Verfügbarkeit: Sea power in its relations to the war of 1812

Sea power in its relations to the war of 1812: 1. - [Nachdr. der Ausg.] 1905. - 1969. - XX, 423 S. : Ill., Kt.

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1. Verfasser:	Mahan, Alfred T. 1840-1914 (VerfasserIn)
Format:	Buch
Sprache:	Undetermined
Veröffentlicht:	New York, NY Haskell House 1969
Online-Zugang:	Inhaltsverzeichnis

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adam_text	CONTENTS ANTECEDENTS OF THE WAR CHAPTER I Colonial Conditions Page Remote origin of the causes of the War of 1812.................... 1 Two principal causes : impressment and the carrying trade ..... 2 Claim of Great Britain as to impressment .......... 3 Counter-claim of the United States................................... 4 Tack of unanimity among the American people .... .... 5 Prevailing British ideas as to sea power and its relations to carrying trade and impressment............................................. 9 The Navigation Acts................................................... 10 Distinction between “ Commerce ** and w Navigation ”..............11 History and development of the Navigation Acts, and of the national opinions relating to them.........................................13 Unanimity of conviction in Great Britain..............................22 Supposed benefit to the British carrying trade from loss of the Ameri- can colonies......................................................23 British entrepôt legislation..........................................24 Relation of the entrepôt idea to the Orders in Council of 1807 .... 27 Colonial monopoly a practice common to all European maritime states 27 Effect of the Independence of the United States upon traditional com- mercial prepossessions ...............................................29 Consequent policy of Great Britain....................................29 Commercial development of the British transatlantic colonies during the colonial period . . . 31 Interrelation of the continental and West India colonies of Great Britain......................................................... 35 Bearing of this upon the Navigation Acts............................ 36 Rivalry of American-built ships with British navigation during the colonial period ................................................ 37 Resultant commercial rivalry after Independence ......................40 Consequent disagreements, derived from colonial restrictions, and leading to war ...................................................41 5 Xll CONTENTS CHAPTER II From Independence to Jay s Treaty Page Rupture of the colonial relation......................................42 Transitional character of the period 1774-1794, to the United States . 43 Epochal significance of Jay s Treaty..................................43 The question of British navigation, as affected by the loss of the colonies..............................* ............... . 45 British commercial expectations from the political weakness of the United States* 1783-1789 . . . ............................. 46 System advocated by Lord Sheffield . . ............................47 Based upon considerations of navigation and naval power ..... 49 Navigation Acts essentially military in purpose.......................51 Jefferson s views upon this question..................................52 Imperial value of the British Navigation Act before American In- dependence ......................................................... 53 Influence of the inter-colonial trade at the same period . .... 55 Essential rivalry between it and British trade in general.............55 Common interest of continental America and of Great Britain in the West Indies............................................................56 Pitt’s Bill, of March, 1783 58 Controversy provoked by it in Great Britain.................... 60 British jealousy of American navigation...............................63 Desire to exclude American navigation from British colonial trade . . 65 Lord Sheffield’s pamphlet................................................ 65 Reply of the West India planters.................................... 66 Lapse of Pitt’s bill ......................................................67 Navigation Acts applied in full rigor to intercourse between the United States and West Indies.................................... . . 68 This policy continues till Jay s Treaty...............................69 Not a wrong to the United States, though an injury....................70 Naval impotence of the United States........................ 71 Dependence on Portugal against Barbary pirates........................72 Profit of Great Britain from this impotence .........................74 Apparent success of Sheffield’s trade policy, 1783-1789 .............. 75 Increase of British navigation........................................... 75 American counteractive legislation after the adoption of the Constitution 76 Report of the committee of the British Privy Council on this subject, 1790 77 Aggressive spirit of the Navigation Acts..............................79 Change of conditions through American navigation laws.................80 Recommendations of the British committee .............................81 Effects of the French Revolution....................................... 85 Collapse of French colonial system.........................................85 Failure of Sheffield s policy, in supplying the West Indies from Canada 86 Great Britain s war necessities require aid of American shipping ... 86 CONTENTS xui Page Her resolve to deprive France of the same aid......................88 Consequent lawless measures towards American ships and commerce . 88 Jay’s mission. — Impressment not mentioned in his instructions ... 