Sexual orientation and US military personnel policy: options and assessment
Gespeichert in:
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Santa Monica, CA
Rand
1993
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| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | XXVIII, 518 S. graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 0833014412 |
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CONTENTS
Preface iii
Figures xi
Tables xiii
Executive Summary xvii
Section
1. SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND U.S. MILITARY PERSONNEL POLICY: POLICY
OPTIONS AND ASSESSMENT STUDY OVERVIEW 1
Introduction 1
Study Approach 2
The Not Germane /Conduct Based Policy 2
U.S. Military Policy on Homosexuality and Sodomy 3
Homosexuality and the Military, 1916 to 1940 3
World War II: 1941 to 1946 4
The Cold War Era: 1946 to 1956 6
The Military and Homosexuality in the 1960s and 1970s 6
The Recent Past: 1981 to 1991 8
Military Law: Homosexuality and Sodomy 9
Review of Analogous Institutions and Experiences 10
The Experience of Foreign Militaries 11
The Experience of Domestic Fire and Police Departments 15
The History of Racial Integration in the United States
Military 20
Current American Attitudes Toward Homosexuals Serving 22
Attitudes in the General Population 23
Attitudes in the Military 24
Issues of Concern: Violence and AIDS 27
Violence 27
HIV Transmission and AIDS 28
Understanding Unit Cohesion 28
Implications of the Research 31
A Policy That Ends Discrimination Based on Sexual
Orientation 32
Legal Issues Regarding a Not Germane /Conduct Based
Policy 36
Implementation of a Policy That Ends Discrimination on the
Basis of Sexual Orientation 38
2 . SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 41
Approach to the Literature 41
Prevalence of Homosexuality: General Population and the
Military 43
Homosexual Behavior in the General Population 44
Homosexual Behavior Among Military Personnel 49
Relationship Between Status and Conduct 50
Homosexual Behavior Among Self Identified Heterosexuals 51
vi
Virginity and Celibacy Among Self Identified Homosexuals .... 54
Summary/Conclusion 56
Prevalence of Proscribed Behaviors by Sexual Orientation 56
Oral Sex Among Heterosexuals and Homosexuals 57
Anal Sex Among Homosexuals and Heterosexuals 60
Conclusions 63
3 . ANALOGOUS EXPERIENCE OF FOREIGN MILITARY SERVICES 65
Introduction 65
Countries Visited 65
Approach 66
Focus 68
The National Context 69
National and Military Statistics 69
Societal Attitudes Towards Homosexuality 71
Foreign Militaries and Homosexuality 73
Canada 74
France 80
Germany 83
Israel 85
The Netherlands 90
Norway 95
United Kingdom 99
An International Comparison 101
Military Policy and Practice Reflect Societal Norms 102
Homosexuals Serve But Quietly In All Militaries
Visited 103
Problems Are Dealt With on a Case by Case Basis 103
Change Has Not Been Disruptive 104
4. ANALOGOUS EXPERIENCE OF DOMESTIC POLICE AND FIRE DEPARTMENTS.... 106
Introduction 106
How Instructive Is the Analogy? 107
Issues the Analogy Can Illuminate 108
Foci and Methods of the Study 109
Cities Visited 109
Focus of Visits 110
Methods 112
Context and Variation in Non Discrimination Policies 114
The Municipal Climate 115
The Internal Climate Within Police and Fire Departments .... 116
Varieties of Non Discrimination Policies 119
Consequences of a Non Discrimination Policy 120
The Experiences and Responses of Homosexuals 121
The Responses and Concerns of Heterosexuals 133
The Impact of Policy Change on the Institution 141
