Anglo-Saxon England:
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| Main Author: | |
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| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
Oxford
Clarendon Pr.
1971
|
| Edition: | 3. ed. |
| Series: | Oxford history of England
2 |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Physical Description: | XLI, 765 S. |
| ISBN: | 0198217161 |
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Record in the Search Index
| _version_ | 1804117199199141888 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | Titel: Anglo-Saxon England
Autor: Stenton, Frank M.
Jahr: 1971
CONTENTS
I. THE AGE OF THE MIGRATION
The visit of Germanus, bishop of Auxerre, to rebut Pelegian heresy I
Evidence of Gildas concerning defeat of Saxon invaders 2
The battle of Mons Badonicus 3
Result of the batUe 3
Invective of Gildas against British kings 4
Information preserved by Procopius 5
Reverse migration from Britain of Britons, Angles, and Frisians 6
Tradition preserved at Fulda 7
But ignored by Bede 8
Origin of English settlers: 9
Bede s statement 9
Evidence of Tacitus, Ptolemy, and Pliny 11
Extension of Frankish power by Clovis prevents setdements in
northern Gaul ,2
Angles mentioned by Ptolemy, in Widsith, and in Alfred s Ororius 13
Evidence of archaeology 3
Origin of Jutes 4
Other traditions: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 5
Hengest and Horsa belong to the history of Britain rather than
England 7
Early place-names in Sussex; probably colonised from Kent 18
JEHc king of Sussex, the first bretwalda 9
Authorities for the early history of the West Saxons: the Alfredian
Chronicle 20
Duplication of annals by oral tradition 2a
Bede on the Jutes; their connection with the West Saxon royal
family 23
The name Cerdic 24
Archaeological evidence 25
The batde of Bedcanford 27
Ceawlin, king of Wessex in 560, the second bretwalda 28
His victories, ending in Fethanleag, 584 29
Consistency of tradition about the conquest 3°
II. THE KINGDOMS OF THE SOUTHERN ENGLISH
Northumbrian Angles separated from the Southumbrians by the
British kingdom ofElmet until the seventh century 32
The bretwaldas 33
Bede s view of boundaries of his day. Humber the northern bound-
ary 33
Omission of the Mercian overlords from the traditional list 34
Meaning of the tide 34
xii CONTENTS
Offa s view of the overlord s rights 36
Their importance in regard to the future unity of England 36
Invaders not tribes under tribal kings, but adventurers under leaders
claiming divine ancestry 37
Genealogies of eight contemporary royal families survive 37
Two belong to Northumbria, the Deirans and Bernicians 37
No surviving traditions of the amalgamation of Anglian families into
Mercia 39
The rise of the family of Penda 39
Setdement and provinces of Mercia 42
The Hwicce as an underkingdom of Mercia 43
Their position defined by Offa 46
Kings of the Magonsetan 46
Kings of Lindsey 48
East Anglia: never dominated by Mercia 50
Evidence of the Sutton Hoo treasure 50-2
Early place-names in East Anglia 53
Raedwald succeeds iEthelberht of Kent as bretwalda, 616 53
East Saxon kings 53
Their genealogy proves their connection with the continental
Saxons 54
Middlesex: probably originally an independent kingdom 54
Surrey: successively a province of Kent, Wessex, and Mercia 55
London: the chief town of East Saxons in early seventh century 56
But only a starved and barbarized existence can be attributed to
post-Roman London 56
Coins similar to finds in Holland and Friesland, the first evidence
of connection with the continent 57
Bretwaldas, not local rulers, the first kings of importance in London 57
iEthelberht of Kent founder of the first Saxon cathedral there 57
Hunting rights of the men of London may represent the territory
of the Middle Saxons 58
South Saxons: nothing known of their history for nearly 200 years after
491 58
Charters connected with the cathedral of Selsey 58
Kent: Jutes of Kent probably connected with the continental Jutes
who were dependents of Franks Kg
jEthelberht s continental marriage 59
He was third bretwalda of the southern English 60
He issues laws in the vernacular 60
His son Eadbald in diminished position, but marries his sister to the
king of Northumbria 61
Division of Kent after 686, and reunion under Wihtred after 690 61
Two codes of Kentish law belong to this period (i) Kothhere and
Eadric and (ii) Wihtred 63
The kingdom eminent in Church tradition, but hemmed in by
Mercia and Wessex from expansion 62
West Saxons: seventh-century advance across Somerset and their first
setdements in Devon g3
CONTENTS xiii
Wessex beyond Selwood: Aldhelm the first bishop 63
Bede s scanty knowledge of seventh-century Wessex with more than
one king 66
Hostility with Mercia: Penda expels Cenwalh from his kingdom 67
Centwine conquers Devon while Mercia advances on Middle
Thames 68
Caedwalla, an exile of royal descent, acquires kingship, 685 69
In 688 leaves England for baptism in Rome; dies, 689 70
Ine succeeds 71
His code of laws 71
Reign3 37 years and probably completes conquest of Devon 73
Held ancient West Saxon lands south of the Thames but probably
did not recover north from Mercia; retired to Rome 73
III. ANGLIAN NORTHUMBRIA
Bemice in far north centred on fortress of Bamburgh 74
Dere in centre and east of present Yorkshire 74
Meaning of the name 74
Archaeological evidence that Anglians had reached York by 500 74
^Ethelfrith, son of jEthelric king of Bernicia 593-616 and married to
daughter of jElle, first king of Deira, was the real founder of
Northumbria 75
The Briton Nennius (early ninth century) agrees with Bede s
English tradition 7*
iEthelfrith, attacked by Britons from Lothian and Irish from Argyll
under Aedan mac Gabrain, defeats them at Degsastan, 603 77
He defeats British at Chester, 613-16 78
Raxlwald, as bretwalda, invades Northumbria in support of Edwin s
claim as heir; ^Ethelfrith defeated and slain at the batde of the
Idle, 616 79
Edwin s marriage to daughter of ^Ethelberht of Kent brings him
influence in Kent and Merovingian court 79
He conquers kingdom of Elmet, probably in revenge for death of
a kinsman 80
He invades Gwynedd, conquers Anglesey and attacks the Isle of
Man. Cadwallon of Gwynedd, in alliance with Penda, a Mercian
noble, invades Northumbria °°
Edwin defeated and killed in Hatfield Chase, 63a 8i
Devastation of Northumbria: Bernicia and Deira fall apart 81
Penda king of Mercia 8*
Oswald, heir of the Deiran line, becomes king, 633, unites the two
lines by marriage thus becoming bretwalda 82
Oswald defeated and killed at Maserfelth by Penda, who remains
the strongest king in England, though not bretwalda 83
Oswiu, brother of Oswald, king; Penda invades Northumbria
but is defeated and killed at Winwaed, 654 84
Oswiu bretwalda for about three years 84
Three Mercian nobles revolt and make Penda s son WuKhere king 85
xiv CONTENTS
Wulfhere, not described as bretwalda, brings all the southern English
under his influence 85
Oswiu dies, 670, still a great Northumbrian king 85
Wulfhere invades Northumbria, 674, but is defeated by Ecgfrith,
son of Oswiu 85
Ecgfrith temporarily annexes Lindsey to Northumbria 85
Northumbrian kings and their northern neighbours 86
Ecgfrith defeated and killed by Picts at Nechtanesmere, 685 88
Aldfrith, his brother, abandons attempts to advance northwards 88
He is described by Alcuin as rex et magister 89
After his death a bad period in Northumbria 89
Northumbrian scholarship maintains its continuity 9°
Alcuin as intermediary between the Northumbrian kings and
Charlemagne 94
IV. THE CONVERSION OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE
English heathenism: its seasons and festivals 96
Names of principal gods; place-names compounded with them 97
Heathen cult centres; rare in Northumbria, but in south-east still
a living religion in St. Augustine s days 101
Gregory the Great and Augustine s mission to the English; ,/Ethel-
berht s marriage to a Christian princess of France 103
Augustine fails to conciliate British church and bring it to conform
to Rome 110
Churches built by Roman mission and consecration of Laurentius
by Augustine, but church in danger of expiring on jEthelberht s
death in 616 in
Heathen reaction in Kent and Essex. Bishops fled, but Laurentius
did not, thus preserving continuity 112
Temporary conversion of Northumbria by Paulinus begun in 625;
King Edwin baptised 627 113
Mass conversions 115
Fall of Christianity in Northumbria but deacon, James, did not flee 116
Conversion of East Anglia and foundation of the see of Dunwich 116
Birinus and the conversion of Wessex 117
Foundation of the see of Dorchester on Thames 118
Reconversion of the north by monks from Iona under Aidan, who
settled on Lindisfarne 119
Communities of women encouraged in north 119
Discord between followers of Roman and of Celtic practices 119
Missionaries from Northumbria in Mercia, but Penda dies a heathen 120
Cedd becomes bishop of the East Saxons 121
Career of Agilbert, second bishop of the West Saxons 122
The synod of Whitby (Streoneshalh); its results 123
Career of Cuthbert as bishop 126
Christianity the dominant religion by 663, but traditions of heathen
times still alive 128
Note on the Date of the Synod of Streoneshalh 129
CONTENTS xv
V. THE ENGLISH CHURCH FROM
THEODORE TO BONIFACE
Plague throughout Europe. Wighard, chosen as archbishop, dies 130
Hadrian, asked by the pope to take his place, refuses and suggests
Theodore of Tarsus, aged 66. Hadrian to accompany Theodore 131
Journey delayed so that Theodore could get the Roman tonsure,
be ordained subdeacon and consecrated archbishop 132
Situation at time of Theodore s coming 132
Theodore s first council 26 September 672 at Hertford 133
Creation of new dioceses 134
Political problems prevented complete success 135
Power of Wilfrid in North 136
His exile after Queen jEthelthryth entered monastery 136
Theodore divides his diocese 136
Wilfrid preaches to Frisians on way to Rome and stays with the
Austrasian and Lombard kings 136
At council at Rome in October 679 compromise attempted be-
tween Theodore and Wilfrid 137
Council of Hatfield held by Theodore September 679 to pronounce
declaration against Monothelite heresy 137
English confession of faith declared by Wilfrid at Rome 137
Wilfrid returns to Northumbria with papal support, but North-
umbrian council orders his arrest 138
