The open window into the Soviet bloc: US policy toward Poland, 1956-1968
"This volume analyzes US policy towards communist-ruled Poland in the fields of diplomacy, economy, culture, and public diplomacy. It highlights the limitations in developing cooperation between democratic and non-democratic countries resulting from the Cold War conflict. No comprehensive accou...
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| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
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London ; New York
Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group
2024
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| Series: | Routledge histories of Central and Eastern Europe
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| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Titelblatt und Inhaltsverzeichnis Inhaltsverzeichnis Literaturverzeichnis Register // Gemischte Register |
| Summary: | "This volume analyzes US policy towards communist-ruled Poland in the fields of diplomacy, economy, culture, and public diplomacy. It highlights the limitations in developing cooperation between democratic and non-democratic countries resulting from the Cold War conflict. No comprehensive account of US policy towards Poland from 1956-1968 has emerged in historiography. This book aims to answer why, since the political changes of the Polish October 1956, Washington ceased to see Polish affairs as "Soviet-related matters." Instead, it recognized communist-ruled Poland as a separate political entity among other Kremlin-dependent states in Eastern Europe. This policy, introduced by the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration, was continued by his successors John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. Recently declassified US and Polish archival sources allow the presentation of more considerations around the decision-making mechanisms by presidential administrations regarding communist Poland after 1956. They also reveal the dependence of the implementation of US actions on the climate of international relations. Moreover, they can now explain how Poland became an "open window" towards the Soviet bloc and a model example of the changes in the US policy of diversifying its approach to Eastern European countries under Soviet control in the next decades"-- |
| Physical Description: | viii, 263 Seiten |
| ISBN: | 9781032332376 1032332379 |
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Contents 1 Introduction PARTI An Open Window in the Iron Curtain: During the Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower 13 1 The United States and Polish October 15 2 The Swan Song of the Liberation 35 3 First PL 480 Agreement 55 4 Activities at the Political Level 61 5 Activities at the Economic Level 79 6 Public Diplomacy: Cultural and Scientific Cooperation and Humanitarian Aid 87 7 Radio Free Europe in the Eisenhower Administration’s Policy toward Poland 95 PART II “Don’t Shut the Door”: During the Presidencies of John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson 107 8 New Hopes and First Disappointments 109 9 Economic Negotiations in the Shadow of Politics 127 10 Other Fields of Cooperation 138 11 The Laborious “Bridge Building” 146
viii Contents 12 Poland in the Policy of “Bridge Building” 157 13 RFE and Other Propaganda Efforts 191 PART III The Dilemma of Oder-Neisse Border 201 14 The Polish Western Border in US Considerations 203 Conclusion 225 Bibliography Index 229 244
Bibliography Archival collections 1. Archiwum Akt Nowych Komitet Centrainy Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Robotniczej 2. Archiwum Ministerstwa Spraw Zagranicznych Cabinet Ministra: 20/68 Tajne 19/68 Zespôl 30/65 Zespôl 6/66 Zespôl 21/66 Zespôl 24/67 Zespôl 25/67 Zespôl 48/68 Zespôl 28/71 Zespôl 19/74 Zespôl 20/74 Zespôl 9/75 3. Archiwum Instytutu Pamiçci Narodowej BU 0/586/2941 BU 0/1224/1448 4. Dwight D. Eisenhower Library Eisenhower Dwight D., Papers as President of the United States (Ann Whitman File): Cabinet Series NSC Series Dwight D. Eisenhower. White House Central Files. Official File Fitzgerald Dennis A. Papers Oral History Project
230 Bibliography Bush Prescott Goodpaster Andrew Streibert Theodore U.S. Council on Foreign Economic Policy: Chronological Series Office Series U.S. Council on Foreign Economic Policy: Office of the Chairman (Joseph Μ. Dodge and Clarence В Randall) - CFEP Papers Series, Randall Series, (Subject Subseries) U.S. President’s Committee on Information Activities Abroad (Sprague Committee) White House Office, National Security Council Staff: Papers: Disaster File Series OCB Central File Series White House Office, Office of the Special Assistant for Disarmament (Harold Stassen) White House Office, Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (Robert Cutler, Dillon Anderson and Gordon Gray): NSC Series (Administrative, Briefing Notes, Policy Papers, Status of Project Subseries) OCB Series (Subject Subseries), Special Assistant Series (Chronological Subseries) White House Office, Office of the Staff Secretary - Records of P.T. Carrol, A.J. Goodpastor, L. Arthur Minnich and C.H. Russel: International Series Subject Series (Alphabetical Subseries) White House Office, National Security Council Staff: Papers 1948-1961: CFEP Series Disaster File Series OCB Central File Series OCB Secretariat Series Special Staff File Series; White House Office, Staff Research Group (Albert P. Toner and Christopher H. Russell) White House Office. Office of the Special Assistant for Disarmament (Harold Stassen) Records 1955-1958 5. Houghton Library, Harvard University Christian Herter Manuscripts 6. John F. Kennedy Library Papers of John F. Kennedy: Countries Series National Security
Files: Chester V. Clifton Files, Meetings and Memoranda, McGeorge Bundy Correspondence President’s Office Files: Countries, Subject, Staff Memoranda Oral History: J. William Fulbright George Kennan Theodore Sorensen
Bibliography 231 Clement J. Zablocki Robert F. Kennedy Papers The Diplomatic Papers of John Moors Cabot, Part 2 Europe (microfilm) 7. Library of Congress Papers of W. Averell Harriman 8. Lyndon B. Johnson Library National Security Files. National Security Files: Agency File Country File Files of McGeorge Bundy Files of Spruegon Keeny Files of Walter Rostow Intelligence File Subject File Papers of: Francis Μ. Bator Leonard H. Marks White House Central Files: Confidential Files Subject Files Oral History: Ball George Fried Edward R. Gronouski John Solomon Anthony Zablocki Clement 9. National Archives, Maryland RG 59 General Records of the Department of State: Bureau of European Affairs. Country Director for Eastern Europe Central Decimal Files 1955-1959 Central Decimal Files 1960-1963 Czechoslovak Crisis Files 1968 Historical Reports relating to Diplomacy during the Lyndon Johnson Administration 1963-69 Miscellaneous Lot Files - Office Files of the Assistant Secretaries of State for European Affairs 1943-1957 National Security Action Memo Files 1961-68 National Security Council 1947-1963 NSC Miscellaneous Operational Coordination Board (OCB) Central File Series Office of Intelligence and Research Office of Soviet Union Affairs
232 Bibliography Policy and Planning Staff Policy Planning Council (S/PC), Ernest K. Lindley Files 1961-1969 Policy Planning Staff Records of Component Parts of the Bureau of European Affairs - Country Director for Eastern Europe - Records relating to Poland 1957-1965; Office of Eastern European Affairs - Records relating to Polish Affairs 1952-1963; Office of European Regional Affairs, Pol/Econ Numeric Files Records of Component Parts of the Bureau of European Affairs Records of the Office of Eastern European Affairs 1941-1953 Records of the Ambassador a Large Llewellyn Thompson 1961-1970 Records of the Policy Planning Staff 1963-1964 Records of the PPS relating to State Department Participation in NSC 1952-1962 Records of the PPS Staff relating to State Department Participation in the NSC 1935-1967 Records of the Planning Council (S/PC) NSC Files 1964—1976 Records relating to State Department Participation in the Operations Coordinating Board and the National Security Council 1947-1963 Records relating to the Berlin Crisis 1961-1962 Records relating to Economic Affairs 1954-1963 Subject Numeric-File (1963, 1964-1966, 1967-1969) RG 84 Records of the Foreign Service Posts of the Department of State: Poland Warsaw Embassy Classified General Records 1950-1955 Poland. Warsaw Embassy. Classified General Records 1956-1963 Poland Warsaw Embassy General Records 1945-1949 RG 218 Records of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff: Central Decimal Files 1954-1956 Central Decimal Files 1957 RG 263 Central Intelligence Agency: General Record Collection National Intelligence Estimates Concerning
the Soviet Union RG 273 National Security Council: National Security Study Directives NSC 5616 NSC 5705 NSC 5707 NSC 5808 NSC 6103 RG 306: Records of USIA Director’s Subject Files 1968-72 Microfilms: Μ 1221, Intelligence Reports 1943-1963 10. National Security Archive Berlin Crisis 1958-62 Soviet Flashpoints
Bibliography 233 11. Roosevelt Study Centre, Middelburg Oral Histories of the Johnson Administration 1963-1969: Brzezinski Zbigniew, Cabot John, Leddy John, Owen Henry The JFKL Presidential Oral History Collection Part 1 The White House (microfilm) The President John F. Kennedy Office Files 1961-1963, Part 2 Staff, Memoranda The President John F. Kennedy Office Files 1961-1963, Part 5. Countries Parties 12. Zaklad Narodowy im. Ossolinskich Papiery Jana Nowaka Online archival collections Interviews: The Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training Foreign Affairs Oral History Project http://www.adst.org/Readers/Poland.pdf) Michael G. Anderson Leonard Baldyga Henry A. Cahill Richard T. Davies David Μ. Evans David J. Fischer Walter E. Jenkins, Jr. Douglas R. Keene Gifford D. Malone Gary L. Matthews Jack Mendelsohn Michael Metrinko Robert B. Morley Nuel L. Pazdral John H. Trettner Central Intelligence Agency FOIA Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty, Wilson Center, Digital Archive, https:// digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org The Declassified Documents Reference System Interviews Zbigniew Brzezinski, Washington 2001 Governmental sources American Foreign Policy, Current Documents 1961. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1965. American Foreign Policy, Current Documents 1962. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1966.
234 Bibliography American Foreign Policy, Current Documents 1966. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1969. Congressional Quarterly Almanac, Washington 1962. U.S. Congressional Records - House 1961-1968. Department of State Bulletin 1956-1968. FRUS 1947, Vol. II, Council of Foreign Ministers; Germany and Austria. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1972. FRUS, 1949, Vol. V, Eastern Europe; The Soviet Union. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1976. FRUS, 1950, Vol. IV, Central and Eastern Europe; The Soviet Union. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1980. FRUS, 1951, Vol. IV, part 2, Europe: Political and Economic Developments, Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1985. FRUS, 1952-1954, Vol. VIII, Eastern Europe; Soviet Union; Eastern Mediterranean, Washington United States Government Printing Office, 1988. FRUS 1955-1957, Vol. XXV, Eastern Europe. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1990. FRUS 1961-1963, Vol. V, Soviet Union, Washington: United States Government Printing Office,1998. Vol. XI, Cuban Missile Crisis and Aftermath, Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1996. Vol. XIII, XIV, XV, Western Europe, Berlin, Microfiche Supplement. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1995. Vol. XIV, Berlin Crisis 1961-1962. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1993. Vol. XVI, Eastern Europe; Cyprus; Greek; Turkey. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1994. FRUS 1964-1968, Vol. IX, Economic Defense Policy;
International Development and Commodities, Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997. Vol. XI, Arms Control and Disarmament. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997. Vol. XVII, Eastern Europe Region, Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1996. FRUS 1969-1976, Vol. XXIX, Eastern Europe; Eastern Mediterranean 1969-1972, Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 2007. Gomulka, Wladyslaw, Przemôwienia 1961. Warszawa: KiW, 1962. Gomulka, Wladyslaw, Przemôwienia 1962. Warszawa: KiW, 1963. Gomulka, Wladyslaw, Przemôwienia lipiec 1964-grudzien 1966. Warszawa: KiW, 1967. Gomulka, Wladyslaw., Przemôwienia 1967, Warszawa: KiW, 1968. JFK wants to know. Memos from the President’s Office 1961-1963, edited by Edward B. Claflin. New York: William Morrow, 1991. Kampania wyborcza i wybory do Sejmu 20 stycznia 1957, edited by Pawel Machcewicz. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Sejmowe, 2000. Polskie Dokumenty Dyplomatyczne 1957, edited by Krzysztof Ruchniewiacz and Tadeusz Szumowski. Warszawa: PISM, 2006. Polskie Dokumenty Dyplomatyczne 1958, edited by Dariusz Jarosz and Maria Pasztor. Warszawa: PISM, 2011
Bibliography 235 Polskie Dokumenty Dyplomatyczne 1959, edited by Piotr Dlugolçcki. Warszawa: PISM, 2011. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower 1956. Washington, 1957. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: John F. Kennedy 1961. Washington, 1962. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States; John F. Kennedy 1963. Washington, 1964. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States; Lyndon B. Johnson 1965. Washington, 1966. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States; Lyndon B. Johnson 1966. Washington, 1967. Tajne dokumenty Biura Politycznego PRL-ZSRR 1956-1970, edited by Robert bos (Andrzej Paczkowski), London: Aneks, 1998. The Winds of Freedom. Selection from the Speeches and Statements of Secretary of State. Dean Rusk Jan. 1961-August 1962, edited by Ernst K. Lindley. Boston: Literary Licensing, LLC, 1963. United States Treaties and Other International Agreements, Vol. 8, parts 1 and 2. Washington, 1958. United States Treaties and Other International Agreements, Vol. 9, 1958. Washington, 1959. United States Treaties and Other International Agreements, Vol. 11, 1960, p. 1. Washington, 1961. United States Treaties and Other International Agreements, Vol. 12 part 3, 1961. Washington, 1962. Zysman Ewa, Zbiôr obowiqzujqcych umow polsko-amerykanskich (wedlug stanu na 1 stycznia 1988 r.), Warszawa: PISM, 1989. Newspaper The New York Times Memoirs Beam, Jacob D., Multiple Exposure: An American Ambassador’s Unique Perspective on East-West Issue. New York: Norton, 1978. Berle, Beatrice B. B., and Travis B.
Jacobs, eds., Navigating the Rapids 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle. New York: Harcout Brace Jovanovich, 1973. Bliss Lane, Arthur, I Saw Poland betrayed. Indianapolis: Boobs-Merrill Company, 1948. Cabot, Jacob Μ., First Line of Defense: Forty Years Experiences of the Career Diplomat. Washington: University Press of America, 1985. Grewe, Wilhelm, Rückblenden. Aufzeichnungen eines Augenzeugen deutsche Aussenpolitik von Adenauer bis Schmidt. Frankfurt/Main: Propyläen, 1979. Nixon, Richard, Six Crises. New York: Simon Schuster, 1990. Nowak, Jan, Wojna w eterze. Wroclaw: Profil, 1988. Spasowski, Romuald, The Liberation of One. San Diego: Harvest/HBJ Books, 1986.
236 Bibliography Winiewicz, Jozef, Co pamiçtam z dlugiej drogi zycia. Poznari: Wydawnictwo Poznhskie, 1985. Wyszynski, Stefan, Pro Memoria, Vol. 6: 1959, edited by Grzegorz Leszczynski. Warszawa: IPN, 2019. Books and articles Allen, Debra J., The Oder-Neisse Line: The United States, Poland, and Germany in the Cold War. Connecticut: Praeger, 2003. Ambrose, Stephen E., Soldier and President. New York: Simon Schuster, 1990. Ambrose, Stephen E. with Richard H. Immerman, Ike’s Spies: Eisenhower and the Espionage Establishment. Jackson Miss: Anchor, 2012. Anderson, Sheldon, A Dollar to Poland Is a Dollar to Russia: U.S. Economic Policy Toward Poland 1945-1952. New York: Garland, 1993. Belmonte, Laura A., Selling the American Way: U.S. Propaganda and the Cold War. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008. Berghahn, Volkler R., America and the Intellectual Cold War in Europe: Shephard Stone between Philanthropy, Academy and Diplomacy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001. Berghahn, Volker R., ‘Philanthropy and Diplomacy.’ Diplomatic History, 1999, Vol. 23, No. 2. Bishof, Günter, Stefan Karner, and Barbara Stelzl-Marx, eds., The Vienna Summit and Its Importance in International History. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2014. Borhi, Lâslô, Dealing with Dictators: The United States, Hungary, and Eastern Europe, 1942-1989. Bloomington and Indianapolis: University of Indiana University Press, 2018. Borhi, Lâslô, ‘Rollback, Liberation, Containment or Inaction: U.S. Policy and Eastern Europe in the 1950.’ Journal of Cold War Studies, 1999, Vol. 1, No. 3. Bortlik-Dzwierzyhska,
Monika, and Marcin Marcin Niedurny, Uciekinierzy z PRL. Katowice-Warszawa: IPN, 2009. Branyan, Robert L., and Lawrance H. Larsen, The Eisenhower Administration 1953-1961: A Documentary History, Vol. 1. New York: Random House, 1971. Brown, Seyom, Faces of Power, Constancy and Change in United States Foreign Policy from Truman to Clinton, 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1994. Burns, J. Mac Gregor, John F. Kennedy, A Political Profile. New York: Integrated Media, 2016. Byrnes, Robert F., U.S. Policy toward Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union: Selected Essays, 1956-1988. San Francisco: Westview Press, 1989. Catudal, Honoré Μ., Kennedy and the Berlin Wall Crisis: A Case Study in U.S. Decision Making. Berlin: Berlin Press, 1997. Colman, Jonathan, The Foreign Policy of Lyndon B. Johnson: The United States and the World 1963-1969. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh, 2010. Condit, Kenneth W., The Joint Chiefs of Staff and National Policy 1955-1956, History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Vol. VI. Washington: Historical Division, Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1992. Cook, Blanche W., The Declassified Eisenhower: A Divided Legacy. Garden City: Doubleday, 1981.
Bibliography 237 Cull, Nicholas J., The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 1945-1989. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Dietl, Ralph, ‘Sole Master of the Western Nuclear Strength’? The United States, Western Europe and the Elusiveness of a European Defence Identity 1959-64.’ In Europe, Cold War and Coexistence 1953-1965, edited by Wilfrid Loth. London: Routledge, 2004. Divine, Robert, Foreign Policy and U.S. Presidential Elections 1952-1960. New York: New Viewpoints, 1974. Dizard, Wilson P., Jr., Inventing Public Diplomacy: The Story of U.S. Information Agency. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2004. Dlugolçcki, Piotr, ‘Nieznany kontekst Planu Rapackiego,’ Polski Kwartalnik Spraw Miçdzynarodowych, 2011, Vol. 20, No. 1. Drachkovitch, Milorad, United States Aid to Yugoslavia and Poland: Analysis of a Controversy. Washington: American Enterprise Institute, 1963. Dumbrell, John, President Lyndon Johnson and Soviet Communism. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004. Eisler, Jerzy, ‘March 1968 in Poland.’ In 1968 The World Transformed, edited by Carole Fink, Phillip Gassert, and Detlef Junker. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Felken, Detlef, Dulles und Deustchland. Die amerikanische Deutschlandpolitik, 1953-1959. Bonn: Bouvier Verlag, 1993. Fraenkel, Richard F., Don F. Hadwiger, and William P. Bourne, eds., The Role of U.S. Agriculture in Foreign Policy. New York: Praeger, 1979. Gati, Charles, Failed Illusions: Moscow, Washington, Budapest, and the 1956 Hungarian Revolt. Stanford: Stanford
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Index Acheson, Dean G. 205, 212-4 Adenauer, Konrad 207-11, 214-5; government of 209 Agriculture Trade Development and Assistance Act (Public Law 480 PL 480) 22, 25, 29, 57, 61, 80, 92,104,109-11,115-6,118-20, 127, 129, 130, 133-4, 141, 143, 148, 151, 158, 160-1, 166, 168, 173-5, 182, 196-7, 225, 227; Title I 27, 56, 58, 157, 160; Title II 26; Title III 26-7, 143; Title IV 151, 157, 160, 163, 174; agreement 82 Allen, Debra 4 Allen, George A. 101 America magazine 88, 100, 104, 139, 141-2, 194-5, 197, 226; distribution in Poland 88; in the Soviet Union 88 America in Photographs exhibition 89 American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (Joint) 91 American Jews Committee 218 American Organization for Rehabilitation Through Training (ORT) 91 American Relief for Poland 91 American Society of Newspaper Editors 110 American-Polish National Relief 91 Americans 27, 55, 81, 99, 132, 138, 158-60, 175, 178, 183, 204 Amesbury Foundation 5 Anti-American propaganda 87; US counteractions 87 Anti-Hitler coalition 203 Anti-Semitism 178 Architecture of the United States exhibition 181 Asia 39 Assembly of Captive European Nations (ACEAN) 27 Atom at Work exhibition 163 Atom for Peace exhibition in Poland 89 Atomic Energy Commission 163 Ball, George 151; Ball’s Task Force 128 Baltic Sea 204, 206 Barber, William 20 Bator, Francis Μ. 153, 175 Batory transatlantic 74 Battle Act 109-10, 127, 130, 148, 170 Battle, Lucius D. Ill Baxter, James 121 Beam, Jacob 18-9, 21, 27, 29, 56, 62, 68, 70-3, 81-3, 90, 98-100, 121, 129-30, 138, 142, 191-2; conflict with RFE 98-100 Behrman, Jack N. 142 Beijing 171-2
Berlin 129, 196, 209, 210-15, 218; crisis 4, 80, 110, 115, 120, 129, 209, 212, 215, 226, 228; East 68; issue of 212; Polish position 197; Soviet position 80, 209; status of 210; US considerations 212^1; US-Soviet negotiations 212-3, 215, 218; West 120, 211-4; Western concessions 212 Bialogard 206 Bierut, Boleslaw 15 Big Three 5, 203-4, 207-8 Bliss, Lane Arthur 6, 205-6 Bohlen, Charles 178 Bolet, Jorge 140
Index 245 Bonn 68,114, 148, 207-19; US Embassy in 218; see also West Germany Bowie, Robert R. 36, 45 Brethren Service Commission 91 Bridge building policy 2, 146-50, 152, 154-5, 157, 159-61, 164, 182, 192-3, 195,197-8, 216, 226-7; steps toward Eastern Europe 148 Brzezinski, Zbigniew 152-4, 192, 217 Bucharest 1 Buell, William A. Jr. 193 Buffalo, NY 118-9 Built in USA: Post-War Architecture exhibition 88 Bulganin Plan 67 Bulgaria 150, 152, 195; US loans guarantees 153 Bundy, McGeorge 192, 212-4, 216 Bureau of the Budget 193 Burke, Albright, Admiral 37 Bydgoszcz 180; military airfield 168 Byrnes, James 204-5 Byrnes, Robert. F. 3 Cabot, John Μ. 115-6,120,122,130-1, 133, 141-3, 159-61, 164, 167-8, 171 Cam Pha 170 Camp David 214 Canada 68, 74, 91; military attaché in Poland 180 Capitol Hill see US Congress Captive Nations Week proclamation 71 Caracas 71 CARE 91 Carey, George F. 168 Castro, Fidel 74, 110; opponents of 110 Catholic church in Poland 15-6, 72, 91, 159, 162, 167, 183, 215; bishops 167; colleges and seminaries 112; denial of visas to US bishops 170; hierarchy 17, 167; imprisoned priests 16; representatives of 72; state-Church relations 17, 29, 44, 54, 63, 70, 72, 74, 159-67; conflict 99 Catholic Relief Service of National Catholic Welfare Council 91; packages to Polish people 91-2 CBS, Face the Nation 21, 50 Central Europe 8,152-4,159,197, 205, 216; arms control 159; denuclearization of 67-8; Gomulka Plan 159 Central European countries see Eastern Europe Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 1, 18, 23-4, 36, 38-9, 43-5, 55-7, 79, 92, 97, 99, 146, 148, 150, 162, 193;
activities 2; analyses 39, 55, 57, 64; Current Intelligence Bulletin 24; Directorate of Intelligence 173; electronic materials 5; funding of private organizations 192-3; experts 70; European Satellite Committee (ESC) 1, 70; FOIA page 5; intelligence circles 18, 57; Office of National Estimates 38; role 3; studies 63-4 Chamberlain Charles 176 Chicago 119; Polish consulate in 168 Church World Service 91 CIA see Central Intelligence Agency Ciolkosz, Adam 27 Cold War 1, 67, 98, 228; historiography 1; rivalry 3 Committee on Radio Broadcast 97 Committee 303; Radio Study Group (RSG) 192-3 Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) 170, 177, 180 Communism 45, 92,131,147,149,162, 193, 196, 225; dogma 120; international domination of 132; orthodoxy 158; revisionism 92; struggle against 132; universality of 65 Communist bloc 45, 146; economy 128; positive changes in 131 Communist countries 44-5, 69, 110, 117, 128, 131, 148, 151, 154, 157, 167-8; credits to 152; US economic rapprochement with 128; US loans to 176; US officials travels in 174 Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), 20th Congress 15, 20 Communist movement 27, 65 Communists 149 Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (COCOM) 79, 154, 180; export policy 79; subgroup A 79 Coordinating Group on Berlin
246 Index Contingency Planning (ICGBCP) 212-13 Council of Foreign Ministers 205-6 Council on World Affairs 23 Containment doctrine 7 Corbett, Jack C. 55 Cracow 142, 166, 171; US consulate in 161; US children hospital in 91-2, 166, 196 Crimea 203 “Crusade for Freedom” 103 Cuba 74, ПО, 116, 120, 196, 226; Bay of Pigs invasion 110; in Soviet interests 110; missile crisis 118-9, 132; Polish assistance to 74, 116, 127-8, 176, 197 Curzon line 204 Cutler, Robert 65; General Cyrankiewicz, Jozef 142, 165, 195 Czechoslovakia 67, 152, 154, 159, 182, 210, 212-3, 227; anti-communist uprising 37; communist party 181; democratic transition 154; fear of Germany 154, 212; government 154; liberalization in 177; Polish participation in invasion 180; Prague Spring 180, 182, 198; regime 89; relations with Soviets 73; US interests in 177; US loans guarantees 153; Warsaw Pact invasion 154, 180, 182, 195, 227 Czyzewska, Elzbieta 164 D’Orlandi, Giovanni 171 Dallas 23, 192 Davis, Richard H. Ill, 141 De Gaulle, Charles 209-10, 212 Department of Agriculture 28, 55, 174 Department of Commerce 89, 128, 154 Department of Defense 45, 50, 79, 154, 167-8, 193 Department of Trade 55 Department of Treasury 19, 154, 174 Destalinization in Hungary 4; in Poland 4, 15, 19 Derwinski, Ed 176 Détente 3, 228 Dillon, Douglas Disarmament 67, 115 Dobrosielski, Marian 110, 166 Dodd, Thomas 160 Dolph, C.A., Brigadier General 95 Donovan, Thomas A. 99 Drawno 206 Drawsko Pomorskie 206 Drozniak, Edward 111-2, 115, 126, 128, 130, 132, 173, 176 Dulles, Allan 21, 23, 44, 49, 55, 57, 63, 73, 99 Dulles, John F. 17, 19-23, 27-8,
35-6, 38, 43-4, 57-8, 62, 65, 73, 80, 98, 209 Dungan, Ralph 112 East 57 East Germany (German Democratic Republic, GDR) 38, 41, 43-4, 67, 150, 210, 213-4, 216; anti communist uprising 37-8, 41; as Soviet occupation zone 41, 204; 1953 uprising 18; non recognition of 211; regime 68; Soviet control 41; Soviet lines of communication 44 East Prussia 206 East-West, economic cooperation 150; international situation 110-1, 113, 114-6, 127-9, 132, 140-2, 154, 159, 166, 178, 182, 198, 209; nuclear conflict 117, 119, 146, 150; peaceful coexistence 147; relations 71, 82, 111, 113, 143, 150, 152-3, 162, 165, 172, 205, 208, 211, 217-9, 228; tensions 3; trade 150 Eastern Europe 1-4, 6, 17-9, 23-4, 27, 36, 39, 45, 61, 63-5, 69-70, 73, 92, 96, 103, 109, 112, 117-8, 120-1, 127-9, 146-53, 157-9, 161-3, 165, 170, 172, 176-7, 182-3, 192, 194, 197, 207, 210, 212, 216, 225-8; anti-communist sentiment 19, 95; anti-Stalinism 96; armed insurrection 117; association with European Community 98; autonomy of 149, 153; centralized economy 153; changes in 147, 154; communist governments in 8, 87, 117, 151, 153, 197; communist hegemony 147; communists parties 43, 146; control 153; communist system 153; contacts with the West 87, 146-7, 149-50, 153; cultural and
Index 247 historical backgrounds 151; defectors from 66; democratic influence 152; developments in 43, 65; diversity 149, 194; economy 70, 141, 147, 151; evolution 8, 149; exchange of people 149; exchanges programs 87; exchanges with US 151; fears of Germany 218; “Finlandization” of 73; foreign policies 153, 228; governments in exile 149; hope for freedom 19, 87; independence of 57, 87, 96, 147, 154; internal autonomy 146; mutual exchanges with US 87; leaders in 19,72; liberation of 7-8, 18, 21, 35, 49-50, 96, 99, 103, 147, 193; living conditions 153; national tendencies 146; national uprising 117; nationals 54; nations 148, 152; US contacts with 87; non-communist governments 149; officials 151; opening of US ports 74, 154; paths to socialism 20; peaceful evolution 117; people 116; policies 228; political situation 70; populations of 57; public 151; rebellions 117; reforms 193; regimes 152-3, 172, 218; resistance 64; revolutionary changes 50; revolts 8, 45, 65; shipment of books to 92; societies 87, 212; Soviet domination on 6-8, 15, 35,48, 87, 118, 147, 150, 193, 225, 228; trade with West 177; US actions to 150; US agreements with 148; US aid to 148-9; US attachés in 167; US broadcast to 19; US citizens donations 149; US contact with 87; US cooperation with 152, 197; US diplomatic missions in 19; US economic aid to 57; US economic goals 19, 150; US exchanges with 19; US export to 151; US intervention in 8; US markets in 128; US military assistance to 35, 117; US participation in fairs 149; US peaceful infiltration of 117; US policy toward 3-4, 8, 18-9, 87, 116, 127-8,
146-8, 150, 152, 161, 176, 193, 197, 225; US presence in 6, 151; US relations with 41,121,147-9,151,166-7, 170, 176, 227-8; US trade with 127-8, 149-53; West Germany relations with 216; Western military intervention 96 Eastman Philharmonia 140 Eisenhower, Dwight D. 4, 7, 18, 20-4, 26-7, 29, 35-7, 40, 44-5, 50, 57-8, 68, 74, 80-1, 84, 103-4, 109, 113, 127, 197, 210, 226-7; administration 1, 21, 28, 35, 48, 56-7, 81, 84, 87-9, 91, 96, 98-101, 103-4, 112, 116, 131, 196-7, 208, 218; charitable activities of 92; approach to Polish Western border 211; cabinet meeting 26 Eisenhower, Milton 101 Eisler, Hans 74 Elbrick, C. Burke 44 Erhard, Ludwig 217 Europe 7, 19, 24, 39, 43, 70, 102, 117, 147,149-51,153,162,164,176, 183, 193, 198, 205, 213, 217-9, 228; balance of power 159; borders 172; civilization 98; community 212; democracy 112; division of 149, 152; leaders 102; military and political situation 68; non-atomic zone 67, 159, 213; nuclear threat in 68; nuclear weapons 159; organizations 102; problems 68, 159; security 68, 183; status quo 154 Experiment in International Living program 140, 158 Export Control Review Board 128, 150 Export-Import Bank 22, 58, 80-1, 148, 153-4, 157, 170, 173, 183; commercial credits 153; loans guarantees 151-2 Family of Men exhibition 89 Far East 172 Findley, Paul 151, 153, 176-7 Finland, government of 73 Fisher, David J. 180 Foggy Bottom see State Department Food Crusade program 91 Ford Foundation 1, 90-1, 100, 138-9,
248 Index 173, 175, 197; International Affairs program 90; scholars 138 Foreign Ministers’ Conferences 205 Four Powers 210, 212 Frager, Malcolm 140 France 152, 213-5, 219 Frankel, Henry 168 Frankfurt 168 Free Europe Committee (FEC) 92, 95, 98, 100, 191; Board of Directors 99 Freeman, Orville L. 141, 143 Fulbright Program 90, 115, 138, 226; Polish-American Fulbright Committee 5 Fulbright, William 132 Fuller, Leon W. 112, 207, 210 Gleason, S. Everett 40 Global political economy 1 Goldberg, Arthur 171 Gomulka Plan 159; US objections to 159 Gomulka, Wladyslaw 1, 2,16, 20, 23-4, 26-9, 37, 43, 55-6, 58, 61, 63-4, 70-3, 83, 97, 99, 101, 103, 110, 113, 117, 120, 122, 142, 157, 159, 163, 171-3, 181, 195, 197, 208-9, 225; acceptance by Soviet Union 64; acceptance by US 65, 100; and communist orthodoxy 101; anti-American sentiment 70, 72; as best option 64; anti Stalinist course 55; as party leader 16, 57, 69, 80; cooperation with the West 70; conservatism of 99, 117; house arrest of 20; in US plans 103; opinions on 20, 57, 70, 74; policy 80, 97; position of 27, 66, 69; public support of 16; regime of 37, 39-40, 95-6, 104; statements 22, 70,118; talks with Nixon 71, 81, 83, 101 Goodpaster, Andrew 210 Gordon, Thomas 28 Great Britain 5, 68, 203, 213-5, 219; government 212 Great Powers 203 Grewe, Wilhelm 214 Griffith, William 98-9, 192 Gruson, Sidney 73 Gromyko, Andrei 109, 115, 213-4 Gronouski, John 164-5,169-70,172-7, 181, 194-6, 216; as Postmaster General 164; initiatives 170 Grotowski Theater 195 Gruening, Edward 176 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 25, 66, 177; Polish
