Verfügbarkeit: The British Empire before the American revolution

The British Empire before the American revolution: 3. The British Isles and the American Colonies.The northern plantations 1748-1754.2.print.1967.XLVIII, 294, LXI S.

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Bibliographische Detailangaben
1. Verfasser:	Gipson, Lawrence Henry 1880-1971 (VerfasserIn)
Format:	Buch
Sprache:	English
Veröffentlicht:	New York Knopf 1967
Online-Zugang:	Inhaltsverzeichnis

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245	1	0	\|a The British Empire before the American revolution \|n 3. The British Isles and the American Colonies.The northern plantations 1748-1754.2.print.1967.XLVIII, 294, LXI S. \|c by Lawrence Henry Gipson
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adam_text	Ooméenés Chapter I THE HEART OF NEW ENGLAND The Northern Colonies characterized in contrast with the British colonies to the South 3 Agricultural aspects 3 Diversified farming rather than production of plantation staples 4 Industrial aspects 4 Domestic manufactures in the north threaten the British mer¬ cantilist system of trade 4 Massachusetts Bay — the heart of New England 4 Boston as the commercial metropolis of North America in 1750 4 Contemporary descriptions and social aspects of the town 4 The town as a seaport and shipbuilding centre 6 Commerce of the port 6 Multifarious activities of its merchants, typified 7 The balance of trade 8 Value of exports and imports compared to other colonies 9 Boston as an entrepôt for a vast area 10 The province s financial reorganization in 1750 10 Required by the inflation of the 1730 s 11 Need for a sound money system 11 The land-bank scheme, 1739 11 Colonial acceptance of parliamentary regulation 11 Thomas Hutchinson s plan for redemption of bills of credit 12 The province becomes a hard-money colony 13 The economy of the province at mid-century 14 Population estimates, 1750 14 Chief occupations 14 Occupational distribution figures 15 Need to import subsistence food staples for seafaring and urban population 15 XU CONTENTS Regional areas of agricultural production 15 Chief industrial products 16 Relative importance of iron and ironwares 16 Importance of the rum industry 16 Rum as the foundation of prosperity in 1750 16 Importance of the product to the labourers in lumbering, ship¬ building, and the fisheries 16 The product used as the basis for commerce with other colonies and other parts of the Empire 16 Its use in the Indian and slave trades 16 The sale of refuse fish in the West Indies to obtain molasses 16 The fisheries 17 Absorption of the fishing grounds of the Gulf of Maine 17 The Canso fisheries 17 Growth in importance of the cod and mackerel fisheries by 1750 17 Activities of Peter Faneuil 18 Increased interest in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland fishing grounds 18 Whale-fishing activities 18 Characteristics of the men of Massachusetts Bay 18 Aggressiveness of the seamen 18 Pioneering instincts of the landmen 18 Creation of new settlements 18 Threats to the boundaries of neighbouring colonies 19 Land policy of the province 19 Early policy of the provincial government 19 Grants limited to organized groups 19 Modifications by 1750 19 Permit individual grants 19 Land speculation results 19 Community solidarity diminishes 19 Town-building processes exemplified in Penacook 20 The Congregational Establishment in 1750 21 Comparison with its position in 1650 21 Influences of the expanding frontier and other forces 21 The earlier concessions of the Halfway Covenant, 1657 and 1662 21 Modifications and innovations of individual pastors 22 The Charter of 1691 and the Establishment 22 Rationalistic aftermath of 1692 witchcraft terror 22 CONTENTS Xlii Exemptions gained by the Anglicans, Quakers, and Baptists 22 Legal compulsions for other nonconformists remain 22 Additional weakening forces of latitudinarianism and Arminianism 23 Efforts of the Church to restore its prestige 23 Jonathan Edwards and the Great Awakening 23 Ultimate effects of the revival 25 The press in Massachusetts Bay 26 Developments of newspapers, 1690-1750 26 Its secular tendencies 26 Its influence destined to rival the pulpit 26 Higher education in the province 27 The influence of Harvard College 27 Spread of the humanistic enlightenment 28 The provincial government 28 Withdrawal of the original charter and the Andros regime 28 The Charter of 1691 28 The territorial limits of the province after 1691 29 Governor, Lieutenant Governor, and Secretary as Crown appointees 29 Council of twenty-eight assistants 29 The Great and General Court of Assembly 29 Powers of the Assembly 29 The royal Governor s control of legislation 30 A normal royal-colony type of government 31 Legislation submitted to the Privy Council 31 Governor acts under commission and royal instructions 31 Exception in the selection of the twenty-eight councillors by the Assembly 31 Protection of the province s white pine provided in the charter 31 Town representation 31 Characteristics of the House of Representatives 31 Leadership by an élite 32 Discriminatory statutes in 1750 32 The administration of Governor William Shirley 33 Shirley s early years in the province 33 Concern for Nova Scotia and the Canso fisheries, 1744 33 Relations with the northern Indians 34 Advocate of the reduction of Louisbourg 34 Plans for overthrow of French power in Canada 34 His efforts rewarded by knighthood 34 XIV CONTENTS Appointed a member of the Anglo-French Commission 34 Excellent relationship between the Governor and the people of the province 35 Shirley seeks a new appointment in 1750 35 Lieutenant Governor Spencer Phips in temporary control in 1750 35 Complaints of the Board of Trade regarding his laxity 35 The relationship of Massachusetts Bay to the Crown in 1750 35 Its degree of loyalty 36 Pride in its able and popular royal Governor 36 Growing understanding of British religious attitudes 36 Its devotion to the King expressed by the Assembly 36 Extent of self-sufficiency attained by 1750 37 Pride in the superiority of the province 37 Chapter II IN THE WHITE-PINE BELT White pine—New Hampshire s chief resource 39 Its production in the early part of the eighteenth century 39 The wastefulness of lumbering methods 39 Great demand by England for ship timbers 40 Regulations governing its preservation and utilization 41 Appointment and functions of the Surveyor General of the King s Woods 41 Parliamentary legislation under Queen Anne and her successors 41 Restrictions and penalties for preservation of the trees 41 Bounties granted to ensure exportation to England 42 Provincial legislation 42 Decline in importance of New Hampshire s lumber industry 43 Governor Belcher s report in 1737 43 Other regions offer better facilities 43 Relationship of the Wentworth family to the masting trade 43 Apprehensions of leaders in the lumber industry for the future 44 Link between prosperity and the masting trade 44 The disputed boundaries of New Hampshire 44 Governor Belcher s report on the reputed boundaries 44 The lack of boundary delimitation in the Governor s com¬ mission 45 The Governor s desire for a union with Massachusetts Bay 45 CONTENTS XV The dispute is referred to a commission, 1737 45 The commission s report on the eastern limits of the province 45 The problem of the southern boundary 45 The power of the Wentworths and the London agent 45 The Privy Council s decision, 1741 45 In favour of New Hampshire 46 The question of the support of Fort Dummer 46 The earlier purpose of the fort in the defence of Massachusetts Bay frontiers 46 Reluctance of New Hampshiremen to support the garrison 46 Massachusetts Bay s interim garrisoning of the fort 46 The problem of ownership of unappropriated lands, 1750 46 Questioned validity of early proprietorial claims 47 Captain John Mason s charters validated in 1675 47 Massachusetts Bay assumes responsibility for protecting in¬ habitants 47 New Hampshire s establishment as a royal colony, 1678 47 Continued disputes, rivalries, and complications over land owner¬ ship 47 Summary of claims to ungranted lands, 1750 47 Heritage of confusion in land titles 48 Governor Benning Wentworth s administration of New Hampshire 48 His