The Implementation Process 143
The Nature of the Policy 144
The Appropriate Emphasis in Implementing Non
Discrimination Policies 145
The Critical Role of Leadership 147
Unintended Consequences of Special Class Status 150
Training 152
vii
The Self Regulating Nature of the Implementation Process ... 153
Implications for Implementing Policies of Non Discrimination.. 154
5. POTENTIAL INSIGHTS FROM ANALOGOUS SITUATIONS: INTEGRATING
BLACKS INTO THE U.S. MILITARY 158
Introduction 158
Limitations of the Analogy of Women in the Military 158
The Analogy of Racial Integration 159
Implementing Racial Integration in the U.S. Military 161
The Crucial Role of Leadership 161
The Importance of Civilian Leadership 162
Strong Military Leadership in Tandem with Strong Civilian
Leadership 165
Forces Restraining Integration 170
Racial Integration, Unit Cohesion, and Military
Effectiveness 171
Unit Cohesion: Evidence from World War II and Korea 173
Racial Integration and Military Effectiveness 178
Racial Turmoil and Military Effectiveness in the Vietnam
Era 180
Attitudes Versus Behaviors During the Process of
Integration: Maintaining Civility Without Overturning
Prejudice 183
Public Opinion During the Transition to Integration:
From Highly Unfavorable to Moderately Unfavorable 183
Attitudes Versus Behaviors 185
Despite Success, Problems Beneath the Surface 186
Implications for Allowing Acknowledged Homosexuals to Serve
in the Military 188
6 . RELEVANT PUBLIC OPINION 191
Introduction 191
Approach 191
Overall Views About Homosexuality 192
Demographic and Social Differences in Attitude 194
How Attitudes Vary by Religion, Political Alignment, and
Region 195
How Attitudes Vary by Perceived Nature of Homosexuality .... 197
Attitudes Toward the Civil Rights of Homosexuals 198
Beliefs About Job and Housing Rights 198
Beliefs About Legal Sanctions and Legal Rights 199
Beliefs About Familial Rights 201
Public Attitudes About Homosexuals Serving in the Military.... 201
Attitudes of Young Adults Regarding Homosexuality and
Military Service 204
General Conclusions on Public Opinion 207
7 . RELEVANT MILITARY OPINION 209
Introduction 209
Los Angeles Times Survey 210
Limitations 211
Findings 211
Moskos/Miller Army Surveys 214
Limitations 215
viii
Findings and Conclusions 216
Conclusions from Both Surveys 219
Focus Groups Conducted by RAND 221
Method 221
What the Participants Told Us 224
Discussion of Homosexuals in the Military 23 0
Conclusions from the Focus Groups 239
Conclusions About Military Opinion 240
8. ISSUES OF CONCERN: EFFECT OF ALLOWING HOMOSEXUALS TO SERVE IN
THE MILITARY ON THE PREVALENCE OF HIV/AIDS 242
The Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS 242
HIV/AIDS in the U.S. Population 243
HIV/AIDS in the Military Population 244
The Military s HIV/AIDS Policy 248
Who Is Tested? 248
Accuracy of HIV Testing 250
Procedures for Military Personnel Who Test HIV Positive .... 253
If Homosexuals Were Allowed to Serve, Would HIV Infection
Increase in the Military? 254
Estimating Transmission Rates 255
Risk Factors for HIV Exposure in the Civilian Population ... 256
Sexual Risk Behaviors for HIV Exposure Among Military
Personnel 263
Infection from Contact with HIV Infected Blood 268
Conclusions 271
9 . ISSUES OF CONCERN: ANTI HOMOSEXUAL VIOLENCE 272
Overview of Data 273
Data Sources and Limitations 273
Summary of Literature on the Incidence of Anti Homosexual
Violence 274
Anti Homosexual Violence in the Military 275
Underreporting of Violence 276