88 CHAPTER III From Jay’s Treaty to the Orders in Council, 1794-1807 Arbitrary war measures of Great Britain, 1793 ..................... 89 Rule of 1756 ..................................................... 90 Peculiar relation of the United States to this Rule................92 Jay’s arrival in London............................................93 Characteristics of his negotiations......................... 94 Great Britain concedes direct trade with West Indies...............95 Rejection of this article by the Senate, on account of accompanying conditions.........................................................96 Concession nevertheless continued by British order.................97 Reasons for this tolerance.......................................... 97 Conditions of trade from Jay’s mission to the Peace of 1801 .... 97 No concession of the principle of the Rule of 1756 ................ 98 Renewal of war between Great Britain and France, 1803............... 99 Prosperity of American commerce......................................100 Question raised of “ direct trade ”............... 100 Decision in British Admiralty Court adverse to United States, 1805 . 101 United States subjected again to colonial regulation.............103 Remonstrance and negotiation of Monroe, American Minister in London 104 Death of Pitt. Change of ministry in Great Britain. Position of Charles James Fox.................................................105 Fox’s attempt at compromise..........................................108 The blockade of May 16, 1806 ...................................... 108 Its lawfulness contested by the United States......................110 Its importance in history............................................112 Retaliatory commercial action by the United States.................113 Pinkney sent to England as colleague to Monroe.....................113 Colonial trade, and impressment of seamen from American vessels, the leading subjects mentioned in their instructions................114 Historical summary of the impressment question.......................114 Opening of negotiations by Monroe and Pinkney......................128 Death of Fox.........................................................131 Course of the negotiations.......................................... 131 Provisional treaty, signed December 31, 1806 133 Rejected by United States Government................................ 133 Monroe and Pinkney directed to reopen negotiations...................133 Change of ministry in Great Britain. Canning becomes Foreign Secretary.........................................................134 The British Government refuses further negotiation...................135 XIV CONTENTS Page Monroe leaves England, Pinkney remaining as minister................135 “ Free Trade and Sailors’ Bights 99 . . . . ......................135 Consistency of Jefferson s Administration on the subject of impressment 137 It neglects to prepare for war.......................................138 CHAPTER IV From the Orders in Council to War Reservation of the British Government in signing the treaty of Decem- ber 31, 1806 141 The Berlin Decree.................................................. 142 Ambiguity of its wording.............................................143 The question of “ private property, so called, embarked in commercial venture at sea. Discussion...................................... 144 Wide political scope of the Berlin Decree...........................148 Twofold importance of the United States in international policy . . . 149 Consequent aims of France and Great Britain.........................149 British Order in Council of January 7, 1807 .......................150 Attitude of the United States Government...........................152 Military purpose of the Berlin Decree and the Continental System . . 153 The “ Chesapeake ” affair................................. 155 Conference concerning it between Canning and Monroe ...... 156 Action of President Jefferson........................................160 Use made of it by Canning...........................................161 Correspondence concerning the M Chesapeake 99 affair................ 161 Rose appointed envoy to Washington to negotiate a settlement . . , 165 Failure of his mission...............................................167 Persistent British refusal to punish the offending officer..........168 Significance of the “ Chesapeake 99 affair in the relations of the two nations.......................................................... 168 Its analogy to impressment . 170 Enforcement of the Berlin Decree by Napoleon........................172 Its essential character .............................................174 The Decree and the Continental System are supported by the course of the American Government........................................175 Pinkney s conviction of Great Britain s peril.......................177 The British Orders in Council, November, 1807 .....................177 Their effect upon the United States . .............................178 Just resentment in America...........................................178 Action of the Administration and Congress............................181 The Embargo Act of December, 1807 .............................. 182 Explanations concerning it to-Great Britain..........................183 Its intentions, real and alleged.....................................185 Its failure, as an alternative to war...............................186 Jefferson’s aversion to the carrying trade...........................187 CONTENTS XV Page Growing ill-feeling between the United States and Great Britain . . . 190 Belief to Great Britain from the effects of the Continental System, by the Spanish revolt against Napoleon....................... 