Traditional logic:
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Washington, D.C.
Univ. Pr. of America
1982
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| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | XVI, 316 S. Ill. |
| ISBN: | 0819126160 |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text | Titel: Traditional logic
Autor: Bethel, A. C
Jahr: 1982
TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface .................. xiii I. Introduction............... 1 II. Sane Definitions............. 7 A. Proposition, Argument, Deduction and Induction............. 7 B. Validity and Soundness........ 8 C. Sane Differences between Deduction and Induction.......... 10 Exercises.................13 III. Identifying Argument Structure......15 Exercises.................21 TV. Terms and Classes.............23 A. Terms.................23 B. Denotation and Connotation ...... 23 C. The Relation between Connotation and Denotation............25 D. Must Every Term Denote Something or Other?................26 E. Ambiguity and Vagueness........28 F. The Negations of Terms........29 G. Seme Further Relations between Terms . 30 H. Different Kinds of Denotations .... 32 1. Using a Term Versus Talking about a Term..... 32 2. Referring to Classes Versus Referring to Individual Members of a Class............33 I. The Supposition of Terms.......34 J. Defining Terms............34 1. Definition and Connotation .... 34 2. Definition and Denotation.....39 Exercises.................41 V. Categorical Propositions ......... 45 A. What a Categorical Proposition Is. . . 45 B. The Parts of the Categorical Proposition ................45 C. The Types of Categorical Propositions. 46 1. Quality and Quantity.......46 2. The Four Possible Combinations of Quality and Quantity.......46 3. Seme Shorthand and a Chart .... 47 v
D. Venn Diagrams of Categorical Propositions ............. 49 E. The Distribution of Terms in Categorical Propositions ....... 54 1. What Distributed Term Means. . . 54 2. Which Terms are in Fact Distributed .............54 3. Why Those Terms are Distributed. . 55 4. Why Distribution is Important. . . 55 5. A Chart for Distribution.....56 Exercises.................59 VI. The Square of Opposition and Immediate Inferences................63 A. Four Relations among Categorical Propositions.............63 1. Relations of Opposition......63 2. Relations of Subaltemation. ... 63 B. Application of these Relations to the Types of Categorical Propositions. . . 63 1. Relations of Opposition......63 a. Contradiction.........63 b. Contrareity..........65 c. Subcontrareity........65 2. Relations of Subaltemation. ... 66 C. The Square of Opposition.......66 D. Venn Diagrams and the Square of Opposition..............69 E. Modem Logic and the Square of Opposition..............70 F. Sane One-Premise Arguments Based on the Square of Opposition.......70 Exercises.................75 VII. More Immediate Inferences: Conversion, Cbversion, and Contraposition.......77 A. Equivalance in Meaning........77 B. Conversion..............77 C. Venn Diagrams and Conversion.....80 D. Obversion...............80 E. Contraposition: Obversion and Conversion Canbined...........83 F . Venn Diagrams and Contraposition ... 85 vi
86 G. An Anomalous Case and its Significance ........ H. How to Reason Using Immediate Inferences..............87 Exercises.................91 VIII. The Categorical Syllogian.........95 A. What a Categorical Syllogism is. . . . 95 1. Sane Terminology.........95 2. How Syllogians Wbrk........95 B. Mood and Figure and Standard Form. . . 96 1. Standard Form...........96 2. Figure..............96 3. Mood...............97 4. Mood and Figure Combined.....97 C. Rules for Assessing the Validity of Syllogisms..............98 D. Justifying the Rules.........101 E. Venn Diagrams for Categorical Syllogisns..............103 F. Venn Diagrams and Conventions Again. . 107 Exercises.................Ill IX. Syllogistic Arguments in Ordinary Language.................123 A. Standard Form Syllogisms and the Negations of Terms..........123 1. Hew the Problem Arises......123 2. Inmediate Inference and Standard Form...............124 3. Transposing from One Figure to Another..............125 B. Translating Propositions into Standard Form.............128 1. Non-Standard Indicators of Classes 128 a. Adjectives and Adjectival Phrases............128 b. Verbs other than the Verb Tt Be ............129 c. Pronouns...........129 2. Non-Standard Indicators of Qaality and Quantity...........130 a. Each, Any, Every, Whoever, Whatever, Everything ..... 130 vii