Personal and Environmental Correlates of Anti Homosexual
Violence 277
The Perpetrators of Anti Homosexual Violence 278
The Consequences of Anti Homosexual Violence for the
Victims 278
Anti Homosexual Violence and the Formulation of Policy
Regarding Homosexuals in the Military 279
Anti Homosexual Violence and the Implementation of a Policy
Regarding Homosexuals in the Military 280
A Clear Message of Zero Tolerance from the Leadership 280
Tracking the Incidence of Anti Homosexual Violence 281
Ensuring Adequate Treatment and Disposition of Victims of
Anti Homosexual Violence 281
Conclusions 282
10. WHAT IS KNOWN ABOUT UNIT COHESION AND MILITARY PERFORMANCE 283
Overview 283
Assumptions and Focus of the Chapter 284
The Literature Review 284
Key Issues in the Review 286
ix
Unit Cohesion and Its Effects on Performance 287
What Is Cohesion? 287
What Effect Does Cohesion Have on Unit Performance? 292
Effects of Cohesion on Psychological Coping 297
Other Determinants of Military Performance 298
What Factors Influence Social and Task Cohesion? 299
Propinquity and Group Membership 299
Turnover and Turbulence 300
Leadership 302
Group Size 303
Success Experiences 3 03
Shared Threat 3 04
Similarity/Homogeneity 306
How Would Allowing Acknowledged Homosexuals to Serve Affect
Cohesion and Performance? 3 07
Will Many Units Have Acknowledged Homosexuals as
Members? 308
How Might the Presence of Acknowledged Homosexuals
Influence Cohesion? 312
Will Contact with Acknowledged Homosexuals Influence
Attitudes? 317
Will Negative Attitudes Toward Homosexuality Be Expressed
Behaviorally? 322
Will Heterosexuals Obey an Openly Homosexual Leader? 327
Conclusions 329
11. SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND THE MILITARY: SOME LEGAL
CONSIDERATIONS 332
Introduction 332
The Not Germane Option 332
The Standard of Professional Conduct 334
Legal Background 335
Legal and Legislative Trends Regarding Homosexuals 33 6
The Current Military Policy Regarding Homosexuals 338
General Legal Principles 339
Deference to the Military 339
Equal Protection and the Military 340
Responding to the Prejudices of Others 343
Homosexuals in the Military: Current State of the Law 344
Legal Considerations for the Standard of Professional
Conduct 346
Implementing the Standard of Professional Conduct 346
Background 347
The Standard s Specificity 348
Pre Notification 349
Equal Protection 350
Unequal Enforcement 3 51
On Base/Off Base Conduct 3 52
Legal Issues Regarding the UCMJ 3 53
Rescind Enclosure 3H of DoDD 1332.14 Without Modifying
the MCM 354
Changing the MCM 358
Other Legal Issues 3 63
X
What Privacy Rights Can Heterosexuals Assert? 3 63
Accession and Reinstatement Rights for Previously
Excluded or Discharged Homosexuals 3 64
Benefits 364
Conclusions 366
12 . IMPLEMENTING POLICY CHANGE IN LARGE ORGANIZATIONS 3 68
Introduction 368
Implementation Context 3 69
Military Culture 3 69
The Policy Context 371
Factors That Constrain and Support Policy Implementation 372
Policy Design 373
Implementation Process 375
Local Context for Change 378
Implementing a Policy to End Discrimination 380
Design a Policy That Facilitates Implementation 380
Ensure Leadership Support at All Levels 3 85
Strengthen the Local Context for Change 3 88
Conclusions 3 92
13. POTENTIAL EFFECTS ON MILITARY RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 395
Background 395
Research on Enlistment and Reenlistment 397
Research Framework 3 97
Research Findings 398
Possible Effects of Removing the Ban 399
Enlistments 399
Reenlistments 403
Policy Implications 405