191 Depression of United States industries under the Embargo..............192 Difficulty of enforcement..............................................194 Evasions and smuggling............................................... 195 The Embargo beneficial to Canada and Nova Scotia......................198 Effects in Great Britain...............................................199 Relief to British navigation through the Embargo......................200 Effect of the Embargo upon American revenue...........................202 Numbers of American vessels remain abroad, submitting to the Orders in Council, aod accepting British licenses and British convoy . . . 203 Napoleon’s Bayonne Decree against them; April 17, 1808 ............. 203 Illustrations of the working of Napoleon’s Decrees and of the Orders in Council............................................................204 Vigorous enforcement of the Embargo in 1808 ........................ 206 Popular irritation and opposition .....................................207 Act for its further enforcement, January 9, 1809 ..................... 208 Evidences of overt resistance to it ..................................209 Act for partial repeal, introduced February 8.........................210 Conflicting opinions as to the Embargo, in and out of Congress . . . 211 The Non-Intercourse Act, March 1, 1809 .............................214 Its effect upon commercial restrictions................................215 Canning’s advances, in consequence of Non-Intercourse Act . . . . 215 Instructions sent to Erskine, British Minister at Washington . . . . 216 Erskine’s misleading communication of them, April 18, 1809 . . . . 218 Consequent renewal of trade with Great Britain ........................219 Erskine disavowed. Non-Intercourse resumed, August 9, 1809 . . . 219 Orders in Council of November, 1807, revoked; and substitute issued, April 26, 1809 220 Consequent partial revival of American commerce................. 220 Francis J. Jackson appointed as Erskine’s successor ....... 221 His correspondence with the American Secretary of State...............222 Further communication with him refused................................225 Criticism of the American side of this correspondence.................226 Wellesley succeeds Canning as British Foreign Secretary...............229 Jackson’s dismissal communicated to Wellesley by Pinkney..............229 Wellesley delays action ............................................. 230 British view of the diplomatic situation...............................231 Failure of the Non-Intercourse Act ..................................232 Difficulty of finding a substitute.....................................233 Act of May 1, 1810. — Its provisions..................................234 Napoleon’s Rambouillet Decree, March 23, 1810 ..................... 235 Act of May 1, 1810, communicated to France and Great Britain . . 236 Napoleon’s action. Champagny’s letter, August 5, 1810.................237 Madison accepts it as- revoking the French Decrees....................238 XVI CONTENTS Page The arguments for and against this interpretation...................239 Great Britain refuses to accept it.................................242 Statement of her position in the matter.............................243 Wellesley’s procrastinations...........................................245 Pinkney states to him the American view, at length, December 10, 1810 245 Wellesley’s reply......................................................246 Inconsistent action of the French Government........................247 Non-Intercourse with Great Britain revived by statute, March 2, 1811 . 249 The American Minister withdraws from London, February 28, 1811 . 251 Non-Intercourse with Great Britain remains in vigor to, and during, the war........................................ .............252 Augustus J. Foster appointed British Minister to the United States, February, 1811 ...................................... ... 252 His instructions .................................................... 253 His correspondence with the Secretary of State.........................254 Settlement of the Chesapeake ” affair..................................255 The collision between the £ President ” and the “ Little Belt ” ... 256 Special session of Congress summoned................................259 The President s Message to Congress, November 5, 1811...............259 Increase of the army voted.............................................259 Debate on the navy................................................... 260 Congress refuses to increase the navy, January 27, 1812 ............ 263 Embargo of ninety days preparatory to war, April 4................. 263 The evasions of this measure...........................................264 Increasing evidence of the duplicity of Napoleon s action .... .266 Report of the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, March 10, 1812 . . 269 Consequent British declaration....................................... 270 Use of these papers by Barlow, American Minister to France .... 271 The spurious French Decree of April 28, 1811, communicated to Barlow........................................................... 272 Communicated to the British Government.................................273 Considerations influencing the British Government ....... 274 The Orders in Council revoked..........................................276 Madison sends a war message to Congress, June 1,1812................279 Declaration of war, June 18, 1812 .................................279 Conditions of the army, navy, and treasury..........................279 CHAPTER V The Theatre of Operations Limitations on American action through deficient sea power .... 