He leaves Northumbria for Sussex where he converts the South
Saxons and after victory of Oedwalla receives quarter of Isle
of Wight 138
In 685 death of King Ecgfrith and consequent reconciliation of
Theodore and Wilfrid 139
Wilfrid returns to Northumbria but setdement of 680 unchanged 139
Theodore dies 19 September 690; his place in history 139
His Poenitentiale 140
Oldest English charters come from time of Theodore s reorgani-
zation of church 141
His successor Berhtwald, although not the equal of Theodore,
maintains the authority of the archbishop and increases the
number of his suffragans 142
Wilfrid again exiled by King Aldfrith because he claimed all
Northumbria as his diocese 143
The pope refers the question to an English council which meets
at Austerfield. Council deprives Wilfrid of all property except
the see of Ripon and he again appeals to Rome 144
After death of King Aldfrith in 704 he returns to his churches of
Ripon and Hexham and dies at his Middle Anglian monastery at
Oundle in 709. 144
Independence of archbishopric of York secured in 735: Egbert, founder
of the school of York, becomes archbishop. 146
Apart from see of Leicester created 737 no further changes for
many years. 146
xvi CONTENTS
Episcopal organization in England and the duties of the bishop. Slow
establishment of the parochial system 147
The origin of lay patronage and evolution of the parish 148
The standing cross carved with vine leaves and other decorative
motives precedes the building of the parish church 15°
Provision for the maintenance of the parish priest I52
Plough alms, church scot and soul scot appear first in Athelstan s laws 152
Tithe 54
Provisions for enforcing payment of tithe in Edgar s and in all
later Anglo-Saxon codes 155
Monasticism 57
Many different forms cf monasticism 158
Crowland; Willibrord, the apostle of Frisia 158
Benedictine rule adopted in Wilfrid s circle and St Aldhelm s in-
fluence all in favour of Benedictinism 16°
Federations of houses such as those dependent on Medeshamstede 160
Abuses of family monasteries troubled Bede 6°
Double monasteries common in England and founded by English-
men in Germany 161
The Abbess Hild 162
English missionaries abroad. 165
Earliest English missionaries Northumbrians 186
Boniface a West Saxon 168
His reform of the Frankish church. The massacre at Dockum 17°
His correspondence with English men and women I71
His relations with Leofgyth 73
The successors of Boniface l 73
The travels of Willibald 174
Willibald at Constantinople and at Monte Cassino J75
English missionaries to the Frisians and the Old Saxons 76
VI. LEARNING AND LITERATURE IN
EARLY ENGLAND
The overthrow of Penda meant the end of militant heathenism and
the development of civilisation in England *77
English learning a combination of the Irish and the continental
strains 178
Codex Amiatinm written at Jarrow for presentation to pope 179
Educational work of Theodore, Hadrian, Benedict Biscop and
Wilfrid; Aldhelm and the school of Canterbury 8o
Greek learning at Canterbury; Aldhelm and his school at Malmes-
bury 181
Victory of the continental party in 663 meant that scholars in North-
umbria would be trained in continental tradition 84
Benedict Biscop, the founder of Wearmouth and Jarrow, leader
of the northern scholars 184
His collections made possible the work of Bede 185
Bede s commentaries and scientific treatises 186
Bede as historian 186
CONTENTS xvn
Egbert archbishop of York had studied under Bede, who addressed
the last of his writings to him 188
Alcuin, the most eminent of Egbert s pupils 188
Mercian contribution to English learning undervalued in past
First phase in English learning ended not by lack of interest but
by dislocation of the Danish wars 190
Hiberno-Saxon art developed in Northumbria several generations
before the date of the Irish manuscripts with which it has been
generally associated 191
English poetry alone shows the range of Germanic tradition of which
only fragments survive 192
The poems, Beowulf, Widsith, the batde fought by Waldhere and the
lament of Deor probably took their present shape between the
birth of Bede in 672 and the departure or Alcuin in 78a 193
Caedmon and religious poetry 196
The poetry of Cynewulf 197
Riddles and gnomes 197
Romantic poetry 198
Transmission of Old English poetry 199
VII. THE ASCENDANCY OF THE MERCIAN KINGS
Wulfhere son of Penda effectively overlord of southern English, but
unsuccessful against Northumbria 202
Wulfhere succeeded by three weak rulers the last of whom died in
716 203
^Ethelbald grandson of Eowa, brother of Penda, wins precedence in
southern England after the death of Wihtred of Kent in 725
and the abdication of Ine of Wessex in 726 203
Rex Britannia in his charters; dominant in southern England for
nearly 30 years 203
Acquires the West Saxon lands to the south of the Thames and
gives Cookham to Canterbury 204
London and Middlesex detached from Essex by iEthelbald 204
His immunity charter 205
Scandal of jEthelbald s private life led to his murder in 757 205
Mercian supremacy re-established by his successor, Offa 206
His relations with Kent; with Sussex; with Wessex; and the East
Saxons 206
His charters and style 211
His dyke; its probable date 2I2
His relations with the pope and church in England 215
The legatine mission of 786 215
The archbishopric of Lichfield 217
Consecration of Ecgfrith son of Offa as king of Mercia 218
Relations between Offa and Charlemagne , 219
Quarrel about marriage negotiations and closing of the Frankish
ports by Charlemagne 22°
Evidence of commercial relations with Frisia and Gaul 221
8217181 b
xviii CONTENTS
Offa s silver pennies 222
His gold coins. His quality as statesman. His death in 796 223
Succession of Cenwulf. Appoints his brother Cuthred king in Kent
after revolt there 225
End of the Mercian archbishopric 226
Decree at the council of Clofeshoh, that no power should dimi-
nish the honour of St. Augustine s see. 227
Rule of Chrodegang of Metz at Canterbury 229
Resumption of Mercian attack on Wales and capture of Deganwy 230
King Ceolwulf deposed and Beornwulf becomes king 231
His defeat by Egbert of Wessex at Ellandun ends Mercian suprem-
acy 231
Beornwulf killed by the East Angles, but succeeded as king by
Ludeca and he by Wiglaf in 827 231
Egbert conquers Mercia and the Northumbrians acknowledge his
overlordship at Dore near Sheffield 829 232
In 830 Wiglaf recovers the kingdom of Mercia; Egbert s overlord-
ship of the southern English at end, but Wessex and Mercia on
rough equality. Mercia still holding land originally West Saxon 233
Egbert dies 839, succeeded by his son jErhelwulf 235
Nature of Mercian supremacy and emergence of a new type of de-
liberative assembly, ecclesiastical councils, reinforced by lay lords 236
At Clofeshoh in 746 and Chelsea in 786 the clergy of the southern
province meet, but the king of the Mercians and his nobles also
attend 237
Affairs of the church and state were intermingled 238
VIII. THE AGE OF ALFRED
The three Scandinavian countries at the end of the eighth century 239
The early raiders Norwegian and attacked not the Empire nor
England, but the far north and Ireland. 239
The Danes become an important power in the latter part of the eighth
century 240
Earliest raids on England 243
iEthelwulf of Wessex in 851 wins decisive victory over Danes. 244
Before 850 he had settled the old quarrel with Mercia about the
land to the west of the middle Thames. 244
In 855 he makes pilgrimage to Rome, marrying Judith, daughter
of the Frankish king, on his way back 245
Coming of the Great Army of the Danes to England in autumn 865 246
In autumn 866 they enter Northumbria and occupy York 247
An unsuccessful English attack on York in 867 247
Danes appoint an Englishman as tributary king and move to
Nottingham 248
Burgred of Mercia asks West Saxons for help, but buys peace with
the Danes who move to East Anglia 248
The death of King Edmund and his popular recognition as a saint 248
The army moves to Reading in 870 248
CONTENTS xix
After a year s fighting the West Saxons buy peace. Alfred now king. 250
The army moves to London in the autumn of 871 and in the
following year to Torksey. Coins issued in England by Vikings 250
Burgred flees to Rome and the Danes appoint Ceolwulf as underking
in Mercia, later reserving half for themselves 252
In 876 Halfdan s men setde in Northumbria round York 252
In 877 Mercia partitioned by Danes and settled with varying density;
the third division of the army under Guthrum enters Wessex 254
Alfred retreats west of Selwood and holds out in Athelney until strong
enough to attack and defeat Guthrum in the summer of 878 at
Edington. 255
Guthrum occupies East Anglia 257
Another Viking force collects in the north and takes up winter
quarters at Fulham in autumn of 878 with support of the Danes
in East Anglia 257
In 886 Alfred occupies London and all the English people submit to
him except those under the power of the Danes 257
Alfred entrusts London to the ruler of English Mercia, the ealdorman
iEthelred 260
Before the end of 889 iEthelred marries Alfred s daughter iEthelfUed 260
Terms of settlement after the war of 886 probably contained in Alfred
and Guthrum s peace 260
The north at this time obscure 262
The Cuerdale hoard 262
Alfred remodels naval and military defences and builds fortresses 263
Renewed Danish invasion in 892 resulting in war until 896 265
Despite Alfred s efforts the initiative remained with the Danes 268
His death 26 October 899 269
His translations and his place in history 269
Mercian scholars who assisted him 270
Other foreign scholars 271
Asser s Life of Alfred 271
The Cura Pastoralis; Orosius History of the Ancient World and Bede s
History of the Church 272
Alfred as a Geographer 274
Boethius De Consolatione Philosophise; The Soliloquies of St. Augustine 274
Alfred s laws 275
IX. THE STRUCTURE OF EARLY ENGLISH SOCIETY
The basis of society was the free peasant 277
Except in Kent his holding was the hide, but it varied widely in
acreage 279
Ine s laws show that there were open fields in Wessex, but they were
not universal 280
The Kentish system of land division 281
Woodland and forest 283
Settlement determined by the type of land 285
Poor land awaited cultivation by individual enterprise 286
XX
CONTENTS
Public burdens organized on the basis of the village in round numbers
of hides long before the time of hundred courts 287
They are evidence of primitive township moots 287
The king s feortn or food rent based on the amount necessary to
maintain the royal household for twenty-four hours 287
Duty to work on bridges and fortresses, and fyrd service of
primitive origin and normally reserved when exemptions were
granted 289
The fyrd service of the ceorl was not defined in early documents
because familiar 290
These services defined and increased as result of the Danish inva-
sions 291
Traces survive until the twelfth and thirteenth centuries 291
Local adininistration follows a similar pattern 292
By the eleventh century a national system of shires and hundreds
largely worked out 292
It appears first in Wessex and is made general south of the Tees as a
result of the West Saxon supremacy 293
Regiones and provinciae often result from early settlement of tribal
groups and are the most ancient form of English tribal organi-
zation 293
The Tribal Hidage which assigns numbers of hides or tribute-paying
families to each regio or province originates in Mercia in the
days of Mercian ascendancy 295
The origin of the hundred in the need for local assemblies, to adjust
fiscal burdens 298
The ordinance touching the hundred is of 946-61, but such insti-
tution was needed at an earlier date 209
The grouping of hundreds 299
Grants of land to churches and even more to laymen bring changes
which lead to the later manorial economy 301
The king and his companions or gesiths 302
The wergild of gesith and ceorl 303
The character of nobility by service 304
Bookland an estate secured to its holder by book or royal charter 307
Document derived ultimately from the Roman private deed 307
Often used so that the grantee may found a religious house free
from public burdens on its land 308
So used by King iEthelwulf in granting land by charter to himself 308
By the late eighth century bookland may be freely disposable by
will 309
Contrast between bookland and folkland. Three mentions of folk-
land in which the feorm and ancient services lie 309
Nobleman can hold both bookland and folkland 310
The relation between lord and tenant in Ine s laws is a gradual
development in the communities of free peasants of the migration
age 313
British society had disintegrated and had no discernible influence
on the society which replaced it 314
CONTENTS xxi
Rules in regard to oath helpers illustrate the declining influence of
kinship 317
No text in English law attributes the ownership of land to a family 318
X. THE CONQUEST OF SCANDINAVIAN ENGLAND
Division of England between Danes and Englishmen at the beginning
of Edward the Elder s reign 320
Revolt of jEthelwold son of jEthelred I 899-902 321
English purchase of land in the Danelaw 322
Battle of Tettenhall made possible the expansion of the West Saxon
kingdom 323
911 Death of ^Ethelred of Mercia. jEthelflaxi recognized as Lady of
the Mercians 324
Edward the Elder occupies London and Oxford and the lands belong-
ing thereto 324
His advance against the southern Danes delayed by a Scandinavian
army from Brittany, 914 325
915 Edward the Elder advances against Bedford 325
916 He attacks Essex and allows the leaders of the army at Bedford to
go over sea with such followers as wished to go with him 326
iEthelfked completes her husband s work of fortifying Mercia begun
in Alfred s reign with Worcester 326
In 916 jEthelflaed s Welsh expedition and capture of a king s wife by
Llangorse lake near Brecon 327
In 917 English occupy Towcester and build fortress at Wigingamere.
The Danes fail to take Towcester. Second Danish army invades
Bedfordshire and builds fortress at Tempsford. Third Danish
army driven off from Wigingamere 327
iEthelflaed attacks and takes Derby. Turning point in war when Eng-
lish stormed Tempsford and took it and killed all its defenders
with king of East Anglia at their head 328
English go on to storm Colchester 328
A Danish army attacks Maldon but the garrison holds out until
relieved 328
Edward surrounds Towcester with stone wall and Danish army of
Northampton submits 328
By end of the year the army of East Anglia submits and also the army
of Cambridge 328
In January 918 there remain the armies of Leicester, Stamford,
Nottingham, and Lincoln south of the Humber. Early in the year
the army at Leicester submits to iEthelflaed and Danes at York
offer to submit to her, probably for help against Norse raiders
from Ireland. Her death intervenes, at Tamworth on 12 June 329
Edward establishes a fort overlooking Stamford and the army submits 329
Edward turns aside to secure his control of Mercia on death of
iEthelflsed 329
In winter of 919 Edward carries JEHvryn daughter of ^Ethelfhed
to Wessex; Lincoln s submission implied but not recorded 330
Edward therefore the direct ruler of Mercia 330
xxii CONTENTS
Before end of 918 the Welsh kings in west of Wales and the armies of
Nottingham and Lincoln submit to Edward 33°
Obscure movements of peoples in the north west of the country
Result in a general submission to Edward of the kings of the north,
of the Scottish king and the people of Rxgnald of York, of
Ealdred ofBamburgh, Englishmen, Danes, Northmen, and others,
and the king and people of Strathclyde 334
The campaigns against the Danes thus completed were the best
sustained and most decisive of the whole Dark Ages 335
Most of the fortresses became centres of habitation, trade, and
coinage 33*
The shire system of Wessex was extended into Mercia and ancient
boundaries were ignored 336
The new shires of the eastern midlands are the lands settled by the
Danish armies of the ninth century 338
Edward s authority did not extend beyond the Humber. The coins
issued there bear the names of Viking kings 338
Edward died 17 July 924. Athelstan crowned 4 September 925 339
Athelstan s relations with other powers in Britain 34°
At Eamont Bridge near Penrith on 12 July 927 he receives the sub-
mission of the kings of Scotland and Strathclyde and the English
lord of Bamburgh 340
He takes York and repairs its fortifications 340
The Welsh princes submit at Hereford and 931-7 all the Welsh
kings are brought into his power and witness his charters 341
In 934 he attacks Scotland and his fleet ravages as far north as
Caithness 342
A combination of his enemies from Scotland, Strathclyde, and
Dublin invade England and are defeated at Brunanburh 937 343
Athelstan and the continental powers 344
Flanders friendly owing to marriage of King Alfred s daughter to
Baldwin II 344
Between 917-19 Charles the Simple of France married Eadgifu
sister of Athelstan and early in Athelstan s reign their son Louis
came to his court for refuge 344
In 926 alliance made with Hugh duke of the French who marries
Athelstan s sister Eadhild 345
In 928 the first Saxon King of the Germans, Henry the Fowler,
seeks marriage alliance for his son Otto 346
Two sisters sent, of whom Edith married Otto and the other prob-
ably Conrad the Peaceable king of Burgundy 346
In 936 Louis d Outremer restored to France with Athelstan s help 347
In 939 Athelstan sends a fleet to help Louis against a German at-
tack, but it fails. The first occasion on which an English fleet
went to the help of a continental ally 347
He intervenes in Brittany to aid Alan of the Twisted Beard, who had
been baptized in England, against Vikings on Loire 348
Vikings established in the future Normandy attracted adventurers
who might otherwise have attacked England 348
CONTENTS xxiii
Athelstan s relations with Norway under Harold Fairhair 349
His power centred in southern England, but his coins claim that he
was king of all Britain 349
Many of his great men of Danish descent 351
His charters provide evidence of change in the character of the
king s court and council 352
Athelstan s laws and the peace-gild formed in London to main-
tain them 354_5
Episode of his brother, Edwin s, death 355
Athelstan succeeded by his brother Edmund in 939 356
Invasion of Olaf Guthfrithson of Dublin and collapse of Athelstan s
kingdom of all England. The archbishops arrange treaty with
Edmund 357
Lands between Wading Street and Humber recovered by Edmund
on death of Olaf Guthfrithson. 358
York recovered by Edmund late in 944. In the next year he invades
Strathclyde, which he wins with the help of Welsh allies and
gives to the king of Scots 359
Edmund killed, defending his steward against a criminal, before he
could intervene to aid Louis d Outremer; and succeeded by his
brother Eadred 360
Intervention of Eric Bloodaxe establishes his rule at York for short
time, until he is expelled and killed on Stainmorc 360
Significance of the failure of Eric Bloodaxe 363
XI. THE DECLINE OF THE
OLD ENGLISH MONARCHY
Eadred dies childless in 955. The two sons of Edmund nearest to
succession and the elder, Eadwig, chosen 364
Quarrel of Dunstan with the young king on day of coronation;
Dunstan exiled 365
Mercians and Northumbrians renounce their allegiance to Eadwig
and choose Edgar as king. He becomes king of Wessex also in 959 366
Dunstan recalled and made archbishop of Canterbury 367
Delay in the coronation ceremony until the king reaches his
thirtieth year in 973 368
Coronation and anointing at Bath and symbolical rowing of the
king on the Dee at Chester by kings who promised to acknowledge
his supremacy 368
Edgar gives Lothian to Kenneth king of the Scots and also a num-
ber of English estates for residence when he visits the English
court 370
Edgar s relations with the Danelaw: autonomy in return for
allegiance 37
Death of Edgar 8 July 975 372
Coronation of his eldest son and reaction against monasticism 372
Murder of King Edward at Corfe by household men of his younger
brother 373
xxiv CONTENTS
jEthelred crowned as king, but always unsure of himself 373
Scandinavian raids begin again and use Norman ports 374
Pope arranges treaty between England and duchy 376
Poem on the battle of Maldon 991 37^
Treaty between English and raiders 377
In 994 Swein son of king of Denmark and Olaf Trygwason come
with a combined fleet of 94 ships 378
Peace bought for 16,000 pounds. Olaf leaves England and enters
on expedition which ends in his becoming king of Norway. 378
Marriage of jEthelred and Emma of Normandy 379
Massacre of St. Brice s day 1002 38°
Swein of Denmark raids England in following years but leaves
England in 1005, only to return the next year 381
Appointment of Eadric Streona as ealdorman of Mercia 1007.
In the next year the creation of fleet of warships secured little
because of treachery 38°
1009 a formidable Danish host. The murder of the archbishop
of Canterbury 1012. Thorkell the Tall having failed to save him
joins iEthelred 382
1013 Swein comes with intention of conquest and iEthelred sends
his wife to Normandy and follows her at the end of the year 384
Death of Swein. Cnut chosen by the army, but ^Ethelred returns
agreeing to reform everything of which his people had com-
plained 386
Cnut s elder brother king in Denmark, but he allows Cnut to raise
forces there. Cnut also helped by his sister s husband, Eric of
Hlathir, and Thorkell the Tall 387
Cnut s invasion comes at moment when Edmund son of iEthelred
marries the widow of Danelaw thegn, whose murder procured
by Eadric Streona 388
Eadric betrays Edmund and joins Cnut 389
Edmund raises forces in the Danelaw and iEthelred in the south,
but leaves the English army, returns to London and dies on 23
April 1016 390
Cnut accepted as king in most of Wessex until Edmund begins to
recover the land 390
Cnut lays siege to London. An indecisive battle in Wiltshire
followed by both leaders returning to London. Edmund defeats
the Danes but loses so many men that he withdraws. The Danes
defeated at Otford 390
Eadric Streona rejoins Edmund only to desert him at Ashingdon 392
The two kings come to an agreement but Edmund dies on 30 Novem-
ber 1016 and Cnut becomes king 393
XII. ENGLAND AND THE SCANDINAVIAN WORLD
Contemporary opinion unanimous about the treachery and coward-
ice of the times 394
CONTENTS xxv
Nevertheless the professional element through whom the country
governed was growing in importance 395
Charters and writs and a financial office 395
Scholars survived the bad times 396
iElfric at Cerne Abbas and later at Eynsham; Byrhtferth of Ramsey 396
The work of English scriptoria never seriously interrupted 396
Cnut sets himself to win the respect of the English church, but four
prominent Englishmen are killed without trial and the sons of ?
Edmund Ironside obliged to seek refuge in Hungary 397
Cnut s marriages 397
jElfgifu of Northampton daughter of iElfhelm once earl of North-
umbria his temporary wife during the war and regent for their
son in Norway 397
Emma of Normandy formerly wife of jEthelred becomes Cnut s
wife in 1017 397
Cnut divides England into four large earldoms and before the end of
1018 can dismiss his fleet except for 40 ships 398
In 1018 Cnut holds a national assembly at Oxford which decided the
relationship between Englishmen and Danes and oaths were taken
to observe Edgar s law 399
Four expeditions to the north between 1019 and 1028 401
1. On the death of Harold, Cnut s brother. Cnut told Englishmen
that it was undertaken to avert danger from Denmark 401
2. In 1021 Thorkell proclaimed an outlaw. In 1023 he and Cnut
meet in Denmark and are reconciled 401
3. Olaf Haroldson, who conquered a great part of Norway while
Cnut was conquering England, allies with King Anund of Sweden
and with Ulf, Cnut s regent in Denmark. The battle of the Holy
River. Ulf murdered by Cnut s orders 403
4. In 1028 with 50 ships of English thegns Cnut goes from
England to Norway. Olaf driven out without a battle 404
Cnut then holds all three northern kingdoms 404
He sends his son, Swein by ^Elfgifu, to rule Norway with his mother,
whose harsh rule caused revolt, and Magnus son of St. Olaf, now
regarded as a saint, becomes king 405
No sign that Cnut aimed at founding a northern empire 406
In 1027 he attends the Imperial coronation and obtains concessions
from other powers for English pilgrims 407
His laws founded on previous legislation and show a strong religious
strain. Nearest to innovation is the rule which puts every free man
into a hundred and tithing. This is the probable origin of frank-
pledge, but has antecedents 409
Cnut stresses the continuity of his government with that of his
English predecessors 410
His relations with his bishops and abbots that of pupil to teachers 411
His rule maintained by formidable system of taxation by which
the housecaries of Cnut and his sons were paid. Payment of a
standing military force, the heregild, a first charge on the king s
finances. Payment of a standing fleet 412
xxvi CONTENTS
Individual housecarles were granted English estates: the Danish
element in English society probably underestimated 413
At this time the Danish word earl tends to take the place of the English
word earldorman 4 4
History of the Anglo-Danish earldoms obscure and even the names
of all Cnut s earls probably not known 415
At the end of his reign Godwine earl of Wessex and Leofric earl of
Mercia apparendy his chief advisers 4 ^
Siward of Northumbria a Danish warrior of a primitive type who
ruled from the Tees to the Scottish border, the most unquiet of
English provinces 4 7
Relations between Northern England and the Scots 418
Period after the death of Cnut an anti-climax 419
Harthacnut, Cnut s one legitimate son, unable to come to England,
Queen Emma and earl Godwine propose his election, Leofric and
the seamen of London electing son of jElfgifu as regent 420
Before the end of 1037 jElfgifu persuades the leading magnates to
support her son Harold. Queen Emma driven over sea to Flanders 420
In 1036 Alfred, brother of Edward, comes to England, is seized,
tortured, and dies of his injuries 421
His treaty with Magnus of Norway that if either dies without heir
the other should succeed him 421
In June 1040 Harthacnut collects a fleet of 62 warships and comes
to England to promote his claim 422
Harthacnut dies at the wedding of Tovi the Proud. Edward the
Confessor already by Harthacnut s invitation in his household
is therefore elected king with popular acclaim 423
Magnus of Norway claims the kingdom, but too much involved
with Swein of Denmark to invade England. He dies 25 October
1047 and is succeeded by Harold Hardrada, half-brother of St. Olaf 424
The episode of Swein son of Earl Godwine, who seduced an abbess
and abandoned his earldom. His treachery to his cousin Earl
Beorn; the king has him declared a Nithing , which made him
an outcast in every part of the northern world 429
In 1049 and 1050 Edward the Confessor disperses his warships, appar-
endy trying to minimize the danger by bargains with the men
of the Cinque Ports, leaving grave gap in the naval defences 43
XIII. THE TENTH-CENTURY REFORMATION
The Danish invasions of the ninth century shattered the life of the
English church. In all the part of England setded by the
Danes many sees ceased to exist although the Danes were not
antagonistic to Christianity and littie is known either about
their attitude to their own heathenism or about the means by
which the setders were converted 433
The grant of Southwell to the see of York in 956 436
St, Oswald bishop of Worcester made archbishop of York in 972, so
that the resources of Worcester might help to maintain the
impoverished archbishopric 436
CONTENTS xxvii
The sees remained united until 1016. Pope prevented later reunion 436
The pre-war ecclesiastical organization could never be completely
revived. Sees of Dunwich and Lindsey ceased to exist 437
Deaths of Bishop Denewulf of Winchester in 908 and Asser of Sherborne
in 909 gave Edward the Elder the opportunity of dividing too
large sees 439
Obscurity of ecclesiastical organization 440
No evidence that office of rural dean existed 440
The office of archdeacon existed in the ninth century if not before.
Wulfred, archbishop of Canterbury in 805, had been arch-
deacon. In 889 an archdeacon of Rochester, but no evidence of
any other until after the Conquest, except at York 440
Little evidence about monastic chapters 441
At Winchester there was a rota of wealthy clergy, some married 441
Prebends established at Southwell were exceptional 441
Few remains of Anglo-Saxon cathedrals or major churches 441
Some lesser churches, mainly in stone country, survive 441
The ruins at North Elmham are the only remains of an Anglo-Saxon
cathedral church above ground 441
Danish wars interrupted the development of architecture 442
The tenth-century revival came not from Italy or Gaul, but from the
Rhineland, with a distinctive style which survived the impact
of the Norman Romanesque for at least two generations 442
Continental strain less dominant in the decorative arts, where the
old traditions which came from Byzantium through Italy were not
destroyed 443
But there too the Carolingian influence was strong and lies behind
the Winchester school of illuminators 443
The Carolingian script and the art of book production 443
Examples of continental influence in English scholarship 444
Organized monastic life expired during Danish wars, but efforts to set
it going again begin with Alfred, and with women rather than men 445
Dunstan, leader of monastic revival at Glastonbury 446
Oda archbishop of Canterbury and ^Ethelwold of Abingdon 448
Foreign example came to English reformers as inspiration to perfect
work they had already well begun 448
Monastic reformers of Lorraine and the Low Countries made no
impression on English churchmen before the exile of Dunstan
in 956 448
Then or later jEthelwold invites skilled chanters from Corbie 448
The Regularis Concordia, the code of the new English observance,
a document of Edgar s reign 448
Dunstan translated to Canterbury in 960 449
Dunstan left the work of carrying on the monastic revival to Oswald
and iEthelwold 449
Oswald, a pupil of Fleury, established at Worcester and ^Ethel-
wold of Abingdon at Winchester 450
Oswald, and iEthelwold transformed the cathedral chapters of
clerks into monastic chapters 451
xxviii CONTENTS
The Regulans Concordia drawn up with help of monks from Fleury
by synodal council at Winchester between 963 and 975. Its nature 452
The anti-monastic reaction after Edgar s death due to political not
religious feeling. The three original leaders survived into ^Ethel-
red s reign, but left no followers of equal eminence 455
Strength of the movement lay in the south-east. Crowland the only
monastery in the northern Danelaw. A living tradition from the
great reformers survived almost to the Norman Conquest 455
The Benedictine reformation opens a new phase in English culture
and much new writing: iEIfric s Catholic Homilies and his Lives
of the Saints; Wulfstan archbishop of York s call to repentance
in the crisis of 1014 457
The leader of the movement, iElfric of Cerne Abbas and afterwards
of Eynsham, provides works in the vernacular for the parish priests 458
A remarkable volume of writing produced through the influence of the
great reformers; English prose for the first time becomes an
efficient literary instrument 459
The advance of English learning accompanied by the spread of Chris-
tianity over the Scandinavian world 4^2
The Norman element in the English church 4°3
The appointment of Stigand was not approved and was condemned
by the pope 465
Even his own party did not allow him to consecrate churches 466
The English church kept up a close connection with the church of
Rome 466
The Saxon School at Rome, the fortified quarter in which English-
men lived, and the payment of regular alms afterwards known
as Peter s pence 466
The archbishop s duty of visiting Rome for his pallium 4* 7
XIV. ENGLAND BEFORE THE CONQUEST
I. THE PEASANTS AND THEIR LORDS
The general drift of peasant life was from freedom to servitude 470
The Danish wars made for the lowering of peasant status owing to
payment of Danegeld and fleet and fortress building 471
The community of free peasants becomes a community providing
either food rent or work on the lord s demense 472
The oldest evidence about this development comes from the gener-
ation before the Conquest, Rectitudines Singularum Personarum. 473
Geneatas, kotsetlan, and geburas; their rents and duties and the duties
of the reeve 473
The ceorls of Hurstboume Priors were descendants of freemen
with similar services, but difficult to relate the rural society of
Domesday Book to that of the Rectitudines 476
The villanus of Domesday Book a vague word covering many grades
of social rank. Freemen of ancient tide and ceorls who have lost
their freedom through misfortune. Domesday clerks used the word
of the typical villager . 477
CONTENTS xxix
Normans brought with them no clear-cut scheme of social relation-
ship. Normans entering a well-run English estate would have
found litde to alter 479
The essential feature of a manor seems to have been the lord s house
so that the Domesday clerks note when an estate has been run
as an economic unit without one 481
A royal manor, or the cyninges tun, stands apart from the other
estates. There the prison was maintained, money was coined and
often burgesses lived 482
Many royal manors probably represent allotments made to the king
at the time of the settlement and cover a wide area, including
farms, hamlets, and even villages. They were often more lightly
assessed to national taxation because they still paid their lord
substantial food rents, i.e. the firma unius noctis 483
Ecclesiastical estates closely resemble royal manors 483
On both distinction between the inland, that is the demesne, and
that part of the estate granted out to estate servants or those who
might hold by the payment of food rents 483
St. Oswald s leases for three lives, much like services from geneatas
in the Rectitudines 485
The current opinion of the typical eleventh-century thegn 486
The fundamental line of cleavage in Old English society was the
distinction between the thegn and the peasant 488
Variations in status within the ranks of thegns 489
Commendation was a matter of personal arrangement and not con-
fined to the thegnly class. Within the thegnly class there existed
a wide variation of status and the trend of social development
threatened the independence of the lesser thegns 490
The movement towards a manorialized society had gone further
in West Saxon England than in the Danelaw 491
The origin of private justice an unsolved problem. No text has been
found earlier than the mid-tenth century which assigns the right
to hold a court to any lord other than the king 492
Passages in early texts suggest that the private court was familiar
before Alfred s day and conclusive evidence of the existence
of such courts begins to appear within sixty years of his
death 493
No single word in common speech seems to represent jurisdiction ,
but the alliterative phrase sacu and socn, which appears in 956
and in 959, has that meaning and soon many charters included
the phrase 494
Manors such as Southwell were centres with land dependent on them
in neighbouring villages so that some phrase was needed which
indicated that the gift of a unitary estate was being made 495
Such grants made in English become common in the century
before the Conquest and references to sake and soke alone show
that private justice was common 495
Grants made with sake and soke and toll and team and infangene-
theof do not define the work of a private court, but describe
xjoc CONTENTS
in the speech of ordinary folk the sort of justice a great lord had
over his estate and his men 497
Common use of hall moot to denote a manorial court in post
conquest days indicates how much the hall moot was part of the
social scene 502
2. THE DANELAW
Everywhere south of the Humber county and lesser administrative
divisions drawn before the Conquest 502
In the Danelaw, wapentakes; elsewhere hundreds; but in Kent
lathes and in Sussex rapes 5°3
The threefold division of England into Wessex, Mercia, and the
Danelaw indicates not necessarily the more numerous race in each
part, but the character of the law by which that part lived, which
would be determined by the dominant aristocracy 5°4
The Northumbrian Priests Law and the Wantage code 5°8
List of wergilds current in Northumbria were expressed in thrymsas;
the ceorl s, 266; the thegn s 2,000; the mass-thegn or priest
also 2,000; the king s high-reeves, 4,000 and also the holds ; an
ealdorman or a bishop 8,000; an archbishop or a king s son,
15,000 thrymsas. The king s own life was valued at 30,000 5°9
Fines were heavier in the Danelaw and in different parts of the Dane-
law they varied 510
The Wantage code was most important in regard to the breaking
of the peace and to the assemblies where the peace was given.
It has significant statements about the sworn jury of the twelve
leading thegns and about the recognition that where opinions
differ the majority should prevail 510
It was issued in Berkshire and written in the West Saxon dialect, but
many Scandinavian loan words preserved in it and Scandinavian
practices appear throughout; as in the Northumbrian Priests
Law 511
The Danelaw a reality in the legal sense 5*3
Its prosperity was due largely to the impetus to cultivation given
by the new settlers to hitherto uncultivated lands 5 3
The open fields of the Danelaw were on the same plan as the
existing open fields, but the new setders had different methods
of dividing them out 514
The hides of Saxon practice are gradually replaced by oxgangs
and ploughlands, 8 oxgangs to a ploughland. The oxgang was
the holding of a man who could contribute one ox to a plough
team. Sometimes a man s holding is called a manslot , which was
generally smaller than an oxgang, but similar to it 5 4
The sokemen of the Danelaw 515
Formed a peasant aristocracy, not involved in the considerable
amount of slavery in the Danelaw; bound to a lord but by no
humiliating services and rarely owing weekwork 5 5
Their distribution and numbers 516
The soke of the northern Danelaw 518
CONTENTS xxxi
The personal names and place-names in the northern Danelaw 519
The Danish influence on English place-names 521
3. TOWNS AND TRADE
Civitas kept for places of Roman occupation and does not indicate
places of close concentration of inhabitants 526
Only in Kent that evidence about the origins of towns survives 526
Coins were struck both at Canterbury and Rochester 527
Canterbury is referred to both as a port or market town and a
burh or defensible position. The earliest English gild existed
there, the cnihtena gild 527
The normal county town of Edward the Elder s reign was both a
market and a minting place, was enclosed with walls or ramparts,
possessed open fields and meadows. It was at once an agricultural
unit, a trading centre and a place of defence 528
Worcester was fortified towards the end of Alfred s reign 529
In most boroughs the fortified area belonged to the king 529
Oxford and Wallingford each on eight yardlands taken from the
king at a money rent 529
Other services sometimes due to the king, e.g. escort, toll, and
contribution to burghal taxation, but burgesses were free 530
Burgess tenure of the middle ages was in all essentials developed
in the Anglo-Saxon borough 530
Before the Conquest churches and nobles often acquired plots in
boroughs from the king who generally retained a customary rent
and the profits of justice 530
By turn of tenth and eleventh century plots in a borough were often
annexed to rural property 531
The need for a court to settle pleas between burgesses must have arisen
at least as early as Edgar s reign. In the Danish boroughs there
were lawmen and at Chester judices 532
Among the boroughs there was great variety 533
Important ones like Lincoln and York were in touch with the outside
world while in the south-west were very small ones which had not
even developed their own court on the eve of the Conquest 533
Some were still part of the local hundred 534
The earl s third penny was derived from public law rather than
royal favour 535
The borough as a minting place 535
Athelstan s laws show that the king regarded the existence of a mint
as a necessity for every borough 535
The number of moneyers is at least an indication of the importance
of the borough 537
London was the most important town in the country with an elab-
orate scheme of courts 538
The husting meeting once a week for civil pleas 539
The folk moot an open air meeting three times a year, the most
august court; in which outlawry was pronounced 539
Aldermen sat apart in the husting as an upper bench 540
xxxii CONTENTS
A number of urban immunities called sokes 54°
London is not in Domesday Book but fragments of ancient custom
are preserved by the citizens in medieval custumals 54°
The treaty between jEthelred and Olaf Tryggvason made in 991 is
important evidence of trade 541
A Danish colony of traders existed in York shortly after 1000. Some
of the English money found in the Scandinavian world arrived
by way of trade although much must have reached there by
way of Danegeld 543
The first step to a regular currency in the northern countries was
in imitation of the pennies of iEthelred II 543
XV. THE LAST YEARS OF THE OLD ENGLISH STATE
Despite obvious weaknesses the ideal of political unity accepted
everywhere in the last generation of the Old English state 545
Royal power held to be conferred by God, but no distinction be-
tween lay and spiritual authority 545
The bishop sat beside the earl in the hundred court and all English
legislation had a religious colour, but the king controlled appoint-
ments to the church without any ecclesiastical protest 54
Similarly lay public authority derived from the king, that is the
earl and the sheriff, a new officer in the last age of the Anglo-
Saxon state, chosen by and responsible to the king alone 547
The sheriff s duty to guard the king s interests in every way.
He was his financial agent in the shire and bound to take the
earl s place in his absence 54°
Not until the Norman age that the sheriff regularly presided over
the shire court in the place of the earl 549
Witenagemot was the great council of the realm, but in it ecclesias-
tics were outnumbered by lay nobles owing direct allegiance to
the king 55°
Meetings were probably attended by far more men than the lists
record, for they are determined by the size of the parchment on
which the document is recorded 55l
A strong elective element in the choice of the king who must be of
the old royal stock, but that one thought best able to rule 55a
Kings often use phrases which show that they consulted and ex-
pected to consult their council . 55a
Its consent secured for the creation of privileged estates; suspected
traitors prosecuted before it 552
King Alfred asked the views of the imtan before disposing of his
property by will 553
Strength and weaknesses of the council 553
It gave the character of a constitutional monarchy to the Old
English state 554
In comparison, Normandy was still a state in the making 554
Very litde documentary material for early Norman history 555
The company which attended the duke resembled a court ratherthan
CONTENTS xxxiii
a council: a body which resembled the Anglo-Norman curia regis
rather than the English witan. 555
Normans played an outstanding part in history as knights and castie
builders using small-scale defensible posts as bases for cavalry
actions. They provided knights for the duke s service and the
guard for his castles 556
Knight service in the duchy was not imposed as a single operation,
but established gradually, by grants to kinsmen or in return for
military service when land had been confiscated for revolt 557
The duke never controlled the knight service in the duchy as com-
pletely as he did in England 558
The service imposed by the duke much lighter than in England,
but great lords in the duchy had to keep a military retinuo in
being 558
The duke s success in England increased his power in Normandy,
but not until near the end of his reign could he prevent his men
engaging in private war 559
The surplus population of young men in the duchy made possible
the enlargement of ducal power 559
Possible successors to the English crown
Swein Estrithson; Harold Hardrada of Norway; the son of Edmund
Ironside in Hungary; William duke of Normandy 560
Probable date for Edward the Confessor s recognition of William
as his heir 1051 or early in 1052 when the duke visited England 561
Earl Godwine the most prominent subject of King Edward who
had married his daughter 561
Godwine had secured for his son, Swein, his return to England and a
large and scattered earldom, but he could not prevent the settle-
ment of Normans within its borders 561
Godwine regarded as the betrayer of Alfred the .(Etheling, but
his refusal to harry Dover after the quarrel between men of Eustace
of Boulogne and men of Dover made for his popularity in Kent 562
During Godwine s exile many Normans introduced 565
Godwine and Harold returned in 1052 and the possibility of a peace-
ful Norman succession at an end 566
Godwine died in 1053 and Swein died in exile 569
Earl Siward of Northumbria died in 1055 and Edward appointed
Tostig son of Godwine earl since Siward left no son of full age 570
The king recalled Edward son of Edmund Ironside from Hungary,
but he died in 1057, before he saw the king 571
Edward, interested only in building Westminster Abbey, left the
government to Earl Harold 572
The rise of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn king of Gwynedd and Powys in Wales 572
He allied with Earl jElfgar of East Anglia who was accused of
treason and outlawed 57a
The allies invade Herefordshire and the militia of all England
called out 573
But the town of Hereford burned and the cathedral plundered before
terms are made 573
anno, c
xxxiv CONTENTS
A chaplain of Earl Harold named Leofgar became bishop of Here-
ford in 1056 573
He tried to attack Gryffydd and with all his force was killed 573
The king called out the militia of all England and tried to attack
Gryffydd, but ineffectively 573
The deaths of earls Leofric of Mercia and Ralf of Hereford meant
reorganization of the earldoms and increase in Harold s power 574
Earl iElfgar of East Anglia earl of Mercia in succession to Leofric;
the earldom of Hereford merged in Harold s earldom 574
^Slfgar driven out but returned in alliance with Gryffydd and
Magnus, son of Harold Hardrada, in a large-scale invasion 575
The death of Earl ^Elfgar in 1062 meant that no earl remained
strong enough to prevent the election of Harold in 1066 575
At Christmas 1062 Harold began what developed into a successful
attack against Gruffydd and ended with the latter s slaughter by
his own men on 5 August 57
Possible successors to the kingdom:
Edgar son of Edward son of Edmund Ironside, a child in 1065,
and Harold earl of Wessex 57
The Mercian earldom the only considerable part of the kingdom
outside the influence of Harold in 1065 57
His visit to the continent; the simplest version is that of the Bayeux
Tapestry made before the end of the century 577
The reason and details of the mission uncertain, but no doubt
that he became William s man 577
Northumbria revolted against Tostig, proclaimed him an oudaw and
invited Morcar brother of Edwin of Mercia to be their earl 57
They came down to Northampton and Harold tried to bring them
into agreement with Tostig, but failed 579
5 January 1066 Death of Edward the Confessor and the immediate
election and coronation of Harold 58°
XVI. THE NORMAN CONQUEST
Northumbrians only accepted Harold after he had visited the north
accompanied by Bishop Wulfstan of Worcester 58
There and in Mercia Harold won support by marriage with the
sister of Edwin and Morcar 581
A large currency issued at forty-five known minting places 58
Defence the least efficient aspect of the administration 582
Ships and crews could be demanded from ports and men from inland
communities, but mobilization was slow 582
An army could be provided from thegns and peasant levies 583
The king never abandoned the right to call on all men for the de-
fence of the land, but rarely exercised it 5^3
In Berkshire the rule that every five hides provided one soldier
implies to some extent a selected force 583
The art of fighting on horseback not practised although horses used
for getting to and fro 584
CONTENTS xxxv
The army operated as an infantry force, which was out of date in
Europe, where castles enabled kings to hold the country with
small bodies of cavalry 584
William had learned the art of war in defending Normandy from in-
vasions 584
The first phase of his career ends in 1060. Up to then he was
occupied in mainly local interests and the dominant ruler was
Geoffrey Martel count of Anjou 584
His marriage, in or before 1053, to Matilda daughter of the count
of Flanders made the English adventures possible, and his mili-
tary reputation attracted volunteers from other parts 585
The greater number were landless volunteers, hoping for a settle-
ment in land 586
Pope Alexander II and the Emperor Henry IV both promised help
if needed 586
Pope sent a banner as result at instance of Archdeacon Hildebrand,
later Pope Gregory VII 586
Events which culminated in the Conquest began when Tostig ap-
peared off coast and ravaged Kent 586
Harold began to mobilize 587
Northumbrian exiles joined Tostig, who sailed north 587
Tostig defeated by Earl Edwin and the Lindsey militia 587
Prevented from landing in Yorkshire by Earl Morcar and the
Northumbrians 587
During the early summer English forces and a large fleet collected
along the south coast while Duke William was collecting an army
and ships in the mouth of the Dives 588
William detained by contrary winds until 12 September when he
moved to the mouth of the Somme 588
While this move was in progress the English defence was breaking
up 588
In the north Edwin and Morcar defeated by Harold Hardrada after
a hard battle at Fulford September so, and York fell before the
English king could move 589
The men of York made peace with Harold Hardrada and agreed to
join him in marching south to conquer all England 589
The king of England reached Tadcaster on 24 September and
attacked the Norwegian army by the Derwent before they were
aware of his approach 590
Harold Hardrada and Tostig killed and the army broken in the
battie of Stamfordbridge on 25 September 590
Importance of the battle 590
William entered Pevcnsey Bay on 28 September and landed on an
undefended shore 591
The batde of Hastings
Forced by William who came on Harold before his forces were set
in order 593
The death of Harold and his brothers 595
Significance of the batde 596
XXXVI
CONTENTS
Submission of Winchester and advance on London in a wide sweep,
crossing the Thames at Wallingford 59^
Submission of Stigand at Wallingford and of the other English
leaders at Berkhamstead. 597
Coronation on Christmas Day 59
At the end of March 1067 William visited Normandy taking with him
the more important Englishmen and leaving William fitz Osbern
as earl of Hereford and Odo of Bayeux as earl of Kent 599
The rising of Eustace of Boulogne in Kent 599
Williams returned on 6 December. Local resistance at Exeter put down 600
At Easter the queen came to England and was crowned on Whit Sunday 601
Rising building up around York. William led campaign of castle-
building at Warwick, Nottingham, York, Lincoln, Huntingdon,
and Cambridge 60
In 1069 a second Northumbrian rising developed into a general war 602
A composite host of Danes and Norwegians sent by Swein Estrith-
son aided by the landed Englishmen of the north, the ^Etheling,
Cospatric and Waltheof, defeated the castie men at York. The
situation serious enough to fetch the king to the north, while others
suppressed risings in Devon and Cornwall, in Somerset and Dorset
and in Mercia, this last under Edric the Wild 602
The king obliged to crush the north himself and then ravaged
Yorkshire. A inarch across the central mountains to Cheshire
took him there before the rebels expected him. Chester submitted.
Casdes built there and at Stafford 6°4
The king disbanded the mercenaries at Salisbury shortly before
Easter 1070 6°5
The.nature of the harrying of the north 6°5
In 1070 King Swein came to England and the central figure among
the English rebels is Hereward. Resistance in the Isle of Ely 605
William made peace with Swein who left the land with his men 605
Ely fell in the summer of 1071 and in 1072 William invaded
Scotland where Malcolm had married the sister of the iEtheling
and received many English rebels 606
Malcolm met William at Abernethy and made peace with him So6
The ^Etheling fled to Flanders where William s influence less strong
than in 1066 606
In northern France William s influence less strong. The war of the
Angevin succession had ended with the triumph of Fulk le Rechin
and the king of France supported all William s enemies in
northern France 607
He gave the ^Etheling Montreuil-sur-mer as a basis for attacks on
Normandy 608
When William invaded Brittany the king of France raised the siege
of Dol in person and he aided Robert, William s eldest son, who
resented being allowed so little power 608
William s last years largely passed in warfare in northern France 6°9
Philip of France placed Robert in the castle of Gerberoy to harass
Normandy and William was wounded in attacking it in 1078 6°9
CONTENTS xxxvii
Methods arranged by William for the government of England in his
absence 610
The rebellion of the three earls and its suppression 610
Execution of Waltheof and suppression of die earldoms 613
Grant of the earldom of Northumbria to the bishop of Durham,
followed in four years by the murder of the bishop and devastation
of Durham by Odo of Bayeux 613
Defences of north against Scodand strengthened by expedition under
the king s son, Robert, but weak to end of the reign on both
east and west 613
On the Welsh border William fitz Osbern began the fortification
against Wales by castle building 615
The earldom of Chester in the north and Shrewsbury in central
Wales formed a frontier zone to advance against Gwynedd and
Powys 615
In 1081 the Conqueror led an expedition to St. Davids to show
that the Marcher lords were supported by the crown 616
Arrest and imprisonment of Odo of Bayeux in 1082, said to be
recruiting knights for expedition to Rome 616
Cnut succeeded his brother as the king of Denmark and reasserted the
family claim to the kingdom of England 617
By 1085 had brought the count of Flanders and the king of Norway
into the alliance and raised an overwhelming naval force 617
A dispute in Denmark prevented its sailing and it dispersed in the
autumn 617
Cnut murdered in next year 617
William s preparations to resist invasion 617
Mercenaries brought in and billeted on his great men 617
The taking of the Domesday Survey and the manner of taking it 617
The Salisbury Oath of 1086 taken by the honorial baronage 618
William s last war, his wound and death 619
XVII. THE NORMAN SETTLEMENT
Continuity with the Old English past maintained in theory, which
gave the Norman king a variety of authority held by no other
European king 622
William made serious attempt to govern through the Confessor s
servants, both the earls and lesser officers 623
Only one bishop joined a rebellion against the Conqueror 624
Question of Archbishop Stigand left to the Roman curia and
William even allowed him to consecrate Bishop Remigius to
the see of Dorchester 624
By 1069 much land had passed to a Norman aristocracy and royal
castles had been built to command main lines and chief
centres of population 624
Herefordshire a military command under William fitz Osbern and
Kent under Odo of Bayeux 625
English lords must have felt their insignificance, hence the
rebellion of 1069 625
xxxviii CONTENTS
Confiscations opened the north to many new Norman families 6e6
Rule in granting out land was that it must be held with all the rights
and burdens attached to it in 1066
Honours and their composition a7
Lands of an honour scattered, but honours took names from
their capitals 27
Importance of the Breton element in baronage, but the Norman
element dominant °a9
Barons were bound to continue their support for their own safety 631
Each attended court at Christmas, Easter and Whitsun and so
resemble a standing baronial council, which could together keep
the king informed about the whole land 63
Importance of Bishop Geoffrey of Coutances in pleas of land 632
By 1087 Normans of the baronial class in office in all parts of the
country as castellans and sheriffs 32
The Norman sheriffs generally strongest of the social and territorial
magnates in their shires and some unscrupulous in the exploita-
tion of their position 33
In 1076 or 1077 the king obliged to appoint a strong commission to
force the sheriffs to restore to their former owners lands taken
through the folly, timidity, or greed of his bishops or abbots or by
their own violence 33
New Norman landowners ready to acquiesce in larger burden of
knight service than was borne in Normandy because they were
conscious of their common interest with the king 34
Numbers of barons and their knights and of ecclesiastical tenants
and their service 34
Knights and honorial barons b3
Value of knights fees 637
Relations between lord and knights §37
Tenants in sergeanty 638
Importance of the king s household officers 638
The curia regis or king s court was the central institution in the state
and allowed the exchange of ideas in informal meetings impos-
sible in the Great Council of the Realm ^4°
The great council was the Anglo-Norman equivalent of the Witena-
gemot 641
It was consulted on important matters 64
The three great meetings in the year apparently an innovation 641
Decision to take the Domesday Survey made at the Oiristmas-meeting 641
Meetings useful to impress ambassadors 641
To secure the loyalty of individual barons 641
Enabled the king to know of disputes which he could refer to the
court for settiement 641
Before the Conqueror s death the Confessor s writing office had become
the Conqueror s chancery 641
The earliest writs of the reign were written in English and indis-
tinguishable from the Confessor s. Old English gives way gradually
to Latin but there was no sudden change 642
CONTENTS xxxix
The Conqueror s chancellors 642
Royal finances were organized at an unexpectedly early date in England
by an officer of the king s household. There are signs of this
development in the Conqueror s reign 643
Gelds collected at least as early as ./Ethelred IPs reign 644
Conqueror collected gelds in 1066, 1067, and 1083 as well as an
undated levy in the central years 644
Assessment to the geld organized as national taxation, but differs
in English and Danish England. In Wessex based on the hide. In
the Danelaw on the carucate. In Kent on the sulung. In East
Anglia on the leet. It is an elaborate system of national taxation
proceeding from above from the king s court, through the country
and hundred to the village. In the Danelaw the division proceeded
by sixes and twelves and in English England by fives and tens 645
The Conquerors reduced taxation in much-harried villages, but
never changed it 648
There were important developments injudicial administration, in par-
ticular the beginnings of the Anglo-Norman jury which was not
introduced by the Conqueror, but owes much to Old English
practice. The employment of the jury in Domesday Book inquiries
made it familiar everywhere. Individual pleas 648-52
The Domesday Inquest. The articles put to the juries 653
The Exon Domesday and the Survey in the Eastern counties 654
The decision taken in the Christmas council of 1085. It was a
description of England 655
XVIII. THE REORGANIZATION OF THE
ENGLISH CHURCH
The ecclesiastical authority of the duke firmly established in Normandy
and the duke regarded himself as the ally of the pope 658
In England he was equally ready to do as the pope wished in regard
to the deposition of Stigand and the separation of lay and eccle-
siastical justice 659
When Ealdred archbishop of York died in the autumn of 1069 a
legatine commission sent from to Rome to appoint a new metro-
politan 659
Of the fifteen English bisoprics in 1070 York was vacant; Durham
in confusion; Stigand in Canterbury and Winchester; his brother
iEthelmaer at Elmham; iEthelric at Selsey and Leofwine at Lich-
field might expect to be unseated. Leofwine retired before the
council met 659
The council presided over by Bishop Ermenfrid of Sion and two
cardinal priests; Stigand of Canterbury and ^Ethelmaer of
Elmham deposed 661
Second council held at Windsor; jEthelric of Selsey deposed 661
On his return across France Bishop Ermenfrid put penances on all
ranks of the Conqueror s army 661
The appointment of Lanfranc as archbishop. His career 662
xl CONTENTS
The relationship between the two archbishoprics decided on forged
documents probably prepared by the monks of the cathedral
chapter. Thomas archbishop of York released from taking oath
of obedience, but without creating a precedent 04
Lanfranc s council of the church; at Winchester in April 1072,
London in 1075 **5
Removal of the sees of Lichfield, Selsey, and Sherborne to urban
centres at Chester, Chichester, and Old Sarum authorised.
Other removals followed °6
A third council held at Winchester on 1 April 1076, was much
more moderate in its reforming demands than the pope,
particularly in regard to clerical celebacy 7
Lanfranc aimed at making married clergy impossible for the future
but allowed married priests to keep their wives 8
The churches owned by lords °9
The most permanent achievement of the council of 1076 was the
establishment of church courts. Shortly after the council of
1072 the Conqueror had issued an ordinance withdrawing spirit-
ual pleas from the hundred courts. The marriage law was to be
administered in the new courts, but Lanfranc was unable to
change English habits 9
The Conqueror s bishops 671
Lanfranc s consuetudines for monks of Christ Church and his control
over the whole monastic order in England 7a
Batde and Lewes the only new foundations, but gifts of land in Eng-
land made to Norman houses 73
Gregory VII s claim to supremacy over the whole church in England
opposed by the king who would allow no pope to be recognized,
no papal letters received, no legislation made and no tenant in
chief excommunicated without his consent 674
Effect of the Norman Conquest on the English church °75
Copies of leading texts of canon law sent by Lanfranc to all the
greater churches and chapters on the continental model set up 676
Enforcement of legislation against clerical marriage proved impos-
sible 676
The king determined to maintain the conditions of King Edward s
time and Norman abbots in consequence needed the advice of
English monks 677
The revived monasticism of the north was the result of Normans
and Englishmen working together 677
Little reaction at this time against the Gregorian claim to the lord-
ship of the world 678
EPILOGUE. THE ANGLO-NORMAN STATE
By the end of the Conqueror s reign control in central and local
government in church and state had passed to Frenchmen 680
Many Englishmen had entered the service of the Eastern Emperor 680
CONTENTS xli
The feudalism of post-Conquest society not the result of pre-Conquest
leaseholds 681
Round s theory that tenure by knight service was a Norman innova-
tion is confirmed at every point by later research 682
The process of establishing the system of military tenures of the
Angevin age was laid down in outline before the Domesday
Inquest 683
The Norman substituted a tighdy organized system for the fluctuating
relationships of the Old English days 683
The Norman aristocracy used the old English institutions of local
government and old English methods of managing estates 683
Norman innovations by way of institutions were no more than the hon-
orial court and the castlery. But the king increased the bound-
aries of the forests and introduced the forest law to protect his
hunting. 683
In all the ordinary affairs of life the common man was left to the
familar justice of shire and hundred. In these institutions Anglo-
Saxon tradition was never broken and Normans inherited the
place and the burdens of their predecessors 684
Many medieval families of position can trace their descent from English-
men. A few to Englishmen who held land before 1066, but more,
in the north, to Englishmen who accepted land in areas deva-
stated by the many rebellions 684
In law the Conqueror made few changes; nevertheless to Englishmen
the Conquest seemed an unqualified disaster 684
BIBLIOGRAPHY 688
KEY TO ANGLO-SAXON PLACE-NAMES 731
INDEX 735
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Stenton, Frank M. 1880-1967 |
| author_GND | (DE-588)118798677 |
| author_facet | Stenton, Frank M. 1880-1967 |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Stenton, Frank M. 1880-1967 |
| author_variant | f m s fm fms |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV002904165 |
| callnumber-first | D - World History |
| callnumber-label | DA152 |
| callnumber-raw | DA152 |
| callnumber-search | DA152 |
| callnumber-sort | DA 3152 |
| callnumber-subject | DA - Great Britain |
| classification_rvk | BO 4340 HD 400 NK 2100 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)135183 (DE-599)BVBBV002904165 |
| dewey-full | 942.01 |
| dewey-hundreds | 900 - History & geography |
| dewey-ones | 942 - England and Wales |
| dewey-raw | 942.01 |
| dewey-search | 942.01 |
| dewey-sort | 3942.01 |
| dewey-tens | 940 - History of Europe |
| discipline | Anglistik / Amerikanistik Geschichte Theologie / Religionswissenschaften |
| edition | 3. ed. |
| era | Geschichte 450-1100 gnd Geschichte gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 450-1100 Geschichte |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Grande-Bretagne - Histoire - 449-1066 (Période anglo-saxonne) Großbritannien Great Britain History Anglo Saxon period, 449-1066 Großbritannien (DE-588)4022153-2 gnd England (DE-588)4014770-8 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Grande-Bretagne - Histoire - 449-1066 (Période anglo-saxonne) Großbritannien Great Britain History Anglo Saxon period, 449-1066 England |
| id | DE-604.BV002904165 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T15:50:36Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 0198217161 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-001818435 |
| oclc_num | 135183 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-384 DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-20 DE-19 DE-BY-UBM DE-Freis2 DE-188 |
| owner_facet | DE-384 DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-20 DE-19 DE-BY-UBM DE-Freis2 DE-188 |
| physical | XLI, 765 S. |
| publishDate | 1971 |
| publishDateSearch | 1971 |
| publishDateSort | 1971 |
| publisher | Clarendon Pr. |
| record_format | marc |
| series | Oxford history of England |
| series2 | Oxford history of England |
| spelling | Stenton, Frank M. 1880-1967 Verfasser (DE-588)118798677 aut Anglo-Saxon England 3. ed. Oxford Clarendon Pr. 1971 XLI, 765 S. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Oxford history of England 2 Geschichte 450-1100 gnd rswk-swf Geschichte gnd rswk-swf Angelsaksen gtt Anglo-Saxons Geschichte Geschichte (DE-588)4020517-4 gnd rswk-swf Angelsachsen (DE-588)4002009-5 gnd rswk-swf Grande-Bretagne - Histoire - 449-1066 (Période anglo-saxonne) Großbritannien Great Britain History Anglo Saxon period, 449-1066 Großbritannien (DE-588)4022153-2 gnd rswk-swf England (DE-588)4014770-8 gnd rswk-swf England (DE-588)4014770-8 g Geschichte 450-1100 z DE-604 Angelsachsen (DE-588)4002009-5 s Geschichte (DE-588)4020517-4 s 1\p DE-604 Großbritannien (DE-588)4022153-2 g 2\p DE-604 Geschichte z 3\p DE-604 Oxford history of England 2 (DE-604)BV003731996 2 HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=001818435&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis 1\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk 2\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk 3\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk |
| spellingShingle | Stenton, Frank M. 1880-1967 Anglo-Saxon England Oxford history of England Angelsaksen gtt Anglo-Saxons Geschichte Geschichte (DE-588)4020517-4 gnd Angelsachsen (DE-588)4002009-5 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4020517-4 (DE-588)4002009-5 (DE-588)4022153-2 (DE-588)4014770-8 |
| title | Anglo-Saxon England |
| title_auth | Anglo-Saxon England |
| title_exact_search | Anglo-Saxon England |
| title_full | Anglo-Saxon England |
| title_fullStr | Anglo-Saxon England |
| title_full_unstemmed | Anglo-Saxon England |
| title_short | Anglo-Saxon England |
| title_sort | anglo saxon england |
| topic | Angelsaksen gtt Anglo-Saxons Geschichte Geschichte (DE-588)4020517-4 gnd Angelsachsen (DE-588)4002009-5 gnd |
| topic_facet | Angelsaksen Anglo-Saxons Geschichte Angelsachsen Grande-Bretagne - Histoire - 449-1066 (Période anglo-saxonne) Großbritannien Great Britain History Anglo Saxon period, 449-1066 England |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=001818435&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| volume_link | (DE-604)BV003731996 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT stentonfrankm anglosaxonengland |