Appendix
A. ILLUSTRATIVE STANDARD OF PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT 409
B. LIVING AND PRIVACY CONDITIONS IN THE MILITARY SERVICE 411
C. LEGAL PROVISIONS CONCERNING SODOMY 418
D. ATTITUDES ABOUT HOMOSEXUALITY AND MILITARY SERVICE IN CANADA,
THE UNITED KINGDOM, AND THE UNITED STATES 420
E. RELEVANT CANADIAN REGULATIONS 423
F. RELEVANT DATA FROM SURVEYS 436
G. LOS ANGELES TIMES POLL 451
H. 1992 SOCIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ARMY 457
I. STATE RESTRICTIONS ON SODOMY 463
Bibliography 465
xi
FIGURES
8 1. Window Period for HIV Testing 253
10 1. Effects of External Threats on Social and Task Cohesion .... 305
10 2. Alternate Models of Cohesion in 5 Person Unit 315
10 3. Attitude Behavior Link Is Indirect 324
B l. Scope of On Site Visits 411
B 2. DoD Minimum Standards of Acceptable Space and Privacy 413
B 3. Scope of Shipboard Visits 415
B 4. Military Life Cycle Model 416
xiii
TABLES
1 1. Numbers and Percentages of Open Homosexuals in Selected
Police and Fire Departments 17
2 1. Estimates of Homosexual Behavior From U.S. Probability
Studies 47
3 1. Categories of People Interviewed, by Country 67
3 2. Selected National and Military Statistics 70
3 3 . Civilian Laws Regarding Homosexuality 72
4 1. Cities Visited Ill
4 2. Selected Demographic Information About Cities Visited Ill
4 3. Sources of Information, by City 114
4 4. Numbers and Percentages of Open Homosexuals in the Police
and Fire Departments of Six Cities 123
6 1. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement:
Homosexuality is incompatible with military service. 203
6 2. In order to deal with the issue of gays in the military,
some people have proposed a plan called Don t Ask, Don t
Tell. According to that plan, the military would no
longer ask personnel whether or not they are homosexual.
But if personnel reveal that they are homosexual, they
would be discharged from the military. Is that a plan you
would support or oppose? 203
7 1. Military Reenlistment Intentions With and Without Ban on
Homosexuals 214
7 2. Percentage Distributions for Agreement or Disagreement
with Proposal That Homosexuals Be Allowed to Enter and
Remain in the Military 216
7 3. Proportion of Males and Females Preferring Each Type of
Fellow Soldier 219
7 4. Proportion of Males and Females Indicating They Strongly
Agree or Agree with Each Statement 220
8 1. U.S. AIDS Diagnoses Reported During the Year Ending March
31, 1993 245
8 2. HIV Positive Tests Among Active Duty Personnel 245
8 3. Rates of HIV Positivity Among People Who Had a Prior
Negative Test, Army 246
8 4. Department of Defense s HIV Testing Policy 249
8 5. HIV Positive Rate Among Civilian Applicants 249
xiv
8 6. Number of Recent Sex Partners, Homosexual/Bisexual Men and
the General Population, Los Angeles County, 1989 90 257
8 7. Mean Frequencies of Vaginal Intercourse Among
Heterosexuals and of Anal Intercourse Among Homosexual and
Bisexual Men in Los Angeles County, 1989 90 by Type of
Partner and Condom Use 261
10 1. Estimated Prevalence of Acknowledged Homosexuals in
Domestic Paramilitary Institutions Visited by RAND 310
13 1. Active Force Enlisted Accessions and the Prime Recruiting
Market 402
13 2. Estimated Reenlistments by Reenlistment Intentions 404
D l. Canadian, U.S., and British Support of Gay Rights in the
Early 1980 s 421
D 2. In your opinion, should homosexuals be allowed to adopt
children or not? 421
D 3. Canada: Do you think homosexuals should or should not be
employed in the following occupations...