283 Warfare against commerce considered....................................284 Its financial and political effects....................................285 Its military bearing................................................. 285 Distinction between military and commercial blockade...................286 CONTENTS xvii Page Commercial blockade identical in essence with commerce-destroying by cruisers................................................. 287 Recognition of this by Napoleon.....................................287 Commerce destruction by blockade the weapon of the stronger navy; by cruisers, of the weaker .................................... 288 Inefficiency of the American Government shown in the want of naval preparation......................................................289 Conditions in the army even worse................................290 Jefferson’s sanguine expectations........................ 291 Propriety of the invasion of Canada discussed.................. 292 The United States, weak on the seaboard, relatively strong towards Canada...........................................................295 Function of the seaboard in the war; defensive..................... 296 Offensive opportunity essential to any scheme of defence............298 Application of this principle ; in general, and to 1812.............298 Conditions on the Canada frontier, favoring the offensive by the United States....................................................... 300 Importance of the Great Takes to military operations........ . 301 Over-confidence of Americans.....................................303 Corresponding apprehension of British officers . 304 Decisive points on the line between the countries...................305 Importance of the Indians as an element in the situation............306 Proper offensive policy of the United States.....................307 Natural advantages favoring the Uni ted .States.....................309 The land frontier the proper scene of American offensive action . . . 310 Seaboard conditions, for offence and defence................... 311 CHAPTER VI Early Cruises and Engagements. Hull’s Operations and Surrender Composition of Commodore Rodgers’ squadron at outbreak of war . 314 Indecisions of the Navy Department...............................315 Question between small squadrons and single cruisers for commerce- destroying ................................................. 315 Opinions of prominent officers................................. 316 British convoy system for protecting trade.......................319 The Navy Department formulates a plan of operations ................320 Discussion of its merits....................................... 321 Rodgers sails without receiving Department’s plan................322 Encounter with the Belvidera ” ..................................323 The cruise unproductive, offensively.............................324 But not therefore unsuccessful, defensively......................325 Its effect upon the movements of British vessels....................326 The sailing of the u Constitution ” ............. 328 von. i. — b XV111 CONTENTS Page Chased by a British squadron.....................................329 Cruise of the “ Constitution under Hull........................329 Engagement with the Guerrière”.................................330 Hull and Rodgers meet in Boston...................«..............335 Misfortune on land................................«..............336 Wretched condition of the American army..........................336 Appointment of Henry Dearborn and William Hull as generals. Hull to command in the Northwest...................................337 Isaac Brock, the British general commanding in Upper Canada . . . 337 His well-considered scheme of operation..........................338 Incompetency of the American War Department......................339 Hull takes command at Dayton........................................340 Advances to Detroit............................................... 341 Crosses to Canada . . ......................................341 Brock causes seizure of Mi chili mackinac........................341 Huirs delays in Canada, before Malden ...........................343 The danger of his position.......................................343 The British attack his communications............................345 Hull recrosses to Detroit ............................. ... 345 Brock s difficulties................................................346 Moves against Hull, and reaches Malden...........................346 Crosses to Detroit, and advances.............................. 346 Hull surrenders .................................................. 347 Criticism of his conduct ...........................................348 Extenuating circumstances......................................* 349 Ultimate responsibility lies upon the Governments which had been in power for ten years..............................................350 CHAPTER VII Operations on the Northern Frontier after Hole’s Surrender. European Events bearing on the War Brock returns to Niagara from Detroit............................. 351 Prévost, Governor-General of Canada, arranges with Dearborn a sus- pension of hostilities...........................................352 Suspension disapproved by the American Government. Hostilities resumed .........................................................353 Brock’s advantage by control of the water........................353 Two of his vessels on Lake Erie taken from him by Lieutenant Elliott, U. S. Navy...................................................... 354 Brock’s estimate of this loss.......................................356 American attack upon Queenston......................................357 Repulsed, but Brock killed .........................................357 Abortive American attack on the Upper Niagara....................358 Inactivity of Dearborn on the northern New York frontier............359 CONTENTS xix Page Military inefficiency throughout the United States............... . 