membership 153, 177 Geneva 18, 115; Council of Foreign Ministers 209 Germans 22, 29, 38, 206, 208, 210-1, 213, 215, 217; expelling of 204 Germany 39, 47, 67, 109, 159, 203, 205-7, 212-8; affairs 62; aggression 212; allies 217; bishops 167; borders 207, 210; Communists 204; defeat of 203; division of 68, 153-4, 159, 203-7, 212, 217-8; economy 206; Foreign Ministry 217; four powers responsibilities 219; government of 209; issue 3, 98, 115, 147, 152, 154, 162, 172, 204-5, 207-11, 213-5, 218-9, 228; prewar Eastern territories 203-8, 216; militarists 209; nationalism 218; nazism 181; peace treaty 204-10, 212, 214-8, Hagerty, James 21 Halberstam, David 164 227-8; policy 159; population Hanoi 171-2, 175-6, 227 205-6; public opinion 217; quadrilateral working group 213; Harriman, Averell 171; European rapprochement with Poland 191; tour 171 reunification 153, 207-8, 210-1, Havana 74, 110, 116 214-5, 217-8; security 68; Soviet Helsinki 73 concessions 215; unification 154, Hershberg, James 171 228; US considerations 214, 216; Herter, Christian 57, 73, 100-1, 131 Hill, Robert C. 28 US occupation forces 205; US Hiroshima 163 policy to 204-6, 208, 216; US Historians 67 position 212; US-Soviet Hitler, Adolf 181 negotiations 207
Index 249 Ho Chi Minh 154 Hoover, Herbert Jr. 18, 27 Humphrey, Hubert 141, 163, 166 Hungarians 96 Hungary 4,16, 23, 25, 35-6, 38-40, 42, 48, 63, 97, 152,195; as potential US ally 36; defense expenditures 25; destalinization 4; issue in UN 38, 62; Polish support of Soviet Union in UN 62; national communist government 25; uprising 96; suppressing of 2-3, 24, 26, 36, 39, 50, 55, 103, 225; resistance in 37, 96; Soviet intervention in 23, 26, 28, 35; Soviet domination on 24; US Congress resolution 49; US economic cooperation with 25; US inertia 35, 44; US loans guarantees 153 India 46 Indochina, International Commission for Supervision and Control 171 International cooperation 147 International labor movement 161 Information Media Guarantee Act (IMGA) 100, 104, 139-40, 158, 173, 196-7, 226-7; agreements 88; sale for Polish currency 88; books 88; films 88; periodicals 88; costs of translations 88; copyrights 88 Institute of International Education 91 Intelligence Advisory Committee (IAC) 20, 24, 65 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) 66 International Cooperation Administration (ICA) 55, 91; foreign assistance 55; “nonmilitary security” programs 55 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 66 Idea of freedom 21 International Red Cross (IRC) 18-9 International tensions 81 Iron Curtain 2, 35, 87-8, 92, 95, 99, 103, 109, 111-3, 117, 127, 147, 149, 152, 194, 226 Israel-Arab War (Six Days War) 178, 181 Jackson, C. D. 99, 101 Jackson, William H. 26 Jacobs, Joseph E. 17, 22-3, 26 Jaroszewicz, Piotr 110; visit to US 74 Jasna Gora Shrine 171 Javits, Jacob K. 141
Jedrychowski, Stefan 163 Jenkins, Walter E. 166, 178-80, 193 Jerome, Robbins Ballet 89 Johnson Act 170 Johnson, Alexis U. 121 Johnson, Lyndon В. 1, 4, 104, 119-20, 122, 146, 148, 151-3, 159-60, 164-6, 170-7, 179, 181, 193, 197, 216-8, 226-8; administration 2, 146, 151-2, 154-5, 160, 163-4, 171-2, 175-80, 192, 196, 198, 216; “European speech” 152-3, 217-8; as Vice President 119-20, 122; policies 149; presidential speech 173; visit to Warsaw 122 Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) 5, 8, 35-9, 44, 48-9, 204, 214; Joint Subsidiary Activities Division 95 Joint Strategic Plans Committee (JSPC) 37 Joint Working Group on Agricultural Commodities 79 Kalijarvi, Thorsten 27, 56 Kaplan, Stephen S. 4 Katyn Committee 140 Katzenbach, Nicholas B. 179, 193 Kaysen, Carl 118, 129, 213 Kennan, George F 116, 131; “long telegram” 7 Kennedy, Edward 141 Kennedy, John F. 1-2, 4, 104, 109-13, 116-20, 127-32, 138-40, 142, 146, 150, 153, 163-4, 166, 191-2, 196-7, 211-5, 218, 226-8; as Senator 56, 109; assassination 161,192; associates 110; inaugural address 127-8; presidential administration 110, 112, 114-6, 119, 127-8, 130-2, 138, 141, 143, 191, 197, 226; press conferences 116, 131; speeches 118-9; State of Union speech 109; view of Polish affairs 109
250 Index Kennedy, Robert 111; visit to Poland 171 Kennedy, family 109 Keppel, John 72 Kerney, Richard D. 212 Khrushchev, Nikita 16, 36, 83, 96, 117; “secret speech” 15, 96; Kitchen Debate 71; visits to Poland 72, 96 Kissinger, Henry 212 Kliszko, Zenon 110 Knowland, William 29 Kolobrzeg 205-6 Korbohski, Stefan 27 Korean conflict 7 Kosciuszko Foundation 5, 91; suspension of scholarship exchanges 139 Kotlicki, Henryk 55 Kovrig, Bennet 3 Krapf, Franz 217 Krebs, Ronald R. 4 Kremlin see Soviet Union Krzyz 206 Lachs, Manfred 67 Laos 171; Polish representatives in 159 Latin America 119 Leahy, William, Admiral 204 Leddy, Raymond 55 Lewandowski Janusz 171-2 Lightner, Allan 98, 205 Littell, Wallace W. 141 Lodge, Henry Cabot 36, 171 London 204-5; foreign ministers' conference 206-7; Polish government in exile 6, 102 Lubin, copper mine 181 Lychowski, Tadeusz 116 Macmillan, Harold 210 Mania, Andrzej 3 Mansfield, Michael J. 130, 176 Mazowsze, dance ensemble 140, 195 Marchio, James D. 4 Marshall, George 147, 205-7 Marshall Plan 7, 147 Martha Graham Dance Ensemble 140 Marxism, doctrine 92; economy 150 Maryland 4 Matthews, E. G. 36 May 3 Constitution Day 119 Mayer, Frank 215 Mazowsze, dance ensemble 140, 195 McGhee, George 113, 212, 217 McNamara, Robert 167 Mercury, spacecraft capsule 141 Metzger, Edward H. 180 Metzger, Stanley D. 27-8 Michalowski, Jerzy 171-2, 176, 178-80 Michigan Symphony Band 140 Mierzwa, Stefan 140 Mikolajczyk, Stanislaw 6, 204 Mikoyan, Anastanas 209 Miller, J. Irwin 151, 162; commission 162 Mills, Wilbur 131; Mills Act 131 Milnikiel, Eugeniusz 122 Misztal, Roman 121
Mitrovich, Gregory 4 Moczar, Mieczyslaw 178, 181, 192-3 Modrzewski, Franciszek 133 Molotov, Vyacheslav 204, 206 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact 5 Monat, Pavel 74 Moody Research Grant 5 Moscow 15, 17, 20, 24, 27, 46, 56, 61, 64, 68, 70-1, 80, 98, 104, 165, 171-2, 178, 205-6; Big Three foreign ministers’ negotiations 6; foreign ministers’ conference 206-7; Moscow Declaration 80; Polish signature on 80; US Embassy 7; US exhibition 71; see also Soviet Union Most favored nation (MFN) clause 7, 25-6, 66, 79, 81, 83-4, 118-9, 121, 131-2, 148, 151, 163, 165-6, 169-70, 176-80, 183, 197, 226; to Poland 84, 104, 151; to Yugoslavia 151; withdrawal of 118, 131 Mueller, Frederick 73 Multilateral Force (MLF) 159 Munich 8, 15, 95-7, 99-100, 191-4 Murphy, Robert 21, 49, 205 Mutual Security Act (MSA) 25, 57, 127-8, 226; Section 401 29, 56, 58, 62, 80 Nagy, Imre, government of 40 Naszkowski, Marian 181 National Academy of Sciences 196 National Broadcasting Corporation (NBC) 140 National Conference of Editorial Writers 152
Index 251 National Philharmonie Orchestra 140 National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) 13, 138, 150, 157, 159, 227; NSAM 74 139; NSAM 352 152 National Security Archive 5 National Security Council (NSC) 5, 17, 23, 44, 96, 174-5, 182, 208, 213-4; directives 226; Planning Board 36-40, 65; Planning Staff 25, 63; 301st Meeting 23; 304th Meeting, Paragraph 15 37; 310th Meeting 28; 313rd Meeting 40, 43-4; 362th Meting 49, 99; 316th Meeting 55; 339th Meeting 63; 362nd Meeting 65; 420 meeting 73 Neisse 207 Neutral states 47 New Left movement 192 New York 74, 113, 152, 168; Museum of Modern Art 88; Philharmonie 89; RFE director’s office 102 Nikolais Dance Theater 195 Nixon, Richard 40, 57, 70, 103, 122, 171-2, 194, 209; Polish invitation of 71; Kitchen Debate 71; South American tour 72; talks with Gomulka 71-2, 101; visit to Warsaw 71-2, 81, 83, 103, 209; warm reception by Poles 71-2, 101 Non-communist countries (Free World) 20, 25, 36, 41-2, 48, 66, 68, 79, 98, 102, 139, 149; Polish orientation to 66 Non-proliferation of the atomic arsenal 159 North Atlantic Council 19 Norstad Lauris, general 214 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 24, 39, 41, 67, 148, 152, 169, 213, 217-8; policy 152; Council of Permanent Representatives 68; defenses 45, 69; forces 38; Foundation 5, planning 69; policy 62; West Germany withdrawal 69; US allies 68-9 North Vietnam 171; communists 171; Polish aid to 165; shot-down US pilots 171; US bombing of 162, 172, 181 Norway 68 Nowa Huta, steelwork complex 142-3 Nowak, Jan 95-7, 99-100, 102, 191-2 NSC 174 8, 19, 95 NSC 5505/1 8 NSC 5602/1 8 NSC 5607 66,