U.S.: Do you think homosexuals should or should not be
hired for each of the following occupations... 422
D 4. Do you think that ... should be allowed to serve in the
Canadian military or not? 422
F l. Description of the Various Surveys Cited in This Study 436
F 2. What about sexual relations between two adults of the
same sex do you think it is always wrong, almost always
wrong, wrong only sometimes, or not wrong at all? 438
F 3. Do you personally think that homosexual relationships
between consenting adults is morally wrong, or is not a
moral issue? 438
F 4. Do you feel that homosexuality should be considered an
acceptable alternative lifestyle, or not? 438
F 5. What about sexual relations between two adults of the
same sex do you think it is always wrong, almost always
wrong, wrong only sometimes, or not wrong at all? 439
F 6. Do you feel that homosexuality should be considered an
acceptable alternative lifestyle or not? 440
F 7. Would you say you agree a lot, agree a little, disagree a
little, or disagree a lot... I could be friends with a gay
person. 441
F 8. Do you think being homosexual is something people choose
to be, or do you think it is something they cannot
change? 441
F 9. In general, do you think homosexuals should or should not
have equal rights in terms of job opportunities? 442
XV
F 10. Do you think homosexuals should or should not be hired
for each of the following occupations? 442
F ll. Would you permit or not permit your child to go play at
the home of a friend who lives with a homosexual parent? . . . 442
F 12. Some time ago, the citizens of Miami voted to repeal a
county ordinance that banned discrimination in employment
and housing based on a person s sexual preferences. The
ordinance essentially meant that someone who is homosexual
could not be kept from holding a particular job or living
in any type of housing simply because he or she is
homosexual. Which of these statements best describes how
you feel about the law and discrimination against
homosexuals? 443
F 13. We can choose our friends, but we can t always choose the
people we work closely with. Here is a list of some
different types of people. For each one, would you tell
me whether you would strongly object to working around
them, or prefer not to work around them, or wouldn t mind
working around them? 443
F 14. Do you think marriages between homosexual men or between
homosexual women should be recognized as legal by the
law? 444
F 15. Do you think that homosexual couples should be legally
permitted to adopt children? 444
F 16. What about a .... Can this be a family? 444
F 17. Do you feel that family leave laws should or should not
also apply to homosexual people who need to care for a
seriously ill companion? 445
F 18. In general, do you think that states should have the
right to prohibit particular sexual practices conducted in
private between consenting 445
F 19. Do you think homosexual relations between consenting
adults should or should not be legal? 445
F 20. Do you think that the laws which protect the civil rights
of racial or religious minorities should be used to
protect the rights of homosexuals? 446
F 21. Should a federal law be passed protecting homosexuals
from discrimination? 446
F 22. Do you think homosexuals should or should not be able to
serve in the armed forces? 446
F 23. Do you favor or oppose permitting homosexuals to serve in
the military? 446
F 24. Do you think people who join the military should be asked
if they are homosexual, or not? 447
xvi
F 25. Do you approve or disapprove of allowing openly
homosexual men and women to serve in the armed forces of
the United States? 447
F 26. Do you approve or disapprove of ending the ban on
homosexuals from serving in the military? 447
F 27. Which is closer to your position on allowing gays and
lesbians in the military? 448
F 28. If the United States returned to a military draft, it
would not be necessary to draft everyone of military age.
That is, certain types of people could be exempted, even
though they were otherwise qualified for service. Should
homosexuals be exempted?
If a military draft were to become necessary, should
young women be required to participate as well as young
men, or not? 448
F 29. For each that I mention, please tell me if you agree or
disagree.... 448
F 30. Proportion who agree a lot or agree a little to the
statement I could be friends with a gay person by
various characteristics 449
F 31. Characteristics of those stating that they definitely
will or probably will serve in the armed forces
contrasted with those stating that they probably won t
or definitely won t 450
1 1. Current Status of Sodomy Restrictions, by State 464
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| title | Sexual orientation and US military personnel policy options and assessment |
| title_auth | Sexual orientation and US military personnel policy options and assessment |
| title_exact_search | Sexual orientation and US military personnel policy options and assessment |
| title_full | Sexual orientation and US military personnel policy options and assessment National Defense Research Institute |
| title_fullStr | Sexual orientation and US military personnel policy options and assessment National Defense Research Institute |
| title_full_unstemmed | Sexual orientation and US military personnel policy options and assessment National Defense Research Institute |
| title_short | Sexual orientation and US military personnel policy |
| title_sort | sexual orientation and us military personnel policy options and assessment |
| title_sub | options and assessment |
| topic | Personalpolitik (DE-588)4045269-4 gnd Militär (DE-588)4039305-7 gnd Homosexualität (DE-588)4025798-8 gnd |
| topic_facet | Personalpolitik Militär Homosexualität USA |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=006483408&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |