An introduction to language:
Gespeichert in:
| Hauptverfasser: | , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Fort Worth [u.a.]
Harcourt Brace College publ.
1993
|
| Ausgabe: | 5. ed. |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | XVI, 544 S. Ill. |
| ISBN: | 0030549833 |
Internformat
MARC
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a An introduction to language |c Victoria Fromkin ; Robert Rodman |
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| 264 | 1 | |a Fort Worth [u.a.] |b Harcourt Brace College publ. |c 1993 | |
| 300 | |a XVI, 544 S. |b Ill. | ||
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| 650 | 4 | |a Linguistik | |
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| 650 | 4 | |a Language and languages | |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text | Preface vii
The Nature of Human Language
KäEJUini What Is Language?
Linguistic Knowledge 4
Knowledge of the Sound System 4
Knowledge of the Meaning of Words 5
The Creativity of Linguistic Knowledge 8
Knowledge of Sentences and Nonsentences 10
Linguistic Knowledge and Performance 11
What Is Grammar? 13
Descriptive Grammars 13
Prescriptive Grammars 14
Teaching Grammars 16
Language Universals 17
Animal Languages 18
Talking Parrots 19
The Birds and the Bees 20
In the Beginning: The Origin of Language 22
God s Gift to Mankind? 23
The First Language 23
Human Invention or the Cries of Nature 24
What We Know About Language 25
Summary 26
References for Further Reading 28
Exercises 29
Grammatical Aspects of Language
¦H:nu»;fB Morphology: The Words of Language
Dictionaries 36
Contents
Classes of Words 38
Lexical Content Words 38
Function Words 39
Word Sets 39
Morphemes: The Minimal Units of Meaning 41
Bound and Free Morphemes 42
Prefixes and Suffixes 43
Infixes 44
Circumfixes 45
Huckles and Ceives 45
Rules of Word Formation 47
Lexical Gaps 48
Derivational Morphology 48
Pullet Surprises 51
Word Coinage 53
Compounds 53
Meaning of Compounds 54
Universality of Compounding 55
Acronyms 56
Blends 56 l
Back Formations 57
Abbreviations 57
Words from Names 57
Grammatical Morphemes 59
Inflectional Morphemes 60
Exceptions and Suppletions 62
Morphology and Syntax 63
Summary 64
References for Further Reading 65
Exercises 66
¦h:mj»:iM Syntax: The Sentence Patterns of Language
Grammatical or Ungrammatical 73
What Grammaticality Is Based On 73
What Grammaticality Is Not Based On 75
What Else Do You Know About Syntax? 76
Sentence Structure 78
Syntactic Categories 79
Phrase Structure Trees 81 ;
More Phrase Structure Trees 83 }
The Infinitude of Language 85 ]
i
Contents ix
Phrase Structure Rules 87
Growing Trees 89
Trees That Won t Grow 92
More Phrase Structure Rules 95
Heads of Phrases 96
The Lexicon 97
Subcategorization 98
More Lexical Differences 99
Transformational Rules 100
Long Distance Relationships 103
Wh Sentences 104
Recursion Revisited 105
More About Sentence Structure 108
Types of Language 110
Summary 112
References for Further Reading 113
Exercises 115
¦h:mj»;W Semantics: The Meanings of Language
Word Meaning 124
Semantic Properties 124
Evidence for Semantic Properties 126
Semantic Properties and the Lexicon 127
More Semantic Relationships 128
Homonyms and Ambiguity 128
Synonyms and Paraphrases 131
Antonyms 132
Formation of Antonyms 134
Names 134
Phrase and Sentence Meaning 137
Combining Words into Sentences 137
Thematic Roles 139
Semantics and Syntax 142
The Truth of Sentences 145
Sense and Reference 147
When Rules Are Broken 148
Anomaly: No Sense and Nonsense 148
Metaphor 150
Idioms 152
Discourse Meaning 154
Contents
Pronouns 154
Missing Parts 156
The Articles the and a 156
Maxims of Conversation 157
Pragmatics 158
Speech Acts 159
Presuppositions 160
Deixis 162
Summary 164
References for Further Reading 166
Exercises 167
¦Hinuijiij Phonetics: The Sounds of Language
Sound Segments 176
Identity of Speech Sounds 178
Spelling and Speech 180
The Phonetic Alphabet 181
Articulatory Phonetics 186
Airstream Mechanisms 186
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds 187
Nasal and Oral Sounds 189
Places of Articulation 191
Labials 191
Interdentals 192
Alveolars 192
Velars 192
Palatals 192
Coronals 192
Manners of Articulation 193
Stops and Continuants 193
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds 194
Fricatives 195
Affricates 196
Liquids 197
Glides 197
Syllabic Sounds 198
Vowels 199
Tongue Position 200
Lip Rounding 200
Diphthongs 202 |
Nasalization of Vowels 202 !
Prosodic Supra segmental Features 203 |
Contents xi
Long and Short (Tense and Lax Vowels) 203
Tone and Intonation 204
Diacritics 206
Phonetic Symbols for American English Consonants 207
Summary 210
References for Further Reading 211
Exercises 212
¦H:MJ»:ffl Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonemes: The Phonological Units of Language 217
Minimal Pairs 218
Free Variation 220
Distinctive Features 221
Binary Valued Features 221
Sounds That Are Not Phonemes 222
Phonemes, Phones, and Allophones 223
Complementary Distribution 224
Predictability of Redundant Features 225
Unpredictability of Phonemic Features 227
More on Redundancies 228
Sequential Constraints 230
Syllable Structure 231
Natural Classes 232
Major Class Features 233
Obstruents and Sonorants 233
[ + consonantal) Sounds 234
[ + syllabic] Sounds 234
Sibilants 235
Feature Specifications for American English Consonants
and Vowels 235
More on Prosodic Phonology 237
Intonation 237
Word Stress 238
Sentenee and Phrase Stress 239
The Rules of Phonology 241
The Formal ization of Phonological Rules 241
Assimilation Rules 244
Dissimilation Rules 246
Feature Addition Rules 247
Segment Deletion and Addition Rules 248
Movement (Metathesis) Rules 249
Contents
From One to Many and from Many to One 250
The Function of Phonological Rutes 253
Slips of the Tongue: Evidence for Phonological Rules 254
The Pronunciation of Morphemes 255
Morphophonemics 257
More Sequential Constraints 259
Summary 261
References for Further Reading 263
Exercises 265
Social Aspects of Language
H3E3II3IB Language in Society
Dialects 275
Regional Dialects 276
Accents 277
Dialects of English 278
Phonological Differences 279
Lexical Differences 280
Dialect Atlases 280
Syntactic Differences 281
The Standard 283
Language Purists 283
Banned Languages 284
Black English 287
Phonology of Black English 288
Syntactic Differences between BE and SAE 289
Double Negative 289
Deletion of the Verb Be 289
Habitual Be 290
History of Black English 290
Hispanic English 292
Lingua Francas 294
Pidgins and Creoles 295
Pidgins 295
Creoles 298 :
I
Styles, Slang, and Jargon 299 I
Styles 299 1
I
Contents xiij
Slang 300
Jargon and Argot 301
Taboo or Not Taboo 302
Euphemisms 304
Racial and National Epithets 306
Language and Sexism 306
Marked and Unmarked Forms 307
The Generic He 309
More Asymmetries 310
Female Language 310
Summary 312
References for Further Reading 313
Exercises 315
¦h:mj»;i!M Language Change: The Syllables of Time
The Regularity of Sound Change 322
Phonological Change 324
Phonological Rules 325
The Great Vowel Shift 326
Morphological Change 327
Syntactic Change 330
Lexical Change 332
New Words 332
Borrowings 332
Loss of Words 336
Semantic Change 336
Broadening 336
Narrowing 337
Meaning Shifts 337
Reconstructing Dead Languages 337
The Comparative Method 341
Historical Evidence 342
The Genetic Classification of Languages 344
Why Do Languages Change? 348
Languages of the World 350
Summary 355
References for Further Reading 355
Exercises 357
Contents
¦diHiJJXB Writing: The ABCs of Language
The History of Writing 364
Pictograms and Ideograms 364
Cuneiform Writing 366
The Rebus Principle 368
From Hieroglyphs to the Alphabet 369
Modern Writing Systems 370
Word Writing 371
Syllabic Writing 373
Alphabetic Writing 374
Writing and Speech 377
Spelling 379
Spelling Pronunciations 383
Summary 384
References for Further Reading 385
Exercises 386
Biological Aspects of Language
EH33ES1H Language Acquisition
Stages in Language Acquisition 394
The First Sounds 395
Babbling 396
First Words 397
The Two Word Stage 399
From Telegraph to Infinity 400
Theories of Child Language Acquisition 402
Do Children Learn by Imitation? 402
Do Children Learn by Reinforcement? 403
Children Form Rules and Construct a Grammar 404
Errors or Rules? 406
Inflectional Errors 407
Phonological and Morphological Rule Acquisition 407
The Acquisition of Syntax 408
Learning the Meaning of Words 410
The Biological Foundations of Language Acquisition 411 j
The Innateness Hypothesis 411 |
The Critical Age Hypothesis 413 j
Contents xv
The Acquisition of Bird Songs 414
Sign Languages: Evidence for the Biology of Language 415
American Sign Language (ASL) 416
The Acquisition of ASL 420
Learning a Second (or Third or . . .) Language 421
Theories of Second Language Acquisition 423
Can Chimps Learn Human Language? 424
Gua 426
Viki 426
Washoe 426
Sarah 427
Learning Yerkish 427
Koko 427
Nim Chimpsky 427
Clever Hans 428
Kanzi 429
Summary 430
References for Further Reading 432
Exercises 433
EEHHIin! Human Processing: Brain, Mind, and Language
The Human Brain 437
The Two Sides of the Brain 437
Evidence for Brain Lateralization 441
Aphasia Studies 442
Split Brains 446
More Lateral ization Evidence 449
The Evolution of Language 450
The Autonomy of Language 451
The Linguistic Mind at Work: Human Language
Processing 453
Comprehension 454
Comprehension Models and Experimental Studies 455
Speech Production 458
Planning Units 459
Lexical Selection 460
Application and Misapplication of Rules 461
Nonlinguistic Influences 462
Summary 462
Contents
References for Further Reading 464
Exercises 465
Language in the Computer Age
¦HiMJMirfCT Computer Processing of Human Language
Machine Translation 472
Text Processing 473
Computers That Talk and Listen 474
The Speech Signal 475
Talking Machines (Speech Synthesis) 477
Knowing What to Say 479
Machines for Understanding Speech 481
Speech Recognition 482
Speech Understanding 483
Parsing 483
Semantic Processing 486
Pragmatics 487
Computer Models of Grammars 488
Language and Artificial Intelligence 489
Summary 491
References for Further Reading 492
Exercises 494
EEQinnQil Glossary 499
|
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