87 NSC 5608 19-20, 24, 35, 87, 95; secret annex 20, 50 NSC 5616 36 NSC 5616/1 24-5, 37 NSC 5616/2 26, 45, 58; Paragraph 15 37, 40, 45 NSC 5705/1 36, 40-6, 48, 50, 103; discussions about 41-6; Paragraph 15 63; Paragraph 17 (Paragraph 17 a) 43, 45; Paragraph 18 43, 45, 48-9 NSC 5706/2 66 NSC 5707 45 NSC 5720 89 NSC 5808 (NSC 5808/1) 49-50, 65-6, 67-70, 73-5, 84, 87, 99, 103, 226 NSC 5811/1 70 Nuclear non-proliferation treaty 182 Nuclear test ban treaty 121, 143 Nuclear weapons 42, 159 Nysa Klodzka 204 O’Brien, Larry 164 Obacz, Ryszard 120 Ochab, Edward 15, 18, 141 Oder 203-4, 207 Oder-Neisse line see Polish western border Office of Military Government of the United States for Germany (OMGUS) 206 Operation Coordinating Board (OCB) 18, 27-8,45, 47-9, 61-2, 74, 79, 87, 95; operations regarding Poland 72; Special Committee on Soviet and Related Problems 18, 62; Trade Fair Committee 89; Working Group at (Operation Plans) 69, 72-3 Operation Lumbago see Michalowski Jerzy Operation Marigold 171; see also Lewandowski Janusz Owen, Henry 40, 152
252 Index Palmiry 72 Pan-European community 109 Paris 213 Parr, Bertram L. 168 Passent, Daniel 173 Pell, Claiborne 141 People to People Goodwill Agricultural Visits program 140 People’s Republic of China (PRC-China) 47, 172; communists 172; Cultural Revolution 172; support for Gomulka 47 Philips, Warren 89 Plastics USA exhibition 141 People’s Republic of Poland see Poland Poland 1-5, 7, 15-25, 27-30, 37-9, 41-2, 45, 46-9, 55-8, 61-70, 79-80, 82, 87-9, 91-2, 97-101, 103-4,109-22,127-33, 138-43, 146, 148, 150-54, 157-71, 173-98, 203-10, 212-3, 215-9, 225-8; academic life 74; actions on the international level 67; administration 204-5; affairs 73; agriculture 15,17,183; Air Force Scientific and Research Institute 120; alliance with Soviet Union 17, 25, 61; and West 204; antiAmerican demonstrations 110; anti-American propaganda 110, 128-9, 142, 160, 163, 170, 173, 181, 197-8, 206; anti-Jewish purge 198, 227; anti-Russian attitude 183; anti-Semitism 178-9, 182-3; anti-Semitism of leadership 164; “anti-Zionist” campaign 178, 182; approach to US 161; Archives 4-5; army 16, 36, 38, 43; arts 112; as “friendly country” 25, 27-8, 56, 58, 80, 104, 225; as potential US military ally 36; as “Soviet-related matters” 225; association of war veterans 181; attachés in 168; authorities 7, 21-2, 28, 30, 42-4, 57, 61, 63-5, 67, 70, 72-3, 81, 83, 88-9, 91, 96-8, 100, 102, 109, 111-5, 117-21, 127, 129, 131-3, 138-42,158,160-3,165, 166-8, 171-3, 175-6, 178-9, 181-2, 192, 196-7, 204, 217, 225-7; autonomy 112-3, 146; broader European context 112; cash purchases in US 133-4; cities 89, 104, 197;
citizens 112-3, 162; centralization 73; children 91; collectivization 16-7, 24, 44, 74, 112; commerce 23; communist domination 4; communist elite 192; “communist enslavement” 109; communist government 19, 41-5, 47-50, 55, 61, 64, 66, 71, 91, 98-102, 111, 114-5, 118, 120, 122, 130-1, 133, 138-9, 154, 160-1,165-6,169-70,173, 175, 177-8, 196, 203-4, 209, 217; communist nature of 127, 158, 163; policy of 99; communist influence 205; communist propaganda 17; communist regime 2-4, 7,16, 21, 22, 27, 62, 72, 104; communists 40, 68, 71, 101, 103, 110, 117, 159, 162, 165, 171-2, 178-9, 203-4, 207, 209, 227; loyalty to Poland 101; community 102, 118-9; consumer goods 80; contacts with Cuba 127; contacts with West 74, 157, 180; contribution to Warsaw Pact 66; credit agreements with the West 63; Council of State 141; culture 112; currency 58, 61, 80-1, 92, 104, 110-1, 115,127, 130, 143, 151, 158, 160-1, 166, 168, 174-6, 196, 226; debt in US 153; de collectivization 29, 63, 182; defectors from 66; defense expenditures 25; democratization 20; demonstrations 97; denial of visas 181; dependence on Soviet Union 7, 22, 24, 56, 112, 162, 180, 208, 215, 225; destalinization 4, 15, 19; deterioration of living standards 159; developments in 2, 29, 34, 55, 69, 148; diplomacy 69, 171, 179; diplomats in 98, 183; disorders 23, 63; distribution of US books and films 162; domestic policy 22, 56, 63, 73-4, 97, 193, 227; eastern border 204, 215; eastern territories of 83, 203, 205-6, 216; economic liberalization 170; economists
Index 253 182; economy 29, 64, 69-70, 79, 157-60,173,175, 180,206,215; prospects of 15, 22-3,55, 66, 73, 79-80; elections 6, 7, 19, 28, 96; elite in 92; elections 205; English language learning 139; evolution in 63, 65-6, 109, 182; exceptionalism of 72; exchange with the West 112; experts 67; export to US 115; family ties with Polish-Americans 183; fear of Germany 109, 154, 210, 212, 217; flood 92; Foreign Affairs Ministry 29, 131, 139-40, 165, 168-71, 173, 176-77, 181, 195, 208,210-11,217; leadership 81; foreign policy 17, 67, 97, 113, 226; foreign tourism 112; foreign trade 23; “free economic forces” 66; free elections 96; freedom of expression 74, 98, 182; freedom of religion 112; freedom of travel 112, 122; general amnesty 15; geopolitical situation 63; German occupation 72, 203; Gomulka regime 23, 29; heavy industry 15; hospitals 91; hostilities 41-2; humanists 138; humanitarian organizations in 143; ideological pressure on culture art, science and private life 17; imports from US 175; in US policy of differentiation 50,113; indemnity payments 131, 133, 160, 226; in international affairs 68; independence 17, 22, 25-6, 37, 42-3, 48-50, 55, 56-8, 61-6, 73, 80, 87, 98, 103-4, 111, 113-4, 116, 120, 209; individual land ownership 17; industrialization 15; institutions 143, 194, 196; intellectual variety 112; intellectuals 183; intelligence 121; intelligentsia 72-3, 165; Interior Ministry 15, 142, 168; internal affairs 98; internal changes 225; internal disorder 43; internal situation 61, 65, 71, 96, 100, 162, 192-3, 197; international policy 63, 203; jamming of broadcast
114; Jews 91, 178-80; emigration from 180, 182; journalists, repressions on 69; key partner for US 103; lack of sovereignty 17; leaders 65,102,110,128,159,163,166, 170, 178, 180-2; liberalization 18, 70, 115, 157, 182-3; stopping of 65; liberation 109; light industry 15; living conditions 19, 24, 28; local TV stations 89; market 61; martial law 21; mass media 99, 142, 193-4; hostile tone toward US 129; May 3 Constitution Day 111, 160; medical supplies 80; member of Warsaw Pact 103; military aid to Vietnam 175; military intelligence 121; military services 169; millennium 167, 170; ministry of finance 55; movement of people 114; nation 7,36, 71,96,104,109, 111, 114, 118, 122, 129, 161, 181, 191; national aspirations 35; National Bank of Poland 175; national communist government 25, 44, 61, 64; national demonstrations 61; national consensus 61; national freedom 17, 22, 26, 42, 63, 65-6, 103, 109, 111, 117, 120,158,160,162,225; national interests 157; nationalism 162, 183; nationalized property 82, 182; nationalist tendencies 162; Nazi atrocities 181; non Communist politicians 6; nonpartisans 44; officials 66, 90-1, 100, 111, 114-5, 121, 161-2, 173, 176, 182, 183; opposition 17; oppression 110; orientation to West 66, 162; participation in Warsaw Pact invasion on Czechoslovakia 198; party control 24; passport restrictions 114; payment to US debts 166; people, peasants 16; people 43, 47-9, 55, 66, 92, 97-8, 101-2, 104, 110, 113-4, 116, 118, 122, 127, 191, 197, 225; Po Prostu newspaper 63; police 110; policy 69, 81, 121; US assessment of 69; policy toward US 4, 17, 69; political