attitude toward the newly acquired region 48 Favours assuming responsibility for defence of the western frontier 48 Supports representation in the Assembly of the western un¬ privileged towns 48 Assembly opposes Governor s usurpation of its rights 48 Wentworth s appeal to the Crown wins a favourable decision, 1748 48 Continued opposition by the Assembly 48 Harmony restored within the provincial government 49 Realization of the value of the western lands produces new attitudes 49 New members seated by 1752 49 New Hampshire troops posted at Fort Dummer and Keene 49 Wentworth s project for exploitation of the upper Connecticut Valley 49 His steps toward this end 49 Secures Crown commission to grant lands on a quit-rent basis, XVI CONTENTS 1748 49 Claims lands to the westward of the Connecticut River, 1749 50 Makes grants in territory claimed by New York, 1751 50 Reserves land acreage for himself in lieu of fees 50 Aggressiveness of New Hampshire under Wentworth alarms New York 50 New Hampshire at mid-century 51 Population figures 51 Occupational and religious trends 51 Commercial and farming activities 51 The influence of Whitefield s preaching 51 The dominant position of the Wentworth family in New Hamp¬ shire affairs 51 Heritable traits of money-making and power 51 Political nepotism and the government of the province 51 The regime of Lieutenant Governor John Wentworth 51 Government posts held by Benning Wentworth s relatives 52 Futile attempts to displace Wentworth in the 1740 s 52 The influence of the Wentworths on the rise of Portsmouth 52 Importance of Portsmouth as a seaport, 1750 52 An entrepôt for lumber commerce 52 Hub of the masting trade 52 Importance as a ship-building centre 53 Social distinctions in the town resulting from opulence 53 Chapter III A LIBERTARIAN COMMONWEALTH Rhode Island s characteristics 54 Its religious background 54 Seventeenth-century origins 54 Principle of soul liberty, except for Catholics 55 Legal origins of the exception 55 Tradition of toleration 55 Contrasted with Massachusetts Bay and Connecticut 56 Position of the Jews of Newport 56 Natural resources of the colony 56 Agricultural production 56 Export of food surpluses 56 CONTENTS XVII Land units in the rural areas 57 Small farms with diversified products 57 The modified plantation system of the Narragansett Bay area 57 Dairies and animal husbandry, the rule 57 Utilization of slave labour 57 Rapid increase of population in the middle of the century 57 An indication of favourable conditions 57 Rhode Island s expanding foreign trade, 1750 58 Great increase of shipping in the early part of the century 58 Results of the enterprise of the men of Newport and Providence 58 The colony s ports as entrepôts for interior Massachusetts Bay products 58 The great commercial families 58 Newport s merchant princes 58 The Browns of Providence 58 The sugar-and-molasses trade 59 Vastness of the traffic with the West Indies 59 Protests of the British West India planters against French com¬ petition 59 The Sugar Act of 1733 and the contraband trade 59 Objections to the high duties imposed by the Act 59 The illicit trading with the French sugar islands 59 Jamaicans protest the commerce of Rhode Island with foreign sugar islands 60 Smuggling activities become widespread 60 The case of the sloop Jupiter 60 The trading towns oppose compliance with the Act 61 Government efforts to end smuggling 62 The trade pattern of Rhode Island commerce, 1750 62 Importation of molasses from the West Indies 62 Distillation of rum from molasses 62 Exportation of rum to Africa 63 Carrying of slaves from Africa to the West Indies 63 Rhode Island as the leading slaving colony 63 Large number of vessels engaged in the slave trade 63 Examples of Rhode Island slaver activities 64 Disposal of slaves in the British or Spanish West Indies 65 Use of proceeds to purchase French sugar-island products 65 Newport as a leading eighteenth-century seaport 66 Xviii CONTENTS Extent of its commercial activities 66 Andrew Burnaby s description 66 A New England cultural centre 66 A summer resort for southern planters 67 Political sectionalism in the colony 67 Newport s commercial interests supported by the region of the aristocratic Narragansett planters 67 The northern agricultural population supports the interests of the Providence merchants 67 Government of Rhode Island 67 Based upon the Charter of 1663 67 Control exercised by freemen 67 Election of deputies to the General Assembly 67 Annual election court 67 The appointment of officeholders by the Assembly 67 Changes in qualifications for freemanship 68 Restrictions on the franchise, 1724, 1730, and 1746 68 Inflation as a cause of change 68 Preferential treatment of privileged individuals 68 Government loans or banks, 1715-1750 68 Granting of loans on real estate 68 Allocation of loans to the towns 68 An important barrier to acquiring freemanship 68 Results in virtual government financing of private industry 68 Percentage of freemen voters against total population 69 The New England currency problems at mid-century 69 Rhode Island typical of the confusion involved 69 Failure to redeem the Ъапк loans, 1728-1750 69 Extension of repayment dates 69 Bills of credit replace taxation, 1710-1747 70 Volume of unredeemed bills creates depreciation 70 Board of Trade queries the dangers of Rhode Island s monetary practices 71 Governor Ward s defence of the system 71 Dangers become apparent too late 71 Comparison between paper-money policies of the colony and those of the Massachusetts Bay and Connecticut 71 Effects of depreciation upon Rhode Island commerce 71 Petition of the leading merchants, 1750 71 Repercussions from British merchants trading with the colony 72 CONTENTS XIX Board of· Trade intervention through the colonial agent in London 72 Threat of no reimbursement of war expenses 72 The Rhode Island Assembly is not intimidated 72 Parliament takes a hand in the New England currency problem 72 The passing of the Currency Act of 1751 72 Restricts the issuance of bills of credit 72 Directed primarily against Rhode Island 72 Chapter IV A PURITAN STRONGHOLD Characteristics of the government of Connecticut 74 Most democratically constituted of all British colonies 74 A corporate colony with an unaltered charter 74 Liberal franchise provisions 74 Governor possesses little power 74 Privy Council assent not required on its laws 74 Without a fixed governmental centre 74 Lacks important direct commerce with Britain 74 No quit-rents levied 75 No ungranted lands remain after 1737 75 Widespread urban settlements 75 Equal distribution of wealth 75 Economic and social structure of Connecticut, 1750 75 Population distribution and increase 75 Farming and stockraising, the chief occupations 75 Agriculture as a mainstay leads to search for new lands 76 Creation of the Susquehanna Company, 1753 76 Production of export staples 76 Intercolonial demands 76 Nature of trade with the West Indies 76 Shipping of the colony 76 Illicit commerce 77 Industrial developments 77 Iron and steel interests 77 Regionalism within the colony 77 Geographical division by the Connecticut River 77 Eastern Connecticut s commercial and cultural affiliations with Massachusetts Bay 77 XX CONTENTS Western Connecticut s commercial outlet through New York 77 Common ties between the entire colony and Massachusetts Bay 78 The last of the Puritan commonwealths 78 Puritanism as a small-town movement 78 Common religious ties 78 Social solidarity produces a conservative élite 78 Uniformity of thought and action expressed in legal regulations 79 Organs of social solidarity 79 The town meeting house as a centre for religious and secular activity 79 Congregational Church establishment 79 The church communion as the town s conscience 79 Limitations upon membership in the communion 79 The disrupting effect of the Great Awakening 79 Persecution of the Separatists in the 1740 s 80 The ecclesiastical society 80 Disappearance of its all-inclusiveness after 1746 81 The freeman s meetings 81 Qualifications for freemanship 81 Political privileges and responsibilities 82 The freemen, a minority in the towns 82 Machinery of government 82 The election by freemen of deputies to the Assembly 83 The balloting