OF DIAGRAM (20.01). 87 - C.
SOFTENING.
88 - D. MELTING. 89 - E. MEASUREMENTS OF RU-CHARACTERISTICS. 91
§ 21. DEVELOPMENT OF THE TEMPERATURE IN A METALLIC CURRENT CONSTRICTION
.... 92
A. INTRODUCTION. 92 - B. SURVEY OF THE PROBLEMS. 93 - C. DISCUSSION OF
THE
DIAGRAMS FOR THE DIFFERENT CASES. 96 - CASE A. SYMMETRIC CONTACT HEATED
BY THE CURRENT THROUGHOUT THE CONSTRICTION. 96 - CASE B. CONTACT HEATED
BY THE CURRENT. THE MEMBERS HAVE VERY DIFFERENT CONDUCTIVITIES. 96 -
CASE S. A SEMI-INFINITE BODY AT REST, WITH A CIRCULAR HEAT SOURCE. 97 -
CASE (A AND S) FOR VERY SMALL Z-VALUES. 98 - CASE M. HEAT SOURCE MOVING
ON THE SURFACE OF A SEMI-INFINITE BODY. 99 - D. COOLING OF A PREVIOUSLY
HEATED CONTACT CONSTRICTION. 100 * E. EXAMPLES. 100
CONTENTS VII
§ 22. GROWTH OF FILMS ON METALS USED FOR CONTACTS, NEAR ROOM
TEMPERATURE.... 102
A. INTRODUCTION. 102 - B. RATE OF ADSORPTION. 103 - C. DEVELOPMENT
OF TARNISH FROM A CHEMISORBED MONOLAYER. 104 - D. PROTECTIVE FILMS.
107 - E. TARNISHING OF SOME RELATIVELY POOR CONTACT METALS. 108 - F.
TAR-
NISHING OF NOBLE METALS. 109 - G. CONTACT BREATHING. ILL
§ 23. GROWTH OF VISIBLE OXIDE FILMS ON METALS AT MODERATE TO HIGH
TEMPERATURE.
DECOMPOSITION AT STILL HIGHER TEMPERATURE ILL
§ 24. WATER FILM, LOCAL CELLS AND RUSTING 114
A. THICKNESS OF WATER FILMS. 114 - B. RUSTING BY MEANS OF
ELECTROCHEMICAL
ATTACK. 115
§ 25. ALIEN SOLIDIFIED FILMS ON CONTACTS 116
§ 26. TUNNEL EFFECT 118
A. INTRODUCTION. 118 - B. GENERAL RESULTS IN THE CASE OF ROOM
TEMPERATURE
AND LESS. 122 - C. DETAILS OF OBSERVATIONS ON THE TUNNEL EFFECT AT ROOM
AND
LOWER TEMPERATURE. 123 - D. EVALUATION OF FILM THICKNESS, BASED ON
MEASURED A. FOR THE EASE OF SMALL S. 125 - E. OBSERVATIONS ON TUNNELING
AT ROOM TEMPERATURE THROUGH RELATIVELY THICK FILMS, 25 A AND MORE. 126 -
F. TUNNELING BETWEEN DISSIMILAR METAL MEMBERS. 128 - G. THE SUPERCON-
DUCTIVITY OF CONTACTS, PARTICULARLY CONTACTS WITH A FILM WHICH IS
PENETRABLE
VIA TUNNEL EFFECT. 128 - H. TYPE III, FIELD EMISSION. INFLUENCE OF
RELATIVELY
HIGH TEMPERATURES ON THE TUNNEL EFFECT. - 130 -1. TUNNEL EFFECT WHEN
BOTH
ELECTRODES ARE OF THE SAME SEMICONDUCTING MATERIAL. 131 - J. TUNNEL CUR-
RENT ACROSS A GAP THAT SURROUNDS A METALLIC CONTACT CONSISTING OF A
CIRCULAR
SPOT WITH THE RADIUS A. 132 - K. TUNNELING WITHIN A SEMICONDUCTOR. 134
§ 27. FRITTING OF TARNISH FILMS 135
A. INTRODUCTION. 135 - B. THEORY OF FRITTING. 135 - C. WIDENING OF AN A-
SPOT BY ELECTRICAL FORCES. 137 - D. CESSATION OF A NORMAL A-FRITTING.
139 -
E. A-AND B-FRITTING; DEFINITION. 139 - F. OBSERVATIONS ON A-FRITTING.
140 -
G. OBSERVATIONS ON B-FRITTINGS. 146 - H. APPLIED FRITTING. 147 -1.
METALLIC
OR QUASI-METALLIC CONTACT THROUGH AN OPENING IN A RELATIVELY THIN
CONTACT
FILM. 148 - J. POLARITY DEPENDENCE OF FRITTINGS OF TARNISH FILMS ON
SILVER AND
COPPER. 150
§ 28. ADHERENCE IN DRY CONTACTS WHICH ARE NOT HEATED TO ANY INFLUENTIAL
EXTENT
BY THE CURRENT 153
A. INTRODUCTION AND THEORY. 153 - B. EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION. 155 -
C. LOCATION OF THE WELD BREAK. 158 - D. THE PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF
THE AD-
HERENCE IN NON-HEATED CONTACTS. 159
§ 29. ADHERENCE IN CONTACTS THAT ARE HEATED BY THE CURRENT PASSING
THROUGH
THEM. RESISTANCE WELDING 160
S 30. ABOUT STATIONARY CONTACTS IN PRACTICE 164
A. INTRODUCTION. 164-B. TYPE I, PERMANENT CONTACTS. 165 - C. SEPARABLE
CONTACTS OF HIGH MECHANICAL LOAD. 166 - D. RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS OF
CLAMPED CONTACTS WITH FORCE PRODUCED BY A SCREW. 167. - E. MEDIUM AND
LOW LOAD CONTACTS IN AIR. PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS. 169 - F. MEDIUM AND
LOW
LOAD CONTACTS IN SEALED CHAMBERS. 171 - G. MICROCONTACTS. 172 - H.
STORED
LUBRICATED CONTACTS. 174 - I. CONTACTS IN MEASURING APPARATUS. 175 -
J. CONTACT ASSEMBLY. 175
VIII CONTENTS
§ 31. DIMENSIONING A CONTACT WITH RESPECT TO ITS HEATING 176
§ 32. CONTACT EFFECTS IN CARBON GRANULAR MICROPHONES 180
A. INTRODUCTION. 180 - B. CONFIGURATION OF THE TRANSMITTER. 180 - C.
CAL-
CULATIONS OF THE A.C. POWER OF A MICROPHONE. 181 - D. DETERIORATION BY
BURNING OF MICROPHONE GRANULES DURING THE LIFE OF THE TRANSMITTER. 184
§ 33. CONTACT WITH SEMICONDUCTORS. RECTIFICATION. STATIC ELECTRIFICATION
185
A. INTRODUCTION. 185 - B. CONTACT BETWEEN A METAL AND A SEMICONDUCTOR,
AND ITS RECTIFICATION PROPERTY. 185 - C. THE P-N-JANCTION. 187 - D. THE
SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER. 188 - E. REMARK CONCERNING THE CONTACT BE-
TWEEN SILICON CARBIDE CRYSTALS. 189 - F. STATIC ELECTRIFICATION. 189
§ 34. CARBON-PILE RHEOSTATS. ELECTRIC RESISTANCE OF PRESSED METAL
POWDERS 190
PART II
THERMAL CONTACTS
§ 35. THERMAL METALLIC CONTACTS 193
A. INTRODUCTION. 193 - B. BILATERAL HEAT CURRENT. 193 - C. THERMAL
RESIS-
TANCE OF NOMINALLY FLAT BOLTED CONTACTS. EXAMPLES. 194
PART III
SLIDING CONTACTS
§ 36. SURVEY OF FUNDAMENTALS 199
A. INTRODUCTION. 199 - B. THE GEOMETRY OF A NOMINALLY FLAT SLIDING CON-
TACT. 199 - C. EXPERIMENTS. TYPE II. 202 - D. EXPERIMENTS WHEN TYPE I
WOULD BE APPROACHED. 204
§ 37. SLIDING CONTACTS IN AIR 205
§ 38. BOUNDARY LUBRICATION 209
A. FEATURES OFBOUNDARYLUBRICATION.209-B.DISCUSSIONOFTWOCOMPETING
THEORIES OF BOUNDARY LUBRICATION. 213. - C. LUBRICATING PRACTICE. 218 -
D. THE BEILBY LAYER. 218 - E. BOUNDARY-LUBRICATED SEPARABLE CONTACTS
INCLUDING SOME SLIDING METAL-METAL CONTACTS. 219 - F. PROPERTIES
REQUIRED
OF BEARING MATERIALS. 220 - G. BALL BEARINGS. 221
§ 39. THEORY OF FRICTION AND WEAR OF CARBON CONTACTS. LUBRICATION BY
MEANS OF
SOLID LUBRICANTS AS GRAPHITE AND MOLYBDENUM DISULFIDE 221
A, INTRODUCTION. 221 - B. BOND STRENGTH IN A SLIDING CONTACT BETWEEN
GRAPHITE MEMBERS. 223 - C. THE HIGH ALTITUDE EFFECT. 225 - D. ADJUVANTS.
227
§ 40. STICK-SLIP MOTION. THE TEMPERATURE IN CURRENTLESS SLIDING CONTACTS
228
A. STICK-SLIP OR JERKY MOTION. 228 - B. THE TEMPERATURE HI CURRENTLESS
SLID-
ING CONTACTS. 230
§ 41. FRICTIONAL WEAR IN METALLIC CONTACTS WITHOUT CURRENT A. TYPES OF
WEAR.
232 - B. DETAILS OF THE FORMATION OF WEAR DETRITUS. 234 - C. THE
INFLUENCE
OF ADHESIVE WEAR ON FRICTION IN CLEAN METALLIC CONTACTS. 235 - D. WHY
CONTENTS IX
LIQUIDS, EVEN THE DEPOSIT FROM AIR HUMIDITY, ARE ABLE TO STRONGLY
INFLUENCE
WEAR, WITHOUT APPRECIABLY AFFECTING THE FRICTION COEFFICIENT. 235 * E.
FRIC-
TIONAL WEAR IN CURRENTLESS SLIDING CONTACTS; REPRESENTED BY X WHICH IS
CAL-
CULATED ACCORDING TO EQ. (41.03) AS A FUNCTION OF THE HARDNESS, H, OF
THE
SOFTER MEMBER. 236 - F. SIZE AND FREQUENCE OF WEAR FRAGMENTS APPEARING
DURING PERIODS OF ADHESIVE WEAR. 240 - G. BEHAVIOR OF SLIDING CONTACTS
OF MEASURING APPARATUS. 242
§ 42. ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE OF CARBON BRUSHES ON RINGS AND COMMUTATORS
WHEN
ARCING IS EXCLUDED 242
A. INTRODUCTION. 242 * B. EARLY INVESTIGATIONS ABOUT THE CONDUCTION
MECHANISM IN THE BRUSH-RING (COPPER) CONTACT. 243 * C. POLARITY EFFECT
IN
THE CONTACT BETWEEN A GRAPHITE BRUSH AND A COPPER RING. 245
§ 43. THE TEMPERATURE IN THE SLIDING CONTACT BETWEEN A CARBON BRUSH AND
A
COPPER RING OR COMMUTATOR 249
§ 44. FRICTION AND WEAR WITH A CARBON-BRUSH COLLECTOR CONTACT 251
A. MECHANICAL WEAR WITH SLIPRINGS, NO CURRENT. 252 * B. INFLUENCE OF THE
CURRENT ON THE WEAR (ABSENCE OF ARCS). 252 * C. BRUSH WEAR DURING COMMU-
TATION WITH ARCS. 253 * D. ABRASION OF THE SLIP RING. 257 * E. FRICTION
BE-
TWEEN AN ELECTROGRAPHITE BRUSH AND A RING. 257 * F. BRUSH LIFTING BY
HYDRO-
DYNAMIC AIR PRESSURE. 259
§ 45. THEORY OF COMMUTATION WITH SPECIAL REGARD TO VOLTAGE FLASHES AND
ARCS. . 260
A. FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS. 260 - B. A FIRST INTEGRAL. 262 - C. ARCING
DURING
UNBALANCED COMMUTATION. 263 - D. ENERGY DISSIPATED IN ARCS AND VOLTAGE
FLASHES. 264 - E. EACH BRUSH MAKES CONTACT WITH MORE THAN TWO SEGMENTS.
266 - F. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ELASTICITY OF THE BRUSH FOR THE COMMUTA-
TION. 266 - G. ABOUT SO-CALLED SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT IN THE BRUSH. 267
§ 46. CURRENT COLLECTORS FOR TROLLEY CARS 268
§ 47. ELECTRIC NOISE IN CONTACTS 269
A. THE THERMAL NOISE. 269 - B. SHOT NOISE. 270 - C. THE SPECIFIC CONTACT
NOISE. 270 - D. CONTACT TREMBLING OR AGITATION. 272 - E. NOISE GENERATED
BY SUDDEN CHANGES IN, OR INTERRUPTIONS OF, THE CONTACT. 272
PART IV
ELECTRIC PHENOMENA IN SWITCHING CONTACTS
§ 48. INTRODUCTION 274
§ 49. IGNITION OF ARCS IN SWITCHES 275
A. INTRODUCTION. 275 - B. ELECTRICAL BREAKDOWN IN THE GAP BETWEEN
METALLIC ELECTRODES AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. 275 - C. DRAWING OF ARCS.
278. - D. ARC IGNITION FOLLOWED BY FLOATING. 278
§ 50. VL-CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STATIONARY ARC IN AIR; THEIR USE FOR
CALCULATION OF
THE DURATION OF DRAWN SHORT ARCS 279
A. INTRODUCTION. 279 - B. OBSERVATIONS ON BREAKING CONTACTS IN AN OHMIC
CIRCUIT. 281 - C. SIMPLIFIED VT-CHARACTERISTICS FOR DIFFERENT METALS
WITH
KNOWN I
M
AND FOR SMALL CURRENTS. 283 * D. USE OF THE RESISTANCE LINE
TOGETHER WITH ARC CHARACTERISTICS FOR THE PROBLEM OF HOW A CONSTANT CUR-
RENT IS SHARED BETWEEN AN ARC AND AN OHMIC RESISTANCE BOTH IN PARALLEL.
285
X CONTENTS
§ 51. VACUUM ARC; PARTICULARLY ITS EXTINCTION 286
A. INTRODUCTION. 286 - B. THE DURATION OF THE VACUUM ARC. 286. - C. CUR-
RENT CHOPPING BY VACUUM ARCS. 289
§ 52. INTERRUPTING AN A.C. CURRENT 290
A. INTRODUCTION. 290 - B. VACUUM SWITCH. 291 - C. HIGH POWER CURRENT
BREAKERS. 291 - D. MEDIUM AND LOW DUTY BREAKERS. 295 - E. CONTACT RECTI-
FIER AND SYNCHRONOUS SWITCH. 296
§ 53. BREAKING DIRECT CURRENT 297
§ 54. ELECTRIC OSCILLATIONS GENERATED BY D.C. ARCS 298
§ 55. BOUNCING 300
§ 56. MATERIAL TRANSFER IN SWITCHING CONTACTS. A SURVEY 304
A. DEFINITION OF THE MAJOR TYPES OF MATERIAL TRANSFER. 304 - B.
CONCERNING
THE AMOUNT OF ARC TRANSFER, PARTICULARLY FROM THE CATHODE. 306 - C. ARC
QUENCHING. 311 - D. MECHANICAL WEAR PRODUCED BY THE HAMMERING EFFECT
OF SWITCHING CONTACTS. 312 X .. 313
§ 57. DISCHARGE TRANSIENTS 313
§ 58. ARC DURATION DURING CONTACT CLOSURE WITH VOLTAGES BELOW 200 TO 300
V ... 316
A. INTRODUCTION. 316 - B. CALCULATION WITH RESPECT TO THE WIRING DIAGRAM
(58.02) WITH INITIALLY CHARGED CAPACITY. 316 - C. INDUCTANCE 1 = 0,
(THUS
FI = 0) IN THE CIRCUIT (58.02). 319 - D. A BATTERY INSTEAD OF C,
EQUIVALENT
TO C = O ; FINITE 1. 320
3 59. FLOATING 320
§ 60. ARC DURATION ON BREAKING CONTACT WITHOUT QUENCHING. CIRCUMSTANCES
COMMON TO COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING 323
A. OHMIC CIRCUIT ACCORDING TO FIG. (60.01). ARC EXTINCTION IN AIR DURING
A
STEADY INCREASE OF THE GAP. 323 - B. INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT IN AIR ACCORDING
TO
FIG. (60.04). CAPACITY OF THE LEADS IS NEGLECTED. 323 - C. THE QUANTITY
OF
ELECTRICITY THAT FLOWS THROUGH A DRAWN ARC. 325
§ 61. QUENCHING A DRAWN ARC BY MEANS OF A CAPACITOR, PARALLEL TO THE
CONTACT.. 325
A. GENERAL THEORY. 325 - B. A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS. 327 - C.
NOTE CONCERNING THE POSITION OF R. 328
§ 62. CAPACITIVE QUENCHING WHEN AN ARC WITH A VERY SMALL DURATION OR NO
ARC IS
DRAWN 329
A. EQUATIONS. 329 - B. CONDITION FOR NO BREAKDOWN OF THE GAP BETWEEN THE
SEPARATING ELECTRODES. 331 - C. EXAMPLE. 331
§ 63. QUENCHING OF ARCS BY A RESISTANCE PARALLEL TO THE OPERATING
CONTACT OR TO
THE INDUCTIVE COIL 332
A. QUENCHING WITH R IN POSITION A. 332 - B. ARC QUENCHING WITH R IN
POSI-
TION 6. 334
§ 64. DETAILS ABOUT THE TYPES OF ARC IN RELAY CONTACTS AND THE MATERIAL
TRANSFER
PRODUCED BY THEM 334
A. SURVEY. 334 - B. RESULT OF MEASUREMENTS. 335 - C. THE CRITICAL
LENGTH,
S
ER
. OF THE ANODE DOMINATED ARC. 336
CONTENTS XI
§ 65. BRIDGE TRANSFER AND SHORT ARC TRANSFER AT CONTACT SEPARATION 338
A. INTRODUCTION. 338 - B. A CLASSICAL EXAMPLE OF A LONG LIQUID BRIDGE.
339 -
C. METHODS OF DETERMINATION OF THE RATE OF TRANSFER. 341 - D. RESULTS OF
MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION. 342
§ 66. THEORY OF THE BRIDGE TRANSFER 347
A. INTRODUCTION. 347. - B. BRIDGE TRANSFER BECAUSE OF THE THOMSON
EFFECT.
THEORY. 348 - C. THOMSON EFFECT. COMPARISON WITH MEASUREMENTS. 351 -
D. KOIILKR EFFECT. 352 - E. COMPARISON WITH MEASUREMENTS. 353 - F. FOR
COMPLETENESS WE CALCULATE THE MATERIAL TRANSFER AS IT COULD BE PRODUCED
BY
THE PELTIER EFFECT. 353 - G. REMARK. 354 - H. REMARK. 354
§ 67. BRIDGE MATERIAL TRANSFER IN THE SHAPE OF PIPS AND SPIRES 354
§ 68. MERCURY SWITCHES 356
A. INTRODUCTION. 356 - B. MEDIUM DUTY SWITCHES WITH A POOL OF MERCURY
FORMING ONE ELECTRODE. 357 - C. MERCURY WETTED CONTACTS. 358 - D.
MERCURY
BETWEEN THE MEMBERS OF A SLIDING CONTACT. 358
§ 69. APPLICATION OF STATISTICS TO CONTACT OPERATIONS 359
A. RELIABILITY OF CONTACTS. 359 - B. SOME NUMERICAL RESULTS OF TESTS.
361 -
C. EFFECT OF TWIN CONTACTS. 361
§ 70. THE CHOICE OF CONTACT MATERIAL; CONTACT SHAPE FOR PRACTICAL
APPLICATIONS 362
A. PERMANENT CONTACTS. 363 -B. MICROCONTACTS. 363-C. RELAY CONTACTS WITH
HIGH REPETITIVE OPERATION. 364 - D. LIGHT DUTY RELAYS FOR MEDIUM
FREQUEN-
CIES. 364 - E. MEDIUM DUTY CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND CONTACTORS. 365 - F.
HEAVY
DUTY CIRCUIT BREAKERS WITH UP TO THOUSANDS OF AMPERES AND VOLTS. 365 -
G. SLIDING CONTACTS FOR RESISTORS AND APPARATUS. 366
APPENDICES
§ I. ELASTICITY, PLASTICITY AND HARDNESS 367
A. INTRODUCTION. 367-B.HERTZ FORMULASFORIDEALLY ELASTIC INDENTATIONS.
367 - C. PLASTIC DEFORMATIONS. DISLOCATIONS. 369 - D. MATHEMATICS OF
PLASTIC YIELDING. 370 - E. INDENTATION IN AN ISOTROPIC SEMI-INFINITE
BODY,
PRODUCED BY A SPHERICAL INDENTER (BALL). 371 - F. THE BALL AND PYRAMID
INDENTATION TESTS. HARDNESS. 372 - G. INFLUENCE OF FRICTION ON THE
INDEN-
TATION. 377 - H. DIFFUSION EFFECTS. 377-1. THE WORK CONSUMED BY A PLAS-
TIC DEFORMATION. EXAMPLES. 378
$ II. ELECTRONIC CONDUCTION IN SOLIDS 380
A. INTRODUCTION. 380 - B. GENERAL CONCEPTS CONCERNING CONDUCTION.
380 - C. QUANTIZATION OF THE ELECTRONS IN A CRYSTAL AND THE CONSTITUTION
OF A BAND. 381 - D. INFLUENCE OF THE TEMPERATURE ON THE DISTRIBUTION (OR
PARTITION) OF ELECTRONS ON CELLS IN METALS. 382 - E. CURRENT CARRIERS IN
SE-
MICONDUCTORS. 384 - F. MOBILITY OF CURRENT CARRIERS. RESISTANCE. 386 -
G. SURFACE POTENTIAL BARRIER OF A METAL. THERMIONIC EMISSION OF
ELECTRONS
387 - H. EQUILIBRIUM IN A CONTACT BETWEEN METALS A AND B WITH DIFFERENT
WORK FUNCTIONS &, &
A
&
S
389 -1. METAL-SEMICONDUCTOR CONTACT. 390
§ III. HEAT CONDUCTION. WIEDEMANN-FRANZ LAW (WF-LAW) 393
A. HEAT CAPACITY. 393 - B. THERMAL CONDUCTION. 395 - C. WIEDEMANK-
FRANZ LAW (WF-LAW). 396
XII CONTENTS
§ IV. PROBABILITY. NOISE 397
A. NORMAL DISTRIBUTION. 397 - B. PROBABILITY PAPER. 399 - C. THE POIS-
SON DISTRIBUTION. 400 - D. ELECTRICAL NOISE. 402
§ V. STRUCTURE, ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF CARBONS 404
A. INTRODUCTION. GRAPHITE LATTICE. 404 - B. CARBON GRADES. 406 -
C. GRAPHITIZATION. 407 -D. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF CARBONS. 408 - E.
HEAT CONDUCTIVITY OF CARBONS. 410
§ VI. HYDRODYNAMIC OR THICK FILM LUBRICATION 412
§ VII. METAL WHISKERS 417
A. WHISKERS FORMED FROM THE SOLID METAL. 417 - B. WHISKERS RAPIDLY
FORMED FROM METAL VAPOR. 417 - C. MECHANICAL AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
OF WHISKERS. 418 - D. METALLIC DENDRITES IN SEMICONDUCTORS. 418
§ VIII. SOME FUNDAMENTAL FORMULAS CONCERNING ELECTRIC DISCHARGES 419
A. INTRODUCTION. KINETIC FUNDAMENTALS. 419 - B. DRIFT VELOCITY. 420 -
C. THERMAL IONIZATION. SAHA S EQUATION. 420 - D. PLASMA. 421 - E. CUR-
RENT IN VACUUM RESTRICTED BY THE SPACE CHARGE OF THE CURRENT CARRIERS
422
§ IX. THEORY OF THE ELECTRIC ARC 423
A. INTRODUCTION. 423 - B. CATHODE LAYER. 425 - C. EMISSION OF PRIMARY
ELECTRONS FROM THE CATHODE. 426 - D. THE ION CURRENT IN THE CATHODE
LAYER. 429 - E. THE RATE OF EVAPORATION, A , M
3
/COUL. 429 - F. SUMMARY
OF THE RESULTS PRESENTED IN TABLE (IX,5). 430 - G. POWER BALANCE AT THE
CATHODE. 430 - H. POWER BALANCE AT THE ANODE. 433 -1. VOLTAGE-CURRENT
CHARACTERISTICS OF ARCS. 433 - J. PINCH EFFECT. 435
§ X. TABLES 436
§ XL DIAGRAM XI IN TWO COPIES, ONE DETACHABLE 441
AUTHOR AND LITERATURE INDEX 443
SUBJECT INDEX 477
ERRATA * * 483
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Holm, Ragnar 1879-1970 |
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| author_role | aut |
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| author_variant | r h rh |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV012770375 |
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| dewey-full | 621.3 |
| dewey-hundreds | 600 - Technology (Applied sciences) |
| dewey-ones | 621 - Applied physics |
| dewey-raw | 621.3 |
| dewey-search | 621.3 |
| dewey-sort | 3621.3 |
| dewey-tens | 620 - Engineering and allied operations |
| discipline | Elektrotechnik / Elektronik / Nachrichtentechnik |
| edition | 4. ed., Reprint |
| format | Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV012770375 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T18:33:21Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 3540038752 |
| language | German |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-008684218 |
| oclc_num | 174512384 |
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| owner | DE-573 DE-91 DE-BY-TUM |
| owner_facet | DE-573 DE-91 DE-BY-TUM |
| physical | XV, 482 S. graph. Darst. |
| publishDate | 2000 |
| publishDateSearch | 2000 |
| publishDateSort | 2000 |
| publisher | Springer |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Holm, Ragnar 1879-1970 Verfasser (DE-588)121292088 aut Electric contacts theory and applications Ragnar Holm 4. ed., Reprint Berlin u.a. Springer 2000 XV, 482 S. graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Elektrischer Kontakt (DE-588)4151733-7 gnd rswk-swf Elektrischer Kontakt (DE-588)4151733-7 s DE-604 DNB Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=008684218&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Holm, Ragnar 1879-1970 Electric contacts theory and applications Elektrischer Kontakt (DE-588)4151733-7 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4151733-7 |
| title | Electric contacts theory and applications |
| title_auth | Electric contacts theory and applications |
| title_exact_search | Electric contacts theory and applications |
| title_full | Electric contacts theory and applications Ragnar Holm |
| title_fullStr | Electric contacts theory and applications Ragnar Holm |
| title_full_unstemmed | Electric contacts theory and applications Ragnar Holm |
| title_short | Electric contacts |
| title_sort | electric contacts theory and applications |
| title_sub | theory and applications |
| topic | Elektrischer Kontakt (DE-588)4151733-7 gnd |
| topic_facet | Elektrischer Kontakt |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=008684218&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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