360 Improvement only in the naval situation on the lakes..............361 Captain Chauneey appointed to command on Lakes Erie and Ontario . 361 His activity and efficiency.......................................362 Disadvantages of his naval base, Sackett s Harbor.................363 Chauncey’s early operations, November, 1812.......................364 Fleet lays up for the winter......................................366 Effect of his first operations ...................................366 General Harrison succeeds to Hull s command.......................367 Colonel Procter commands the British forces opposed...............367 His instructions from Prevost and Brock...........................367 Harrison’s plan of operations.....................................368 The American disaster at Frenchtown .............................370 Effect upon Harrison s plans.......................................371 The army remains on the defensive, awaiting naval control of Lake Erie 371 Chauneey visits Lake Erie..........................................374 Disadvantages of Black Bock as a naval station . ................374 Chauneey selects Presqn Isle (Erie) instead . . . «...............375 Orders vessels built there ........................................375 Advantages aud drawbacks of Erie as a naval base...................375 Commander Perry ordered to the lakes ..............................376 Assigned by Chauneey to command on Lake Erie......................376 Naval conditions on Lakes Erie and Ontario, at close of 1812 .... 377 Contemporary European conditions...................................378 Napoleon’s expedition against Russia...............................379 Commercial embarrassments of Great Britain.........................379 Necessity of American supplies to the British armies in Spain , ... 381 Preoccupation of the British Navy with conditions in Europe and the East...........................................................382 Consequent embarrassment from the American war ....... 383 Need of the American market........................................384 Danger to British West India trade from an American war .... 384 Burden thrown upon the British Admiralty...........................385 British anxiety to avoid war ......................................386 CHAPTER VIII Ocean Warfare against Commerce — Privateering.— British Licenses — Naval Actions: “Wasp” and “ Frolic,” f* United States ” and u Macedonian ’* Consolidation of British transatlantic naval commands.............387 Sir John Borlase Warren commander-in-chief ......................387 British merchant ships forbidden to sail without convoy ...........388 Continued hope for restoration of peace...........................389 Warren instructed to make propositions .... .............. 390 XX CONTENTS Page Reply of the American Government................................ 391 Cessation of impressment demanded. Negotiation fails................391 Warren’s appreciation of the dangers to British commerce............392 Extemporized character of the early American privateering...........394 Its activities therefore mainly within Warren’s station.............394 Cruise of the privateer ** Rossie/* Captain Barney................. . 395 Privateering not a merely speculative undertaking ........ 396 Conditions necessary to its success.................................397 Illustrated by the privateer “ America ” ...........................398 Comparative immunity of American shipping and commerce at the be- ginning of hostilities............................................ 399 Causes for this..................................................... 400 Controversial correspondence between Warren and the Admiralty . 401 Policy of the Admiralty. Its effects................................ 404 American ships of war and privateers gradually compelled to cruise in distant seas......................................................406 American commerce excluded from the ocean.............................406 Sailing of the squadrons of Rodgers and Decatur.....................407 Their separation.................................................... 408 Cruise of Rodgers* squadron ..........................................409 British licenses to American merchant vessels.........................410 Action between the “ Wasp ” and “ Frolic M.......................* 412 Cruise of the “ Argus/* of Decatur’s division.......................415 Action between the “ United States ” and “ Macedonian”..............416 The u United States ” returns with her prize........................422
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spellingShingle	Mahan, Alfred T. 1840-1914 Sea power in its relations to the war of 1812
title	Sea power in its relations to the war of 1812
title_auth	Sea power in its relations to the war of 1812
title_exact_search	Sea power in its relations to the war of 1812
title_full	Sea power in its relations to the war of 1812 1. - [Nachdr. der Ausg.] 1905. - 1969. - XX, 423 S. : Ill., Kt. by A. T. Mahan
title_fullStr	Sea power in its relations to the war of 1812 1. - [Nachdr. der Ausg.] 1905. - 1969. - XX, 423 S. : Ill., Kt. by A. T. Mahan
title_full_unstemmed	Sea power in its relations to the war of 1812 1. - [Nachdr. der Ausg.] 1905. - 1969. - XX, 423 S. : Ill., Kt. by A. T. Mahan
title_short	Sea power in its relations to the war of 1812
title_sort	sea power in its relations to the war of 1812
url	http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=003026005&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
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