131 b. There is, There are. . . . c. Nothing, There is no, There are no............131 d. Not All, Not Every, Not Everyone, All_is not_, Every_ is not............131 e. Exclusive Propositions: Only, None but...........132 f. An, a, the..........132 g. No Word is Provided to Indidate Quality or Quantity . . . 133 h. Not Quite All, All but .... 134 i. Conditional Propositions: If _, then_; __only if_; Provided that_, . 135 3. Singular Propositions.......137 C. Parameters: Making Terms Cormensurate. 143 1. The Problen............143 2. The Solution: Parameters.....144 3. Applications...........145 Exercises.................147 X. Truth-Functional Propositions.......155 A. Simple, Canpound, and Truth- Functional Defined..........155 B. Sane Types of Canpound Proposition . . 156 C. Applications.............162 Exercises.................165 XI. Truth-Functional Arguments........169 A. The Disjunctive Syllogism.......169 B. The Alternative Syllogism.......171 C. Mixed Hypothetical Syllogisms (1): Modus Ponens.............174 D. Mixed Hypothetical Syllogisms (2): Modus Tollens.............175 E. Pure Hypothetical Syllogisms.....177 F. The Dilemma..............179 G. Natural Deduction: A Brief Look. . . . 185 Exercises.................189 XII. Introduction to Induction.........193 XIII. Induction by Enumeration ......... 197 A. What Induction by Enumeration is . . . 197 viii
B. What Makes These Arguments Stronger or Weaker?..............197 C. Enumeration and Probability......198 D. Fallacies of Enumeration: Two Types of Hasty Generalization........199 1. Insufficient Sampling.......200 2. Biased Sampling..........200 XIV. Arguments to Establish Hypotheses.....203 A. The Idea of an Explanation......203 B. The Importance of the First Figure in Explanations............204 C. The Search for an Explanation is Usually the Search for the Minor Premise of a First Figure Syllogism. . 204 D. The Structure of Inductive Arguments to Establish—or Reject—Hypotheses. . 206 1. The Basic Form of these Arguments: Affirming the Consequent. . 206 2. Testing Hypotheses: What Makes a Hypothesis More or Less Likely to be True?............207 a. The Roles of Induction and Deduction in Testing Hypotheses .............207 b. The Entire Process Outlined in (a) is Called Testing, Confirming, or Verifying a Hypothesis..........208 c. Disconfirming Hypotheses . . . 210 d. Crucial Tests and Alternative Hypotheses..........213 E. Fallacies in Arguing for Hypotheses. . 215 1. The Fallacy of Special Pleading. . 215 2. Ad Hoc Hypotheses.........217 F. Other Considerations Affecting the Acceptability of Hypotheses......218 1. Simplicity............218 2. Theoretical Support and Theoretical Disconf irmation..........220 3. The Role of the Expert: Arguments fran Authority..........222 rx
XV. Arguments to Establish Causes.......225 A. The Idea of a Cause..........225 B. Techniques for Identifying Causes: Mill s Methods ............ 225 1. The Method of Agreement......226 2. The Method of Difference.....226 3. Ihe Combined Method of Agreement and Difference..........227 4. The Method of Concomitant Variations............228 5. The Method of Residues......229 C. Fallacies in Reasoning about Causes: Post Hoc Fallacies..........230 1. The Fallacy of Confusing a Coincidence with a Cause.....230 2. Confusing a Cause with an Effect . 230 3. Confusing Two Effects of an Underlying Cause with a Cause and an Effect..............230 XVI. Arguments from Analogy..........233 A. Analogies and Arguments........233 B. Tests for Evaluating Arguments from Analogy.............234 C. The Structure of Arguments from Analogy................237 D. Nominalist! Again...........239 E. Two Final Points about Inductive Arguments...............239 Exercises.................241 XVII. Fallacies.................253 A. What Fallacy is; Types of Fallacies. . 253 1. Fallacy Means Bad Argument .... 253 2. Types of Fallacy.........253 a. Formal Fallacies ....... 253 b. Inductive Fallacies......253 c. Informal Fallacies ...... 254 B. The Informal Fallacies: A Closer Look. 255 1. Question-Begging Fallacies .... 255 2. Fallacies Of Ambiguity......257 a. How They Work.........257 b. Equivocation.........257 x
c. exposition and Division. . . 257 d. Each and Every........260 e. The Use-Mention Fallacy . . . 260 f. Confusing Possible with Actual Existence.......260 g. Anphiboly and Accent.....260 3. Fallacies of Relevance......262 a. Argumentům ad Heroinem .... 262 b. Argumentům ad Vericundiam . . 263 c. Argumentům ad Ignorantiam . . 264 d. Argumentům ad Populum .... 265 i. Bandwagon Argument. . . 265 ii. Sncb Appeal......265 iii. Appeal to Popular Feeling........266 e. Argumentům ad Misericordiam . 267 f. Argumentům ad Baculum .... 268 g. Accident...........268 h. Secundum Qoid........269 i. False Dilemma, Black-and- White Fallacy, and False Obversion..........269 j. Ignoratio Elenchi......271 C. Detecting and Avoiding Fallacies. . . 271 Exercises................277 XVIII. Suggestions for Further Reading ..... 287 Answers to Selected Exercises ...... 289 Index..................305 xi
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| spellingShingle | Bethel, A. C. Traditional logic Logique Logic Logik (DE-588)4036202-4 gnd |
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