Gender and jobs: sex segregation of occupations in the world
Gespeichert in:
1. Verfasser: | |
---|---|
Format: | Buch |
Sprache: | English |
Veröffentlicht: |
Geneva
Internat. Labour Office
1998
|
Ausgabe: | 1. publ. |
Schlagworte: | |
Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
Beschreibung: | XII, 444 S. graph. Darst. |
ISBN: | 922109524X |
Internformat
MARC
LEADER | 00000nam a2200000 c 4500 | ||
---|---|---|---|
001 | BV012331707 | ||
003 | DE-604 | ||
005 | 20060426 | ||
007 | t | ||
008 | 981229s1998 d||| ||||z00||| eng d | ||
020 | |a 922109524X |9 92-2-109524-X | ||
035 | |a (OCoLC)38597914 | ||
035 | |a (DE-599)BVBBV012331707 | ||
040 | |a DE-604 |b ger |e rakddb | ||
041 | 0 | |a eng | |
049 | |a DE-473 |a DE-12 |a DE-355 |a DE-19 |a DE-29 |a DE-1049 |a DE-384 |a DE-11 |a DE-188 | ||
050 | 0 | |a HD6060.6 | |
082 | 0 | |a 331.4133 |b An63g |2 21 | |
084 | |a MS 3050 |0 (DE-625)123657: |2 rvk | ||
084 | |a MS 5200 |0 (DE-625)123722: |2 rvk | ||
084 | |a NW 8300 |0 (DE-625)132314: |2 rvk | ||
084 | |a QV 221 |0 (DE-625)142142: |2 rvk | ||
100 | 1 | |a Anker, Richard |d 1943- |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)128824069 |4 aut | |
245 | 1 | 0 | |a Gender and jobs |b sex segregation of occupations in the world |c Richard Anker |
250 | |a 1. publ. | ||
264 | 1 | |a Geneva |b Internat. Labour Office |c 1998 | |
300 | |a XII, 444 S. |b graph. Darst. | ||
336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
650 | 7 | |a Différence selon le sexe |2 rasuqam | |
650 | 7 | |a Discrimination sexuelle au travail |2 rasuqam | |
650 | 4 | |a Discrimination sexuelle dans l'emploi | |
650 | 4 | |a Division sexuelle du travail | |
650 | 7 | |a Division sexuelle du travail |2 rasuqam | |
650 | 7 | |a GENDER DISCRIMINATION |2 unbist | |
650 | 7 | |a GENDER EQUALITY |2 unbist | |
650 | 7 | |a LABOUR MARKET |2 unbist | |
650 | 4 | |a Travail - Différences entre sexes | |
650 | 7 | |a Travail |2 rasuqam | |
650 | 7 | |a WOMEN WORKERS |2 unbist | |
650 | 4 | |a Sex discrimination in employment | |
650 | 4 | |a Sexual division of labor | |
650 | 0 | 7 | |a Internationaler Vergleich |0 (DE-588)4120509-1 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
650 | 0 | 7 | |a Geschlechtliche Arbeitsteilung |0 (DE-588)4121353-1 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
650 | 0 | 7 | |a Berufssoziologie |0 (DE-588)4144809-1 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
655 | 7 | |0 (DE-588)4056995-0 |a Statistik |2 gnd-content | |
689 | 0 | 0 | |a Geschlechtliche Arbeitsteilung |0 (DE-588)4121353-1 |D s |
689 | 0 | 1 | |a Berufssoziologie |0 (DE-588)4144809-1 |D s |
689 | 0 | 2 | |a Internationaler Vergleich |0 (DE-588)4120509-1 |D s |
689 | 0 | |5 DE-604 | |
856 | 4 | 2 | |m HBZ Datenaustausch |q application/pdf |u http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=008361348&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |3 Inhaltsverzeichnis |
999 | |a oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-008361348 |
Datensatz im Suchindex
_version_ | 1804126957891223552 |
---|---|
adam_text | CONTENTS
Acknowledgements x*
Part I: Introduction and background 1
1. Introduction 3
1.1 Background 3
1.2 Special aspects of this book 3
1.3 Indications of international concern 5
1.4 Why occupational segregation of men and women is an important
topic 6
1.5 Should occupational segregation by sex be completely eliminated? 8
1.6 Occupational segregation is not always bad for women and good
for men
1.7 Difference between sex and gender 9
1.8 Usefulness of cross national analysis 10
1.9 Description of contents of this book 1!
2. Theories and explanations for occupational segregation by sex 14
2.1 Neoclassical, human capital model 15
2.2 Institutional and labour market segmentation theories 20
2.3 Feminist (gender) theories and other explanations 22
2.4 Female male pay differentials and occupational segregation by sex 30
3. Review of cross national studies of occupational segregation by sex 38
CONTENTS V
Part II: Description of study data and occupational segregation statistics 51
y 4. Comparability of data between countries and within countries over time 53
4.1 Country coverage 55
4.2 Data sources 56
4.3 Worker coverage 57
4.4 Definition and measurement of employment 58
4.5 Rules and procedures for coding occupations 59
4.6 National classifications of occupations 60
4.7 Comparability over time of national occupational classifications
and of adjusted data 61
4.8 Consistency and possible errors in national data 62
y, 5. Measuring occupational segregation 68
5.1 Inequality indices for measuring occupational segregation by sex 69
5.2 Dividing the labour force into gender dominated and
gender integrated occupations 80
Appendix 5.1 Intuitive meaning of the index of dissimilarity (ID) 89
6. Sensitivity of segregation statistics to degree of disaggregation in
occupational classification 95
6.1 Study evidence on sensitivity of inequality statistics to degree of
disaggregation in occupational classification 99
6.2 Estimating adjusted national ID values with increased
comparability by taking into account number of occupations in
national classification 115
6.3 Study evidence on the relationship between percentage of workers
in female dominated and male dominated occupations to degree of
detail in occupational classification 117
Appendix 6.1 International standard classification of occupations
(ISCO 68) 130
7. Description of study regions 138
7.1 OECD countries 139
7.2 Transition Economies 142
7.3 Middle East and North Africa 145
7.4 Asia/Pacific 147
7.5 Other Developing Countries and Areas 149
W CONTENTS
Part III: Occupational segregation around the world—The present situation 153
8. Occupational segregation by sex based on data for six non agricultural
occupations 155
8.1 Occupational structure based on six major non agricultural
occupations 156
8.2 Occupational segregation by sex for six major non agricultural
occupations 157
9. Occupational segregation by sex based on detailed occupational data:
Inequality indices 174
9.1 Index of dissimilarity (ID) and occupational segregation by sex in
the world today 174
9.2 Socio economic, labour market and regional determinants of
occupational segregation (as measured by ID75) 187
9.3 Occupational segregation by sex in the world if one assumed that
one half of the labour force is female and that supposedly
non working women are in fact working in a new occupation
entitled unpaid housepersons and care givers 195
Appendix 9.1 Estimation of adjusted ID (i.e. ID75) 202
10. Occupational segregation by sex based on detailed occupational data:
Extent to which occupations are male dominated or female dominated 206
10.1 Extensiveness of gender dominated occupations based on
unadjusted study data 207
10.2 Adjusting national data to increase cross national comparability 213
10.3 Male workers and male dominated occupations 215
10.4 Female workers and female dominated occupations 222
10.5 Total non agricultural labour force and gender dominated
occupations 227
Appendix 10.1 Estimation of adjusting national values to 75
non agricultural occupations for percentage of
female non agricultural labour force in female
dominated occupations (FDOM75), male
non agricultural labour force in male dominated
occupations (MDOM75) and total non agricultural
labour force in gender dominated occupations
(TDOM75) by taking into account the level of
disaggregation in national occupational classifications 235
CONTENTS v
Appendix 10.2 Extent to which occupations are gender concentrated,
gender integrated and gender underrepresented using
a relative concept of gender dominance 244
Appendix 10.3 Percentage of male, female and total non agricultural
labour forces with occupations having between 77.50
and 82.49 per cent of workers either males or females 247
11. Occupations typically held by men and women 250
11.1 Seventeen typical male and female occupations 252
11.2 Five largest female dominated occupations 276
11.3 Five largest occupations for women 285
12. Patterns in occupational segregation by sex based on combinations of
different inequality statistics 297
12.1 Correlations between inequality statistics 298
12.2 Factor analysis and patterns of inequality statistics 299
12.3 Regional patterns in inequality statistics 301
12.4 OECD subregional patterns in inequality statistics 304
Appendix 12.1 Extent to which gender dominated occupations are
comprised of male dominated or female dominated
occupations 307
Part IV: Occupational segregation by sex around the world—changes in the
past two decades 315
13. Recent changes in occupational segregation by sex based on inequality
indices 319
13.1 Recent changes in occupational segregation by sex as measured by
adjusted index of dissimilarity (ID) 319
13.2 Extent to which changes in ID are due to changes in the
feminization of occupations or changes in the occupational structure
of employment 329
13.3 Recent changes in occupational segregation by sex as measured by
marginal matching index (MM) 337
13.4 Recent changes in occupational segregation by sex as measured by
IDHALF 337
Viii CONTENTS
13.5 Regression analysis of the relationship between changes in ID and
labour market variables 342
Appendix 13.1 Changes in standardized ID due to changes in the sex
composition of occupations (which assume that all
occupations are the same size) 350
Appendix 13.2 Changes in Marginal Matching index 353
14. Recent changes in the extent to which male and female non agricultural
labour forces are in gender dominated occupations 355
14.1 Recent changes for male dominated non agricultural occupations 355
14.2 Recent changes for female dominated non agricultural occupations 365
15. Recent changes in the feminization of 17 important male and female
occupations 373
15.1 Changes in the feminization of eight typical male occupations 375
15.2 Changes in the feminization of nine typical female occupations 391
Part V: Main findings 401
16. Summary and conclusion 403
16.1 Importance of topic 403
16.2 Background on earlier studies and objectives of this book 403
16.3 Some major methodological findings 404
16.4 Some major findings for occupational segregation by sex in the
world today 407
16.5 Some major findings for recent changes in occupational segregation
by sex in the world 411
16.6 Concluding remarks 416
V Bibliography 419
Index 431
CONTENTS ~ ^
|
any_adam_object | 1 |
author | Anker, Richard 1943- |
author_GND | (DE-588)128824069 |
author_facet | Anker, Richard 1943- |
author_role | aut |
author_sort | Anker, Richard 1943- |
author_variant | r a ra |
building | Verbundindex |
bvnumber | BV012331707 |
callnumber-first | H - Social Science |
callnumber-label | HD6060 |
callnumber-raw | HD6060.6 |
callnumber-search | HD6060.6 |
callnumber-sort | HD 46060.6 |
callnumber-subject | HD - Industries, Land Use, Labor |
classification_rvk | MS 3050 MS 5200 NW 8300 QV 221 |
ctrlnum | (OCoLC)38597914 (DE-599)BVBBV012331707 |
dewey-full | 331.4133 |
dewey-hundreds | 300 - Social sciences |
dewey-ones | 331 - Labor economics |
dewey-raw | 331.4133 |
dewey-search | 331.4133 |
dewey-sort | 3331.4133 |
dewey-tens | 330 - Economics |
discipline | Soziologie Geschichte Wirtschaftswissenschaften |
edition | 1. publ. |
format | Book |
fullrecord | <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><collection xmlns="http://www.loc.gov/MARC21/slim"><record><leader>02431nam a2200601 c 4500</leader><controlfield tag="001">BV012331707</controlfield><controlfield tag="003">DE-604</controlfield><controlfield tag="005">20060426 </controlfield><controlfield tag="007">t</controlfield><controlfield tag="008">981229s1998 d||| ||||z00||| eng d</controlfield><datafield tag="020" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">922109524X</subfield><subfield code="9">92-2-109524-X</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="035" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">(OCoLC)38597914</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="035" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">(DE-599)BVBBV012331707</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="040" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">DE-604</subfield><subfield code="b">ger</subfield><subfield code="e">rakddb</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="041" ind1="0" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">eng</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="049" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">DE-473</subfield><subfield code="a">DE-12</subfield><subfield code="a">DE-355</subfield><subfield code="a">DE-19</subfield><subfield code="a">DE-29</subfield><subfield code="a">DE-1049</subfield><subfield code="a">DE-384</subfield><subfield code="a">DE-11</subfield><subfield code="a">DE-188</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="050" ind1=" " ind2="0"><subfield code="a">HD6060.6</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="082" ind1="0" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">331.4133</subfield><subfield code="b">An63g</subfield><subfield code="2">21</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="084" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">MS 3050</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-625)123657:</subfield><subfield code="2">rvk</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="084" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">MS 5200</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-625)123722:</subfield><subfield code="2">rvk</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="084" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">NW 8300</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-625)132314:</subfield><subfield code="2">rvk</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="084" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">QV 221</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-625)142142:</subfield><subfield code="2">rvk</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="100" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Anker, Richard</subfield><subfield code="d">1943-</subfield><subfield code="e">Verfasser</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)128824069</subfield><subfield code="4">aut</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="245" ind1="1" ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Gender and jobs</subfield><subfield code="b">sex segregation of occupations in the world</subfield><subfield code="c">Richard Anker</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="250" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">1. publ.</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="264" ind1=" " ind2="1"><subfield code="a">Geneva</subfield><subfield code="b">Internat. Labour Office</subfield><subfield code="c">1998</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="300" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">XII, 444 S.</subfield><subfield code="b">graph. Darst.</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="336" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">txt</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacontent</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="337" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">n</subfield><subfield code="2">rdamedia</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="338" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">nc</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacarrier</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Différence selon le sexe</subfield><subfield code="2">rasuqam</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Discrimination sexuelle au travail</subfield><subfield code="2">rasuqam</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1=" " ind2="4"><subfield code="a">Discrimination sexuelle dans l'emploi</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1=" " ind2="4"><subfield code="a">Division sexuelle du travail</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Division sexuelle du travail</subfield><subfield code="2">rasuqam</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">GENDER DISCRIMINATION</subfield><subfield code="2">unbist</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">GENDER EQUALITY</subfield><subfield code="2">unbist</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">LABOUR MARKET</subfield><subfield code="2">unbist</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1=" " ind2="4"><subfield code="a">Travail - Différences entre sexes</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Travail</subfield><subfield code="2">rasuqam</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">WOMEN WORKERS</subfield><subfield code="2">unbist</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1=" " ind2="4"><subfield code="a">Sex discrimination in employment</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1=" " ind2="4"><subfield code="a">Sexual division of labor</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1="0" ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Internationaler Vergleich</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4120509-1</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1="0" ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Geschlechtliche Arbeitsteilung</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4121353-1</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1="0" ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Berufssoziologie</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4144809-1</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="655" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4056995-0</subfield><subfield code="a">Statistik</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd-content</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Geschlechtliche Arbeitsteilung</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4121353-1</subfield><subfield code="D">s</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="1"><subfield code="a">Berufssoziologie</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4144809-1</subfield><subfield code="D">s</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="2"><subfield code="a">Internationaler Vergleich</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4120509-1</subfield><subfield code="D">s</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2=" "><subfield code="5">DE-604</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="856" ind1="4" ind2="2"><subfield code="m">HBZ Datenaustausch</subfield><subfield code="q">application/pdf</subfield><subfield code="u">http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=008361348&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA</subfield><subfield code="3">Inhaltsverzeichnis</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="999" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-008361348</subfield></datafield></record></collection> |
genre | (DE-588)4056995-0 Statistik gnd-content |
genre_facet | Statistik |
id | DE-604.BV012331707 |
illustrated | Illustrated |
indexdate | 2024-07-09T18:25:43Z |
institution | BVB |
isbn | 922109524X |
language | English |
oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-008361348 |
oclc_num | 38597914 |
open_access_boolean | |
owner | DE-473 DE-BY-UBG DE-12 DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-19 DE-BY-UBM DE-29 DE-1049 DE-384 DE-11 DE-188 |
owner_facet | DE-473 DE-BY-UBG DE-12 DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-19 DE-BY-UBM DE-29 DE-1049 DE-384 DE-11 DE-188 |
physical | XII, 444 S. graph. Darst. |
publishDate | 1998 |
publishDateSearch | 1998 |
publishDateSort | 1998 |
publisher | Internat. Labour Office |
record_format | marc |
spelling | Anker, Richard 1943- Verfasser (DE-588)128824069 aut Gender and jobs sex segregation of occupations in the world Richard Anker 1. publ. Geneva Internat. Labour Office 1998 XII, 444 S. graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Différence selon le sexe rasuqam Discrimination sexuelle au travail rasuqam Discrimination sexuelle dans l'emploi Division sexuelle du travail Division sexuelle du travail rasuqam GENDER DISCRIMINATION unbist GENDER EQUALITY unbist LABOUR MARKET unbist Travail - Différences entre sexes Travail rasuqam WOMEN WORKERS unbist Sex discrimination in employment Sexual division of labor Internationaler Vergleich (DE-588)4120509-1 gnd rswk-swf Geschlechtliche Arbeitsteilung (DE-588)4121353-1 gnd rswk-swf Berufssoziologie (DE-588)4144809-1 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4056995-0 Statistik gnd-content Geschlechtliche Arbeitsteilung (DE-588)4121353-1 s Berufssoziologie (DE-588)4144809-1 s Internationaler Vergleich (DE-588)4120509-1 s DE-604 HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=008361348&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
spellingShingle | Anker, Richard 1943- Gender and jobs sex segregation of occupations in the world Différence selon le sexe rasuqam Discrimination sexuelle au travail rasuqam Discrimination sexuelle dans l'emploi Division sexuelle du travail Division sexuelle du travail rasuqam GENDER DISCRIMINATION unbist GENDER EQUALITY unbist LABOUR MARKET unbist Travail - Différences entre sexes Travail rasuqam WOMEN WORKERS unbist Sex discrimination in employment Sexual division of labor Internationaler Vergleich (DE-588)4120509-1 gnd Geschlechtliche Arbeitsteilung (DE-588)4121353-1 gnd Berufssoziologie (DE-588)4144809-1 gnd |
subject_GND | (DE-588)4120509-1 (DE-588)4121353-1 (DE-588)4144809-1 (DE-588)4056995-0 |
title | Gender and jobs sex segregation of occupations in the world |
title_auth | Gender and jobs sex segregation of occupations in the world |
title_exact_search | Gender and jobs sex segregation of occupations in the world |
title_full | Gender and jobs sex segregation of occupations in the world Richard Anker |
title_fullStr | Gender and jobs sex segregation of occupations in the world Richard Anker |
title_full_unstemmed | Gender and jobs sex segregation of occupations in the world Richard Anker |
title_short | Gender and jobs |
title_sort | gender and jobs sex segregation of occupations in the world |
title_sub | sex segregation of occupations in the world |
topic | Différence selon le sexe rasuqam Discrimination sexuelle au travail rasuqam Discrimination sexuelle dans l'emploi Division sexuelle du travail Division sexuelle du travail rasuqam GENDER DISCRIMINATION unbist GENDER EQUALITY unbist LABOUR MARKET unbist Travail - Différences entre sexes Travail rasuqam WOMEN WORKERS unbist Sex discrimination in employment Sexual division of labor Internationaler Vergleich (DE-588)4120509-1 gnd Geschlechtliche Arbeitsteilung (DE-588)4121353-1 gnd Berufssoziologie (DE-588)4144809-1 gnd |
topic_facet | Différence selon le sexe Discrimination sexuelle au travail Discrimination sexuelle dans l'emploi Division sexuelle du travail GENDER DISCRIMINATION GENDER EQUALITY LABOUR MARKET Travail - Différences entre sexes Travail WOMEN WORKERS Sex discrimination in employment Sexual division of labor Internationaler Vergleich Geschlechtliche Arbeitsteilung Berufssoziologie Statistik |
url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=008361348&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
work_keys_str_mv | AT ankerrichard genderandjobssexsegregationofoccupationsintheworld |