for the Governor and other colonial offices 83 The conservatism of the freemen as a group 83 Their influence as a propertied element 83 The town proprietors as a distinct group 84 The Law of 1703 distinguishing between town proprietors and other inhabitants 84 The town meeting 85 Its scope 85 Limitations on inhabitants according to the law of 1750 85 Qualifications for participation in town meeting 86 Religious nonconformity not a disqualification 86 The filling of the multiplicity of town offices 86 The infinite variety of local interests considered 87 Its value as a political school 88 A stronghold of conservative influence 88 Train bands 88 A factor in the political life of the colony 88 CONTENTS XXI Exemption of the more responsible classes from this military service 88 The solidarity of enrolled men and their self-appointed officers 88 Control of the bands by nonfreemen elements 89 The strong inclination toward radicalism among the men 89 The central government 89 The Governor and his Assistants 89 The deputies to the General Assembly 89 Representation by township 89 Terms of office and other conditions of public service 89 Units of local government larger than towns 89 The probate districts 89 A probate court in each 89 The counties 89 Appointment of their officials 89 Jurisdiction of the county courts 90 The superior courts of judicature 90 The laws of Connecticut 90 Comparison between the codes of 1650 and 1750 90 Laws providing capital offences in 1650 91 Changes in punishments in the 1750 code 91 The persistence of Sabbitarianism 92 Reflection in the laws of deep solicitude for moral and spiritual welfare 93 They demonstrate interdependence of the people and a sense of collective responsibility for individual welfare 93 Evidence of a transition from rigid Puritanism 94 The controversies between the Old Lights and New Lights 94 Effects of eighteenth-century wars upon the colony s religious viewpoints 95 Influence of the press 95 Comparison between the code of 1750 and that of 1784 95 Disappearance of many old capital laws 95 Waning universality of the Congregational Establishment in the colony 95 Relationship of Connecticut to the mother country 96 Effects of the preservation of its charter 96 Its jealousy toward any encroachment by Crown or Parliament 96 XXII CONTENTS Connecticut s London agency 96 Its history from 1690 96 The colony s effective use of the agency 96 Leading agents and their accomplishments 96 The crowning achievement of the agency: the preservation of the charter 100 The freedom of the colony to act according to its own light 100 Lack of hindrance from the mother country 100 The colony characterized, 1750 101 Chapter V IN THE REGION OF THE OLD PATROONSHIPS The land system of New York 102 The great patents and manors in 1750 102 To the east of the Hudson 102 Along the New Jersey border 103 The Hardenburgh patent 103 History of the land grants 103 The patroonships 103 The grants under Fletcher, Nanfan, and Cornbury 104 Vague terms of the grants 105 Boundary disputes 105 The New Hampshire claims 105 Privy Council decides in favour of New York 106 The bitterness of the dispute 106 The Massachusetts Bay claims 106 Massachusetts Bay people intrude into the Livingston Manor 106 Incidents ensue between the two colonies, 1750-1755 107 The dispute typifies the struggle between two different land- holding systems 107 The New Jersey conflicting claims 108 Exorbitant nature of the New York patents in Orange County 108 The home government takes steps to improve the situation, 1753 109 Political and social life of the province 109 Influential position of the great landholders and merchants 109 Lords of the manors constitute an aristocracy 109 Political control by great landowners aided through the plural voting system 109 CONTENTS ХХІІІ Factions within the aristocratic élite 110 The de Lancey faction 110 The Livingston faction 110 Reasons for political control by the élite despite internecine dif¬ ferences 110 Franchise qualifications 111 Assembly elections 111 Effects of aristocratic policies upon settlement and utilization of land 112 Movement of poor farmers out of the province 112 The Palatine German trek into Pennsylvania 113 Attitude of other colonials toward New York s land policies 113 Slow growth of the population at mid-century 113 Exploitation of the manors 114 Tenantry system the rule 114 Use of slave or indentured labour on some 114 New York City in the 1750 s 115 The capital, and social and commercial centre of the province 115 Peter Kami s description 115 Importance as a seaport 115 Distribution centre for western Connecticut and eastern New Jersey 116 Economic life of the province 116 Low value of goods imported from Great Britain 116 Small number of vessels owned by provincial maritime interests 116 Dependency upon mother country in commercial relations 117 Slow development of industry 117 Beginnings of various industries 117 The Indian fur trade 118 Comparatively few white men engaged in the trade 118 Rivalry of the New York traders with those from Pennsylvania 118 Albany as a great fur-trading centre 118 Description of the town in 1750 118 Oswego, the English fur outpost 119 Dutch trading methods 119 Peter Kalm s indictment of the Albany traders 119 The government of the province in 1750 120 The administration of Governor George Clinton 120 Early influence of James de Lancey upon Clinton 120 XXIV CONTENTS Clinton s concessions to the Assembly and surrender of control of public finances 120 The Assembly s administration of the province 121 Maintains its own London agent 121 Exercises control in many phases of government 121 Clinton s repudiation of de Lancey in favour of Cadwallader Colden 122 Colden as a distinguished colonial 122 Colden and the Assembly 122 Tries to intervene in the conspiracy against the Governor 122 Defends the Governor s position 123 Clinton fails to win the Lieutenant Governorship for Colden 123 He is forced by the hostile Assembly to yield under financial pressure 124 Clinton s struggle with the Assembly finally results in action by the Board of Trade 124 Provisions made in the instructions for the new Governor 124 Sir Danvers Osborn is appointed to succeed Clinton 125 His death by suicide 125 The triumph of de Lancey 125 Chapteb VI PLOUGHMEN OF THE JERSEYS New Jersey characterized at mid-century 126 Population and economic interests 126 Importance of diversified farming and lumbering 126 Nature of the land dictates population distribution 127 Export commodities 127 Lack of direct commerce with mother country 127 Governor Belcher on the province s trade 127 Differentiation between East and West New Jersey 127 Role of New York and Philadelphia as respective entrepôts 127 Distinctive money standards of each 128 Favourable living conditions within the province in the middle of the century 128 Absence of menace by foreign foes or hostile Indians 128 Lack of taxation to support the government 128 No taxes raised since 1732 128 High yield of bills of credit put out on loan 128 CONTENTS XXV Soundness of public finance 128 New Jersey and the legal-tender issue 128 Early history of the province s system of finance 129 Growing opposition in England to provincial paper money 129 Board of Trade s instructions to colonial governors 130 The currency bill of 1742 131 Opposition of Governor Morris and his Council to the bill 131 Attempt of the representatives to bribe the Governor 132 Governor Belcher and the province finances 132 His determination to work harmoniously with the Assembly 132 Signs the paper-money bill in 1748 133 The bill before the Board of Trade in 1749 133 Struggle between creditor and debtor groups 133 The stand of the province s London agents on the bill 133 Board of Trade recommends disallowance of the bill 134 Anarchic political conditions in the province in 1753 134 Demands of New Jersey lower house for bills of credit persist until 1757 135 Involvement in war changes the situation 135 New instructions on money bills upon Governor Bernard s suc¬ cession to the administration of the province 135 Issuance of paper money permitted as a war measure 136 Summarization of the New Jersey paper-money problem 136 Lack of provincial solidarity in New Jersey 136 