changes (“thaw”) in 8, 15, 17, 19-20, 40-3, 63-4; political
254 Index prisoners 15; political situation 129; politics 112; poor social and economic conditions 16; population 205; positive opinion about 73; power structure 16; press 28-9, 89, 129, 141-3, 164, 166, 173, 181, 193; access to 69; freedom of 44, 6, 98; attacks on US 80; pressure on society 63; pre-war bonds 120; private trade 182; privileged position 161; professors 194; propaganda 80, 110, 114, 119, 163, 170, 218; pro-Soviet attitude 67, 183; Provisional Government of National Unity (TRJN) 204; public 20, 64, 80, 88, 109-10, 114, 118-9, 122, 191, 196-7, 206; public demands 29; public opinion 178; purchase of dictionaries and textbooks 140; purchases in US 127, 183; radio 29; raison d’état 114; rapprochement with Soviet Union 69; raw materials 206; refugees 66, 110; regime 17, 37, 66-7, 69, 96, 114, 119-20, 122, 130, 138, 157, 159, 161-2, 179-83, 215; regime’s policy 15; relations with Cuba 74; relations with democratic countries 69; relations with neighbours 66; relations with North Vietnam 176; relations with Soviet bloc 103, 210; relations with Soviet Union 69, 73; repatriates 91; repression 17; resistance 43, 64; restrictions on diplomats travel 173; retrogression of situation 104; revisionist tendencies 102; revolution in 41, 61, 63; role in Eastern Europe 198; Roman Catholic character of 72; sales of US agricultural products to 160; sales of US books and periodicals 158; scholars 143; science 112; sciences 138; secret police 115, 121, 167-8; security service 15, 17, 112, 119, 169, 215; sabotage 48; Sejm (parliament) 28; election of 1957 96; “semi independence” of
63-6; shortages of food 15; situation in 117, 158-9, 176, 179, 182, 198, 204; US assessments of 28, 46, 69, 104; “small steps” policy 97; social changes 103-4; social discontent in 15, 18, 21, 64, 97, 99; social difficulties 80; society 21,112-4,129,158,161-2,182, 193, 197, 225; solidarity with Soviet Union 67; Soviet advisors 16, 24; Soviet ally 103; Soviet army in 16, 24, 29, 39, 41-2, 44, 46, 112; Soviet assistance 143; Soviet interests in 16; Soviet intervention in 22, 35-6, 38-49, 61, 63-4, 69, 96-7, 102, 104; deterring of 38-47; Soviet pressure 25, 57, 88, 180; Soviet officers in 29; Soviet repressions 48; Soviet support of Polish deviation 72; Soviet Union, dependence on 22, 24, 28-9, 35, 37, 38, 41-2, 61, 63-4, 66, 80, 98, 104, 112-3, 117, 122, 176, 180, 205, 209, 213; Stalinism 15-6, 29, 69, 102; Stalinists 44; Stalinist government 61; state 112, 170, 183, 203-4; stateChurch relations 29, 54, 63; state-owned farms 17; strikes 19; prohibitions of 69; student protests 180, 182, 194, 227; students 91, 158, 180, 194; suffering of 72; supplies from USSR 82; support of Soviet bloc 114, 118; support of Soviet policy 120; support of US policy 64, 182; surveillance of US personnel 119; system 17, 29; tax on gift parcels 58, 91; teachers 194; territorial acquisitions 203-4; territorial claims 209; territorial compensation 203, 205; territories seized from Germany 204; territory 159, 203—4; terror 16, 17; lack of 74, 104; ties with West 225; ties with US 65, 87; trade 22, 29; trade with West 61, 63, 74; trade unions 44; transformation in 96; transition 36; travel of citizens
69; unrest in 102; uprising in 20, 48, 57-8, 61, 69, 97, 102; US activities in 139, 226; US aid to
Index 255 129, 132-3, 143, 159, 171, 225; US approach to 29; US assessments of military effectiveness 121; US attachés in 121, 167, 169-70; US attitude to 115; US business development 175; US businessmen 175; US capital invested in 109; US consular posts in 69; US cooperation with 138; US credits to 129; US cultural program in 141, 160; US cultural ties, with 196; US delegations in 73; US diplomats 100-1, 119, 163; US economic goals in 127, 130, 133, 169; US economic policy to 129; US embassy in 163, 167, 170, 173, 183; US exhbitions in 141, 194, 226; US export to 128, 177; US films 141; US friendship to 110, 122, 160, 214; US gift shipments 58; US goals in 225; US goods distribution programs 112; US goods sales 177; US humanitarian assistance to 143; US image of 115; US influence 130, 165, 183; US informational program in 7, 160; US intelligence activities in 121, 167; US interest in 21, 114, 117, 142, 160, 170, 182, 216, 226; US military action in 35-6, 38, 41-2, 45, 47-50; US nationalized property in 58, 81-3; negotiations 58; US negotiators 83; US exhibitions 88; US influence in 55, 72, 104; US presence in 158, 174; US programs in 114, 141, 148, 182; US policy toward 113, 116, 118-20,127,129,133,143,150, 159-60, 170, 174, 182-3, 197, 204, 225-7; US property in 80; US press in 140; US publications 140; US publicity in 143; US relief organizations in 7, 58, 91; US sale of agricultural surpluses to 151; US school in 158; US services in 132; US support for 21, 47-8, 65, 225; US students 195; visits of US officials 66, 141; Western and US influence 29, 65; western
territories 205-7, 209; workers’ councils 44; weaking of 69; withdrawal of Soviet troops 96; writers, restrictions on 69; youth 183; demonstrations of 63 Poles 6, 16, 20, 23, 25, 29, 36, 39, 46, 48, 57-8, 64-5, 67, 69, 71, 79, 81, 90, 96, 98-9, 102, 104, 109, 111-2, 116, 118, 120-2, 129, 133, 140-1, 143, 159-60, 162, 166-7, 171, 175, 181-2, 19-2, 194-5, 204-9, 216; anti communist and ant-Soviet attitude 16, 25, 57, 64,162, 225; attitude toward RFE 193; control of country’s affairs 87; demands of 25; freedom of travel 162; hopes for independence 96; hunger for information 89; ideals 159; identity 191; national tradition 191; livelihood 67; morale 72; pro-American attitude 114, 225; pro-Western attitude 90,112-4,191, 225; resettlement 204; realism 64; religious influence on 17; US contacts with 65; US help to 29; US interest in 29, 48, 71, 73,113,127,129-30, 143, 166,173,183, 208, 211; US supplies to 143; US ties with 160-1; visits to US 162; welfare 66, 79; writers 89 Poland magazine 88 Policy Planning Council 147, 149, 216 Policy Planning Staff (PPS) 21, 22, 40, 63-4, 66, 112, 150, 152, 207-8, 210, 212 Polish Academy of Sciences (PAN) 121, 196 Polish American Congress (PAC) 56, 109, 111, 158, 207, 216; leadership 139 Polish American Immigration and Relief Committee 140 Polish emigration 27, 56, 102 Polish Government in exile 204 Polish Jews 178 Polish organizations in exile 99, 101-2 Polish People’s Party (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe) 6, 204 Polish People’s Republic (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa-PRL) see Poland “Polish October” (October 1956) 1-2,