Survival of the old divisions of East and West New Jersey 136 New England influences in East New Jersey 137 The Scots and Presbyterianism in the East 137 The religious and political influence of the Quakers in West New Jersey 137 No provincial capital possible 137 Alternate meeting places of the General Assembly 138 The balance of county representation in each section 138 Powerful individualism stems from religious influences 138 The breakdown of political authority does not prevent economic prosperity 138 The New Jersey Proprietors and the ungranted lands 138 The coming of the Ulster Scots 139 Their tendency to squat upon ungranted lands 139 The securing of Indian deeds and resistance to the proprietorial claims by them 139 XXVI CONTENTS The decade of violence against the Proprietors after 1745 139 Rioting in Essex County in resistance to proprietorial claims 139 Sympathy of tenants with the squatters 139 Interrelatedness of the disaffected 140 Impossibility of enforcing legal rights 140 The spread of disorder into other parts of the province 140 Refusal to recognize rights of landlords 141 Looting of timber-lands 141 The rioters organize to protect their rights 141 The appeal to the natural rights of man on behalf of squatters 141 Appeal to Connecticut by rioters 142 Connecticut refuses to interfere 142 The threat of British regulars in the midst of the war, 1755 142 Fear of retribution for lawlessness stabilizes conditions 142 Boundary conflicts with New York 142 Long-standing aspects of the dispute 143 New York s objections to the 1719 line 143 New Jersey s law for running the line ex parte, 1748 144 Fails to secure royal approval 144 New York settlers appeal to Connecticut s Assembly, 1751 144 Organization of the Delaware Company 144 Creation of Sussex County by New Jersey 144 Privy Council fails to terminate the controversy, 1754 145 Boundary commission appointed in 1764 145 Decision of 1769 protects occupants and upholds New Jersey claims 145 Disagreement between executive and legislative branches of the province s government 145 Tradition of hostility of inhabitants toward their executives 146 Unpopularity of itinerant Governors 146 Assembly promises to support a resident Governor 146 Appointment of Lewis Morris 146 Qualifications for office 146 Aristocratic tendencies 146 Strained relations with the legislature 146 Governor Belcher s delicate position 147 Fruitless attempts to pacify the Assembly 147 Inability to obtain concerted action at the time of the land riots 147 Helplessness in the face of a hostile Council and an empty treasury 147 CONTENTS XXVII Seeks the favour of the anti-proprietorial group 148 His reprimand by the Board of Trade 148 Chapteb VII THE NEW WORLD PARADISE OF THE SECTS Pennsylvania as the haven for Europe s persecuted sects 149 The multiplicity of sects in 1750 149 Mittelberger s description of religious conditions and charac¬ terization of the province 149 The proportion of Germans to the total population, 1755 150 Population divisions by religious groups 150 The position of the Quakers, 1755 150 The Pennsylvania Germans 151 The German emigration 151 Volume of German immigrants 152 Dissatisfaction with conditions in Germany 152 The orderly migration of the persecuted Moravians 152 The activities of the Newlanders 153 The horrors of the passage to America 153 The Rhine-boat trip 153 The delay in Holland 154 The tragedies of the immigrant ships 154 Cost of the passage 155 Betrayal of the redemptioners 155 Their sale as white slaves 155 Working conditions of indentured labour 156 The voluntary indentured servants 156 The industry and prosperity of the free and settled Germans 156 Their tendency to acquire lands along the frontier 156 The indentured-labour supply 157 Chief source stemming at first from the British Isles 157 Preponderance of Ulster Scots, 1729 157 Preponderance of Germans by 1750 157 These more highly esteemed as servants than the Ulster Scots 157 Hardiness of the Ulster Scots on the frontier and as colonizers 157 Establishment of their communities in Pennsylvania and Dela¬ ware 158 Lack of respect for law and order of the Ulstermen 158 XXVIII CONTENTS Political influence and population distribution of national and reli¬ gious groups 158 In the older counties 158 The waning Quaker control 158 The emerging Anglican influence 158 In the newer counties 158 The numerical preponderance of Germans 158 The position of the Ulstermen and the English 159 The slow growth of political consciousness among the Germans 159 The emerging strength of the German electorate after 1750 159 Effects of naturalization laws and rights of affirmation 159 The Quaker-German political alliance 160 Common pacifist principles 160 Common support of humane measures 160 Reaction against the Quakers and their German supporters after 1754 161 German rights to naturalization are challenged 161 Composition of the Assembly in 1752 and 1756 161 The over-representation of the eastern Quaker counties 162 The Quakers and the shaping of legislative policy 162 Pennsylvania s criminal codes 163 The Duke of York laws reflect Puritan conceptions of statecraft, 1676 163 Quaker humane sentiments reflected in Penn s Great Law, 1682 163 Lawlessness produces harsher laws 164 The code of 1700 and statute of 1718 164 The severity of Pennsylvania criminal law after 1722 165 The happy and prosperous state of the province in 1750 166 Agricultural assets 166 Favourable factors of climate, soil, and transportation 166 Great surplus of food and other commodities 166 Generosity of spirit among the people 166 Production of staple crops, livestock, and export products 166 The growth of commerce 167 The production of export commodities 167 The Indian trade 167 Shipbuilding supports the growing commerce 167 Import-trade and carrying-trade activities 168 Philadelphia, the metropolis of the middle colonies 168 Importance as a town and a seaport 168 CONTENTS XXIX Characterized by Peter Kalm 169 Description in 1749 169 Architecture of the homes 170 Multiplicity of churches and meeting houses 170 Importance as a cultural centre 170 Its libraries, college, hospital, printing establishments, and learned societies 170 Benjamin Franklin and James Logan 171 Evidences of prosperity and aristocratic leanings 171 Social attitudes of the people 172 Social divisions and racial pride 172 Slavery as a manifestation of provincial aristocracy 172 The people and their government 173 Benefits of financial aid to farmers through the loan office 173 Absence of serious public burdens in 1750 173 No military-service law 173 No system of direct taxation 173 The financing of the provincial government 174 Interest upon public loans 174 Excise on the sale of spirits 174 Income of the province, 1752 174 Governor Morris on the healthy state of finances, 1755 174 Pennsylvania as a proprietary, 1750 174 The background of the charter and subsequent parliamentary limitation of prerogatives of the Proprietors 175 William Penn s early experimentations in government 175 The Body of Liberties of 1701 175 Government by the Proprietor and a representative unicameral Assembly 175 Governor s Council not part of the legislature 175 Aggressiveness of the Assembly 176 Competition between Governor and Assembly 176 Extraordinary powers exercised by the Assembly 176 The submission of laws to the Privy Council for approval 176 Assembly s evasions of this restriction 176 The issue of 1746 over the approval of laws 177 The province questions the King s right to interfere in its gov¬ ernment 177 The Queries of the Board of Trade in 1752 177 The weakness of the government at mid-century 178 XXX CONTENTS Laid to Assembly control of all public money 178 Governor Morris asserts his inability to defend the colony, 1755 178 The Proprietors of Pennsylvania 179 Thomas and Eichard Penn at mid-century 179 Their rights of succession 179 The Proprietors characterized 179 Their inheritance of debts 180 The problem of collecting quit-rents 180 Increased opposition to the land system by 1750 181 A well-regulated system, according to Lewis Evans, 1753 181 Increased revenue by 1774 182 Thomas and Richard Penn and Quakerism 182 Richard s early defection to the Anglican church 182 Thomas remains a Quaker until 1751 182 Thomas Penn and plans for the proprietary 182 His desire to become the Governor 182 His stand in favour of military defence, 1743 182 Renunciation of plans to live in the province, 1755 183 His good relationship with Governor Hamilton 183 The civilization of the province characterized at mid-century 183 Chapter VIII A NONDESCRIPT COLONY ON THE DELAWARE Background to the unusual position of Three Lower Counties on the Delaware at mid-century 184 Rival claims of the Penn and Baltimore families to the Ter¬ ritories 184 Earlier history of the area 184 Origins of the rival claims 185 Penn s deeds and leases from the Duke of York, 1682 185 Penn s efforts to unite the Lower Colonies to Pennsylvania 186 Difficulties in plans for a permanent political union 186 Divergencies between the Province and the Territories 186 Needs of the Lower Counties for adequate defensive measures versus the pacifistic status quo of Pennsylvania 186 Contrasting national and religious origins of early settlers 187 Territorial delimitations compared 187 Commercial rivalry between the seaports of Pennsylvania and Lower Counties 187 CONTENTS XXXI The issue of union or separation in the beginning of the century 187 Problems arising from Delaware representation in a united As¬ sembly 187 William Penn s efforts to promote union, 1699-1700 187 Early separatist movements, 1701-1703 188 Permanent political separation of the Lower Counties 189 First Assembly of Lower Counties meets in 1704 189 Unique aspects of Delaware by 1750 189 A colony without official name or recognized type of government 189 The lack of a legal constitution 189 The Governor receives no specific commission or instructions applying to the colony 190 Problems arising from defects in the proprietorial claims of the Penn family 190 The Earl of Sutherland s proprietorial aspirations become a threat, 1717 190 Attempts of Lower Counties at reunion with Pennsylvania 190 Pennsylvania s negative attitude 190 Unfavourable report of the Crown lawyers on the Penn family claims 190 Further anomalous situation of Delaware in 1750 191 Existence as colony not recognized in London 191 Rights of inhabitants undefined 191 Inherent rights of Englishmen claimed, but land titles not secure 191 The issue of a royal charter for New Castle s incorporation 191 Reasons for Delaware inhabitants clinging to Penn connection 192 Fears created by revival of Sutherland family application for proprietorship, 1715 192 Additional fears resulting from the Baltimore petition of 1737 192 The position of the Board of Trade 192 The stand of the Privy Council 193 Delaware s well-rounded government in 1750 193 Harmony between Governor and Assembly 193 Composition of the legislature 193 Codification of its laws in 1741 193 Inclusive nature of laws 193 Laws characterized 193 The example of the comprehensive statute of 1742 194 Freedom of legislation compared to Pennsylvania 194 XXXU CONTENTS Not required to submit laws for approval by Privy Council 194 Ability to legislate against importation of convicts 194 Administrative divisions of government 195 The hundreds 195 Similarities to Pennsylvania s governmental system 195 Unicameral Assembly 195 Qualifications of electors 195 Dissimilarities to Pennsylvania s system of government 195 Compulsory voting after 1734 195 Rights of affirmation denied to members of the Assembly 195 Special declarations required of Assembly members 196 Militia acts passed in the Lower Counties 196 Delaware supports the Spanish War 196 Delaware s status within the framework of imperial administration 197 Participation in war brings rewards 197 Reimbursement by Parliament 197 Payment through Delaware s London agent 197 Encouragement and support by the mother country 197 Government rejects Baltimore claims in delimiting New Castle County 197 Decision of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke in favour of Pennsylvania claims, 1750 198 Relationship of Delaware to Penn family defined 198 Result of small profit to the Penns 199 Land titles remain defective 199 Non-payment of quit-rents continues throughout the colonial period 199 Financial system of the Lower Counties in 1750 199 Issuance of bills of credit begun in 1723 199 Loan office established in each county 199 Prudent administrative methods evolved 199 Effective liquidation plans 199 Soundness of Delaware finances 200 Little depreciation in loans 200 Small portion of bills of credit in circulation by 1750 200 Minimal need for taxes 200 Delaware as an agricultural colony 200 Piloting at Lewes as an exception 200 Burnaby s description 201 Elsewhere diversified farming and stockraising obtain 201 CONTENTS ХХХШ Philadelphia the chief market for Delaware farmers 201 Comparative sizes of Philadelphia and New Castle 201 Relative unimportance of New Castle by 1754 201 Growing importance of Wilmington 201 As shipping centre, location for iron forges, and for saw and grist mills 202 Shipbuilding begun there in 1740 202 Characteristics of inhabitants of the Lower Counties in 1750 202 Assimilation of nationalistic groups 202 Prevalence of Quakers in New Castle county 203 Prevalence of Anglicans in Kent and Sussex counties 204 Population estimates 204 A median standard of living among whites 205 Lack of intense local pride or self-awareness at mid-century 205 Security ties link them to the Empire 205 Evidence of growth in homogeneity by 1750 205 Chapter IX THE IRON MEN Production and manufacture of iron in the British Empire 206 The Iron Act of 1750 206 Imposes severe restrictions on the colonies 206 As an example of British mercantile policy 206 Importance of the iron industry to England in 1750 206 Threat of the growth of American iron-production 206 Birmingham as a typical iron centre of industrial England 207 The widespread distribution of ironworks 207 English methods for producing cast and wrought iron 208 Early direct process 208 The blast-furnace process 208 Qualities of the various domestic ore supplies 208 Location and utilization of each type of ore 208 The essential factors for iron-production at mid-century 208 Accessibility to supplies of ore, wood, coal, water power, labour, and means of transportation 208 Importance of water power to operation of the blast furnace, forges, and mills 208 Limited use of coal and coke in smelting by 1750 209 XXXIV CONTENTS The problem of wood wastage in iron- and steel-production 209 Earlier shortages controlled by legislation 209 Shortage in wood resources causes shift of smelting locations 209 Stabilized charcoal supply and stabilized iron-manufacture in the early part of the century 210 The continued need to import Swedish and Russian iron 210 Use of coal in production of bar iron 210 Contributes to rise of iron-manufacture in Worcestershire 210 The seventeenth-century utilization of pit-coal in the manufac¬ turing process 211 Growing demands of the iron trade 211 Supply of bar iron inadequate to manufacturers demand by 1700 211 Growing dependence upon iron secured abroad 211 Encouragements to iron-production in Ireland under William III 211 Iron requirements of the trade in 1736 211 Percentage of bar iron secured abroad 211 Disadvantages of dependence upon foreign iron 211 Reasons for inadequacy of furnacemen to meet the demands 212 Wood supply the key factor 212 Rising cost of production based on scarcity of wood 212 The dilemma of the landowner seeking profit from woodland 212 Competition of other products for the landowner s acres 212 Increased value of trees withheld from the market 212 Presence of ironworks stimulates production of wood in Lan¬ cashire 212 Existence of potential wood supply sufficient for manufacturing needs 213 Limitations upon the furnacemen in meeting the price of wood 213 Foreign competition as the deciding factor 213 Reasons for lack of legislation barring foreign competition in iron 213 Need for foreign markets for the hardware trade 213 Violation of mercantilistic principles and employment policies 213 Fear of the power of foreign nations to flood the market 214 Concern over the decline in demand by American markets for English iron products 214 The rise of the American iron industry 214 Effects first felt in England in the 1730 s 214 Falling off of orders 214 Growing idleness of English forges and furnaces 214 Unemployment at Stourbridge and Wolverhampton 214 CONTENTS XXXV Miserable conditions in Dudley, Birmingham, and Worcester¬ shire 215 Parliamentary attempts at restrictions on colonial iron 215 The abortive bill of 1719 215 The removal of export duties on British iron, 1721 215 Iron-smelting in Virginia and Maryland 216 Spotswood s ironworks in Virginia and the Principio Works in Maryland 216 Large production of pig iron by mid-century 216 Virginia offers inducements to ironworkers 216 Iron industry in New England 217 Well established by 1718 in Massachusetts Bay 217 Massachusetts Bay bounties encourages ironware-production 217 Importation of bar steel from England 217 New England furnaces produce hardware for export to the Southern colonies in competition with England 217 Iron industry in the middle colonies 218 Relative unimportance in New York 218 Growth in New Jersey and Pennsylvania in the 1730 s 218 Pennsylvania as the most important iron-producing colony, 1750 218 Number of iron-producing centres by 1750 218 Vast acreage included in the typical iron plantation 218 Description of a Pennsylvania ironworks 218 Location of the mills, plants, and furnaces 219 The excellent quality of American ironware 219 Local demand for domestic tools 219 Renewed agitation for the relief of the British iron trade 219 Petitions to Parliament begun in 1736 219 Demand for a bounty to encourage importation of American crude iron 220 Demand that colonials be restrained from manufacturing iron 221 Economic and social implications of decline in the English iron industry 221 Arguments concerning comparative merits of American iron and foreign iron 221 Petitions referred to a Parliamentary Committee 222 Arguments continue on the relative importance of colonial markets 222 The Parliamentary Bill of 1738 222 Chief features of the measure 223 XXXVI CONTENTS Failure to become law 223 The need for imperial solidarity with the outbreak of the Anglo-Spanish war 223 The Iron Act of 1750 223 Bill proposed in 1749 to encourage importation of American iron 223 Designed to obviate dependence upon Swedish iron 223 Implications of potential unemployment of English iron¬ workers 224 The justifications for restrictions upon and concessions to the American trade 224 Petition of the Bristol Merchant Venturers in 1749 224 Enactment of the bill and its provisions 225 Protection of English forge-operators 225 Encouragement for the restricted importation of colonial pig and bar iron 225 Erection of new colonial iron- and steel-manufacturing plants prohibited 225 Colonial governors called upon to enforce the measure 226 Reactions of colonials to the Iron Act 226 Failure of bill to meet its supporters expectations 226 Figures on importation of American iron, 1750-1757, analyzed 226 No check on American iron-manufacturing results 227 Favours English ironmasters rather than the manufacturers 228 The Iron Act of 1757 228 Bar-iron importation freely admitted into England 228 Colonial exports to England increase 228 Manufacturers complain against insufficient quantity and poor quality of American bar iron 228 Subsequent efforts to secure a bounty on American iron and high duties on foreign iron 228 Opposition to duties on Swedish iron is based an criticisms of the quality of American iron 228 The effects of parliamentary legislation upon the American iron industry 228 Prohibits neither iron-production nor its manufacture into hard¬ ware 228 Results in a kind of monopoly of existing mills and plants by prohibiting erection of new ones 229 Production of colonial iron triples by 1775 229 CONTENTS XXXVII Economic sectionalism renders ineffectual the parliamentary at¬ tempts to control complex economic forces 229 Chapter X HUDSON BAY BEAVER The British North American fur trade 230 The Hudson s Bay Company holds no monopoly 230 Open competition in all markets 230 The Hudson s Bay Company in 1750 230 Strategic geographical location 230 Failure to provide a northwest passage not a serious liability 230 Profitable for the beaver trade 230 Charter of the company 231 Grants exclusive fur exploitation rights in the area 231 The Hudson Bay region 231 Its isolation and forbidding climate 231 The lack of settlements within the granted area 231 Hudson s Bay Company trading posts 231 Forts and factories on the Bay and contiguous rivers 231 Those on or near the western shore 231 The northern fort on the Churchill 231 The two small forts on the eastern shore 232 The southernmost forts 232 York Factory in 1750 232 Most important of the Company s trading posts 232 Description of this post 232 Activities of the Hudson s Bay Company 233 Shipping engaged in the trade 233 Imports and exports of the Bay stations 233 Value of exported articles in 1748 233 Cost of maintaining the posts, 1741 and 1745 233 Regulation of the Indian trade 234 Restrictions on the Indians 234 Regulations on the use of spirits 234 Influence of French competition 234 Difference in prices of barter goods at the several forts 234 Activities of the French coureurs 235 XXXVIII CONTENTS Vast region exploited by the Company 235 Indians most involved in the fur trade 235 The Crees and Assiniboines 235 Company s agents confine trade mainly to the posts on the Bay 235 Henry Kelsey, a seventeenth-century exception 235 Travels of Anthony Henday to the Blackfoot country 235 Indians come to the posts from far-flung regions 235 Lack of continuity in the trade 235 The Company makes no efforts to civilize the Indians or colonize the area 235 Undetermined limits of its wilderness possessions 236 Boundary claims according to a memorial laid before the Board of Trade in 1750 236 The Company as a business enterprise 236 Capital stock in 1749 236 Its distribution among stockholders 236 Company headquarters at Beaver House in London 236 Centre for auction sales of skins and pelts 237 Competition of buyers 237 Hudson Bay beaver and the English hat industry 237 History of the English beaver-hat industry 237 Origins of the craft 237 Opulence of the master hatters in 1701 237 Effects of French control of the Bay area, 1701-1711 238 Growth of the French beaver-hat industry 238 Its capture of English continental markets 238 Its protection by the French government 238 Decline of the English industry 238 Exodus of English hatters to France 238 Superiority of the French product 238 Efforts to bring relief by legislation, 1722 238 Further threat of competition from the American colonies 239 English hatters protest colonial underselling practices 239 The Hat Act of 1732 239 The motivation in protecting an established craft 239 Colonial industry must not destroy one in the mother country 239 Compromise aspects of the act 240 Prohibits export of colonial product but permits its local manufacture and sale 240 Continuation of colonial hat-manufacture 240 CONTENTS XXXIX The act fails to restore the British industry 240 Foreign markets not regained 240 Inability to meet French competition prevails 240 Attempts to prohibit the export of beaver felt 240 Reassessment of the English hat-trade situation, 1764 241 The flood of petitions and memorials to Parliament 241 The compromise legislation of 1764 242 Lowering of the import duty on beaver skins 242 Elimination of the drawback and other export benefits 242 Act fails to limit export of beaver to the Continent 242 Rise of exports in beaver pelts and wool to 1775 242 Decline in export of English hats to 1775 242 English hats priced out of the market 242 Attempts to break down the Company monopoly 242 Great profits involved in the fur trade 242 Upon annual stock in trade 243 Arthur Dobbs s challenge to the monopoly 243 His earlier interests in discovering a northwest passage, 1735 243 Continued attempts to find a northwest passage, 1742 and 1746 243 His attack on the legality of the Company charter 244 Dobbs appeals to the Privy Council and Parliament 244 His efforts to throw open the trade of the Bay 244 Wide support given by English merchants and others 245 Appointment of a committee of investigation 245 The Report of the parliamentary committee 245 Tendency to confirm Dobbs s stand 245 The Company s petition 245 Defends its conduct in carrying out its objectives 245 Produces conclusive arguments in its own favour 245 The Company weathers the storm 245 Defeat of the powerful opposition in 1749 245 Its continued survival 245 French rivalry in 1750 246 French establishments about Lake Winnipeg 246 Obstacles to easy access to their trading posts 246 The Hudson s Bay Company remains ascendant 247 xl CONTENTS Chapter XI BANKERS AND SACKMEN: THE PROVINCE OF AVALON Newfoundland in the eighteenth century 248 The importance of the Banks as international fishing grounds 248 Cod fisheries and the European fishing interests 248 Slow movement of permanent settlers to the Island 249 Anglo-French rivalry in Newfoundland 249 The Treaty of Utrecht confirming British territorial claims 249 The French retain coastal fishing privileges 249 French superiority in the cod trade in 1750 250 Advantages of location at Cape Breton and on the coasts of the Island 250 Their production of a better commodity 250 The Avalon Peninsula in 1750 250 Centre of the English activity 250 Importance of St. John s as chief town and port 250 Defences of the peninsula 250 The Placentia garrison 250 Locations of other garrisons 251 Population at mid-century 251 Permanent inhabitants and seasonal fishing itinerants 251 The role of the Boston merchant in the life of the Island 251 Traders supply the stores in the fishing communities 251 Fish accepted in payment of debts 251 Methods of disposing of prime and refuse fish 251 Occupations of the permanent dwellers 252 Their employments and mode of living 252 Inactivity of the winter months 252 Activities in the cod-fishing season 252 Animation of vessels and people 253 English methods of catching and curing cod 253 Marketing the cod 254 Value of the annual catch in 1749 254 Other products of the Island 255 Train oil, furs and pelts, salmon 255 Value of total exports and imports of the Island 255 Relative unimportance of the commerce with Great Britain 255 CONTENTS xli British regulation of the fisheries 256 Governmental concern with the decline of the British cod fisheries 256 Instructions to Governor Rodney in 1749 on curing cod 256 Efforts to protect Newfoundland as an outlet market for British woollens 256 The Banks and maritime power 256 Desire to maintain the fisheries as a school for seamanship 256 Governor s instructions to foster British seamanship and the home mercantile marine 257 Earlier opposition to permanent settlements to prevent absorp¬ tion of the fisheries by inhabitants 257 Restrictions placed upon the inhabitants 258 Protection of the fishery conveniences out of season 258 Appointment of harbour admirals limited to English shipmasters 258 Attempts to control the New England shipping activities about the Banks 258 Instructions to Newfoundland Governors on supervision of colonial vessels 258 The government of Newfoundland in 1750 258 Its rudimentary nature 258 Early opposition to recognition of the Island as a colonial entity 259 The administration of the first Governor, Captain Henry Osborn, 1729 259 The Governor takes over military defence and judicial control of the Island 259 Divides the Island into administrative districts 259 Conflict develops between the Governor and the harbour admirals 259 Brief tenure in office of the Governor 259 Governors as commodores of the sack-ship convoys 259 List of Governors between 1748 and 1750 259 Varied responsibilities of the Governor s office 260 Instructions to Rodney in 1749 260 Inability of the Governors to fulfill multiplicity of duties 261 Necessity of relying upon subordinate officials 261 The justices of the peace 261 Friction between them and the harbour admirals 261 Their inability to control the inhabitants 262 The harbour admirals 262 Their neglect of civic duty in favour of fishing activity 262 The problem of maintaining order on the Island 262 xlii CONTENTS Rodney s report on the hostility of the Irish Catholics to the King s authority 262 Report of the military commander on the failure of justice 262 Necessity of sending criminals to England for trial 263 Efforts of the Crown to strengthen local government 263 Powers of the Governor extended to take cognizance of capi¬ tal crimes on the spot 263 Grant of commissions of oyer and terminer 263 Restrictions on executions maintained 264 Continued opposition of the English cod-fishing ports to at¬ tempts to stabilize the Newfoundland government 264 The turbulent state of the population in 1765 264 Revival of the Baltimore claims to the Peninsula of Avalon, 1755 265 The early relations of the Calverts to Newfoundland 265 The letters patent of 1623 265 The establishment of Ferryland by George Calvert 266 Appointment of deputies by the first two Calverts 266 Rival claims by the Marquess of Hamilton denied by the Crown 266 Baltimore s appointment of Governors, 1661-1674 267 Parliament s granting of free trade and fishing rights, 1699 267 The Baltimore line of succession down to Frederick in 1751 267 Baltimore pleads lack of continuous proprietorial activity as due to religious discrimination and war 267 Frederick seeks to establish a government for Avalon, 1753 268 His petition based on rights granted under the letters patent of 1623 268 Board of Trade refers the petition to the Attorney General and the Solicitor General 268 The objections and answers prepared by Baltimore s legal adviser 269 The opinion of the Attorney General, Sir Robert Henley 270 The decision of the Crown against the Baltimore claims 271 The weighty considerations of public policy dictating the decision 271 Board of Trade hostility to proprietorial and corporate colonial charters 272 The threat to English maritime power, a factor 272 CONTENTS xliii Chapter XII THE BRITISH COLONIAL SYSTEM IN 1750 SUMMARIZATION Government of the British colonies 273 Based upon well-established principles 273 Contrasted with other colonial empires 273 The role of Parliament 273 Decline of old prerogative powers of the King 273 Superseded by combined authority of King and Parliament 273 Evolution of the British constitution 274 Privy Council continues as chief administrative agency for co¬ lonial affairs by permission of Parliament 274 The sovereignty of Parliament in matters of state 274 Comprehensive statute of 1696 in force in 1750 274 Subordination of colonial law to parliamentary power 274 Supplementary laws binding on colonies 274 Lack of colonial challenge to parliamentary supremacy 275 Constitutions of the British colonies 275 Parliament creates no rigid pattern of colonial governmental machinery 275 Basis of colonial constitutions 276 Letters patent 276 Commissions and instructions to royal Governors 276 Fundamental colonial laws approved by the Privy Council 276 Acts of Parliament restricting colonial legislative competence 276 Wide latitude of colonial powers under their constitutions 276 Similarities of most colonial constitutions 277 Certain common duties assigned to all royal Governors 277 Flexibility of constitutions to meet new needs 277 Provisions for changes in commissions and instructions 277 The colonial Assembly 278 A common feature of colonial government 278 Election of members by freemen or freeholders 278 Its legislative powers and powers of the purse 278 Relationship of the Assembly to the Governor 278 Political awareness of colonial inhabitants 278 xliv CONTENTS Increasing prestige of colonial Assemblies in the eighteenth century 278 Corresponding weakening of executive authority 278 Precarious position of the colonial Governor 278 Governor s power of veto balanced by Assembly s control over funds 278 Need for mutual understanding between Governor and As¬ sembly 278 Processing of colonial legislation 279 Submission to the Privy Council for approval required of most colonies 279 Right of appeal to Privy Council from highest colonial courts 279 Currency legislation 279 Tendency of the local Assemblies to support legislation running counter to royal instructions 279 Need for a medium of exchange 279 The creation of bills of credit 279 Inflation of paper money defrauds the creditors and leads to parliamentary legislation 279 New England Currency Act, 1751 279 Controversies between Governors and Assemblies over legal- tender acts 280 The dynamic quality of colonial civilization and the vitality of its institutions 280 Contrasted with other imperial powers 280 Stems from degree of personal freedom in colonial life 280 Religious and economic encouragements attract a multitude of immigrants 280 Contributions of the immigrants of various nationalities 280 Stability of the British colonials 281 Hard core of conservatism retains the best of traditional herit¬ age 281 Preference for the English judicial and governmental systems 281 Religion and the colonial system 282 Contrasted with other imperial powers 282 Characterized by tolerance in 1750 282 The two so-called established churches in the colonies 282 The Anglican Establishment 282 The Congregational Establishment 282 CONTENTS xlv Presence of other Christian denominations and sects 282 Discrimination against Catholics and Jews in 1750 282 Prevailing attitude of tolerance despite legal discrimination 283 Their status in specific colonies 283 Importance of institution of slavery in 1750 284 A legally established common factor in all colonies 284 Economic importance of slavery varies with individual colonial needs 284 Importance of Negro slaves to staple-producing colonies 284 Relative importance of slavery in tobacco-producing colonies 284 The holding of slaves as a symbol of wealth in Northern col¬ onies and the Bermudas 284 Factors determining the severity of slave codes 285 Concentration of Negro population 285 Degree of fierceness of the type of slave 285 Fear of insurrection 285 The practice of manumission 285 Miscegenation in the West Indies 285 Jamaica s extension of unusual legal rights to Negro women and their mulatto children 285 Intercolonial boundary disputes 286 Westward expansion of colonies claiming sea-to-sea grants based on early letters patent provokes disputes 286 Clashes arising from disputed territorial limits in colonies with¬ out sea-to-sea grants 286 Final determination of boundary issues by colonial commissions 286 Economic sectionalism 287 Question of trade policy in 1750 287 Extent of proper confinement of British colonial trade 287 Divergencies of interest between the British West Indies and the Northern colonies 287 The problem of competition between the French and British sugar islands 287 Advantages of the French islands and their provision of cheap molasses for the North American rum trade 288 Parliamentary attempts to protect the British islands by legis¬ lating in their favour against the Northern colonies 288 The Molasses Act of 1733 fails of its purpose 288 Lack of governmental machinery to enforce this and earlier legislation 289 xlvi CONTENTS British planter interests fail to secure additional legislation to stem the flow of French-produced molasses to North America at mid-century 289 Predominant influence in Parliament of the continental colonies in 1750 289 The trade-and-navigation system 289 The complex body of laws regulating economic activity within the Empire 289 Abercromby s Examination of the acts 289 Lack of opposition in Great Britain before 1775 to trade restraints 290 Duties on colonial commerce to be called for as a source of na¬ tional income in the 1760 s and 1770 s 290 Large expenditures involved in maintaining imperial defence measures 290 The size of the national debt in 1759 290 Obligation upon colonials to help support measures beneficial to themselves under terms of the trade acts 290 Restrictions imposed by the system on colonial industry and commerce 291 Duties on certain foreign-produced commodities carried in the colonial trade require certification 291 The enumerated commodities list and other parliamentary legislation restrict colonial exportation 291 Certain tariffs, duties, and requirements designed to protect British merchants and maritime power 291 Benefits of government regulation to colonial commerce 291 Government bounties encourage certain colonial products 292 Benefits of the system to the colonial shipbuilding and carrying trade 292 Lack of enforcement of the restraining acts 292 Prevalence of law-violation in the Northern colonies 292 Laxity of law-enforcement machinery 292 Venality of the government law-enforcement agents 293 The healthy state of the Empire s economy in 1750 293 Extent of realization of the objective of economic self-contain¬ ment 293 Multifarious activities of trade and commerce everywhere 294 The satisfaction of British North Americans with their lot 294 Index follows page 294 Ma I. A portion of the Western Hemisphere showing British posses¬ sions. (From A Map of the World, on Mercator s Projection, Gentleman s Magazine, 1755) Facing page 6 II. The Northern Colonies. ( From A Complete Atlas by Emanuel Bowen, 1752) Facing page 7 III. The eastern part of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, later to become the State of Maine. (From A Map of the Most Inhabited part of New England . . . Divided into Counties and Townships. . . . Printed for Carrington Bowles, 1771, based on Thomas Jefferys s Map of New England, 1755) Facing page 30 IV. The main part of the Province of Massachusetts Bay. ( From the Bowles map of New England, 1771 ) Facing page 31 V. The Province of New Hampshire, with the new townships laid out west of the settled area. ( From the Bowles map of New England, 1771 ) Facing page 46 VI. A map showing the area of the boundary dispute between New Hampshire and New York, later to become the State of Vermont. ( From A Map of the Province of New York by Claude Joseph Sauthier, 1776 ) Facing page 47 VII. The Colony of Rhode Island. (From The Plan of the British Dominions of New England in North America by Wil¬ liam Douglass, 1753 [?] ) Facing page 70 VIII. The Colony of Connecticut. (From the Jefferys map of New England, 1755) Facing page 71 IX. A portion of the Province of New York. (From Sauthier s A Chorographical Map of the Province of New York in North America . . . , 1779 ) Facing page 118 X. The Province of New Jersey. ( From A Map of Pensilvania, New Jersey, New York, and the Three Delaware Coun¬ ties by Lewis Evans, 1749) Facing page 119 xlviii maps XL A Map of the Province of Pensñvania Drawn from the Best Authorities by Thomas Kitchin, 1756. Facing page 174 XII. The eastern portion of the Province of Pennsylvania and the Three Lower Counties on the Delaware. (From the sec¬ ond edition of the Lewis Evans map, 1752) Facing page 175 XIII. A portion of A New Map of Hudson s Bay and Labrador (From A Complete Atlas by Emanuel Bowen, 1752) (Canadian Archives, Map Division ) Facing page 238 XIV. The Island of Newfoundland. (From A Complete Atlas by Emanuel Bowen, 1752) Facing page 239
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spelling	Gipson, Lawrence Henry 1880-1971 Verfasser (DE-588)101654227 aut The British Empire before the American revolution 3. The British Isles and the American Colonies.The northern plantations 1748-1754.2.print.1967.XLVIII, 294, LXI S. by Lawrence Henry Gipson New York Knopf 1967 txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier (DE-604)BV003735425 3 Digitalisierung UB Bamberg application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=002374186&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis
spellingShingle	Gipson, Lawrence Henry 1880-1971 The British Empire before the American revolution
title	The British Empire before the American revolution
title_auth	The British Empire before the American revolution
title_exact_search	The British Empire before the American revolution
title_full	The British Empire before the American revolution 3. The British Isles and the American Colonies.The northern plantations 1748-1754.2.print.1967.XLVIII, 294, LXI S. by Lawrence Henry Gipson
title_fullStr	The British Empire before the American revolution 3. The British Isles and the American Colonies.The northern plantations 1748-1754.2.print.1967.XLVIII, 294, LXI S. by Lawrence Henry Gipson
title_full_unstemmed	The British Empire before the American revolution 3. The British Isles and the American Colonies.The northern plantations 1748-1754.2.print.1967.XLVIII, 294, LXI S. by Lawrence Henry Gipson
title_short	The British Empire before the American revolution
title_sort	the british empire before the american revolution
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