256 Index 15-7, 20, 44, 70, 87, 95, 97, 99, 104 Polish Radio, programs 140 Polish Red Cross 18 Polish Uniting Workers’ Party (Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza, PZPR)( Communist party) 17-8, 20-1, 127, 162, 164, 166, 175, 178, 193, 209; controlling the nation 69; Eight Plenum of the Central Committee 16, 20, 95; elites 73; factions in 61,163,170, 178, 181, 192-3; leadership 15-6, 25, 164, 195; members 100; middle layer of 70; officers 62; outsting of communists of Jewish descent 178; party line 165; party diplomats 100; Politburo 16, 36, 56, 70, 82-3, 119, 127, 175; political and ideological monopoly 17; pro Soviet elements in 57, 65; revisionists 64; strengthening party control 64; struggle for power 178; Third Congress of 81 Polish western border 4, 100, 103, 112, 114, 157, 165, 191-2, 203-19, 227-8; British position 203, 205, 219; French position 209, 219; German position 207; in PolishUS relations 207; line of 204-5; revision of 206; Soviet position 203, 205-10, 216; US position 100, 159, 165, 169, 203-19, 227-8; West German position 208-18 Polish-American community 56, 71, 92, 139, 167, 216 Polish-Soviet relations 21,45,47,49, 62, 67, 103, 215 Polish-US relations 7, 23-4, 26-7, 62, 64, 73-4, 84, 87, 101, 104, 110-6, 118-22, 127-33, 143-4, 158-70, 172-3, 176-83, 196-8, 203, 207-9, 217, 225, 227-8; agreements 58, 79, 130, 132-4, 140, 161, 174-7, 214, 226; agricultural commodities 79-80, 82; agriculture 161; attaches problem 169-70, 173; barriers 114, 119; benefit to US 80; can production line 81; CCC credits 177, 180; closed zones for communist diplomats 170;
colleges 89; commercial loans 82, 157, 160; commercial purchases 120; consular negotiations 157, 161, 164, 173, 182; contacts 49, 71; cooperation 3, 65, 73, 109-10, 114, 119-20, 160, 196, 226; credits 17, 128, 132, 143, 148, 154; credits of private banks, restrictions on 66; cultural 1, 23, 26, 66, 91, 98, 109, 111, 113, 115, 118-20, 139-41, 143, 161, 163, 169, 174, 182, 195, 225; current payments 82; debts 165, 173-5, 182; deterioration of 74, 118-9, 127, 133, 159, 161, 163-4, 166, 169, 180-1, 194-5, 226-7; developments 95, 98, 159-60, 208; distributing books 92; documentary films 89; dollar exchange rate 88; economic 25-6, 28, 61, 65-6, 84, 90, 104, 109-11, 113, 115-8, 120, 127-31, 133, 140-1, 163, 169-70, 225; English language programs 158, 161, 174-6, 194, 227; equipment 80-1; exchanges 71, 87, 90, 92, 100, 109, 111, 119, 128, 138-41,143-4,157-8, 161-2, 173, 182-3, 194-7, 226; exchanges of people 90, 138; export policy 121; expositions 88-9, 104; export control 26; export licenses 79; five-years plan 82; food donation to Poland 92; friendship 114; funds 79, 82; grain delivery 82; indemnity payments 62, 71, 80-4, 104, 170, 173, 177; dollar compensation 82; informal meetings 114; information programs 65, 73, 87, 225; investment 82; joint research 196; libraries 89; light industry 82; loans 26, 30, 55, 62, 66, 79-83, 104, 127, 130, 133, 142-3, 153, 157, 160, 176-7, 183, 227; loans through other countries 62; long-term relations 82; mandatory deliveries 82; medical research program 143; medicine 161; MSA loans 127; negotiations 55-8, 79-81, 127, 129, 175; opening of
Atlantic
Index 257 plant 16; Language and ports to Polish ships 74; other Literature program 195; protest agreements 80-1; payments 82; in June 1956 16,18,20-1, 95; US PL 480 agreements 129, 161, consulate 72,104,110,139,142, 174; PL 480 loans 110-1, 115-6, 166, 194 118-20, 127, 129-30, 132-3, Poznafi International Fairs (PIF) 89,104, 143, 157-8, 160, 166, 168, 141-2, 164, 197, 226; 173-5, 196, 225; polio vaccine agricultural machinery 89; 81-2; political 62, 70, 109, consumer goods 89; interest in 113-5, 120, 225; political 90; light industry 89; North conditions 26; positive impact on Korean exhibition 195; US Polish economy 82; preferential exhibitions 89, 141-2, 183, 195; treatment of Polish regime 129; US pavilion 89, 142; US trade pre-war bonds 174; private loans missions in 89; visitors 141-2 82; problems 24; projects 82; psychological effect of 79; public Poznafi Nightingales, choir 140 diplomacy 87; publishing houses Prague 154, 177, 182, 212; see also Czechoslovakia 89; purchase of raw materials presidential administration 22, 36, 194; 79-81; rebuilding stocks 82; representatives 110 research in agriculture 161; presidential libraries 5 restrictions 195; sale of Princeton University 62 agricultural commodities 27, 28, Provisional Government of National 61; scholarships 138; scientific Unity (TRJN) 6 23, 26, 66, 90-1, 104, 109, 119, psychological warfare 4, 8, 95, 99, 101, 138, 141, 143-4, 161, 196, 226; radio propaganda 8; 225-6; social welfare 161; sports balloon actions 8, 19, 95; events 163; strategic goods 66; airdrops 8, 19 student exchanges 111, 170; Pulawski Day
Parade 118 surplus agricultural products 127, 133-4; teachers exchange Rada Wzajemnej Pomocy Gospodarczej 111; technical assistance 24, 66, (RWPG - Comecon) 154 111, 113, 119; ties between nations 72; tourist exchange 119; Radford, Arthur W., Admiral 37, 38 Radio Free Europe (RFE) 4, 15, 18,19, trade 23-4, 65-6, 73, 112, 127, 95-103, 160, 191-4, 226; 132-3, 146, 149, 151, 157, activities 191-2; anti-communist 162-3, 165, 170, 173, 178, 183, sentiment 100; assessment of 226-7; trade control 58; travel of 193; audience in Poland 100; people 81-2; US policy broadcasting 18, 96-102, 191-4; objectives 25, 26; political cautious course 96-7; changes in conditions 26; using of dollars 95; cover organizations 92; 132; youth exchange 163; zloty criticism of program policy package 174 99-101; funding 193; gray Polish-West German relations 208, propaganda of 97; guidelines 19, 216-8; non-aggression treaty 96-8, 100-3, 180, 193-4; 217; trade 216 Hungarian division 96; impact of Polish-western border, Western powers 192; inspection of 99; jamming of position 215 8, 96; listeners 100; national Polityka magazine 173 sections 193; objectives 92; Office Pomerania 205-6 of the Director 192; operations Poray-Biernacki, Wladyslaw 92 92; policy toward Poland 99; Potsdam conference 83, 203-9, 228; agreements 219; protocol 204, Polish Section 8, 95-7, 99, 101-3, 191-2, 194; presenting 206-7; US delegation 203 European ideas 98; Program Poznafi 16, 19, 141-2; Cegielski engine
258 Index Review Group (PRG) 193; programs 101, 192-3; reducing commentaries on Poland 100; role of 191, 193; supporters of 193; termination of 96, 98-9, 101, 192; US responsibility for 101; Voice of Free Poland 8, 95-6, 99 Radio Liberty 192 Radom, Society for Popular Knowledge and Press 141 Radziwill, Lee 109 Radziwill, Stanislaw Albrecht 109 Ramparts, magazine 192 Rapacki, Adam 62, 67-8, 71, 98, 101, 113, 115-7, 119, 129, 159, 165, 171-2, 208; visit to Cuba 116, 119-20 Rapacki Plan 67-9; copy of Soviet ideas 68-9; East Germany position to 68; denuclearization of Central Europe 67; discussion 67; Polish initiative 67; Germany reaction to 68; implication to NATO 69; new version of 69; Soviet position to 67-8; reasons of 68; West refusal of 67; US position to 67-9 Reuters 168 Rockefeller Foundation 1, 90-1, 100, 138, 197; activities in Poland 90; scholarship recipients 90 Rokossovsky, Konstantin 16, 29 Romania 2, 150, 227; opening to West 227; US trade mission in 151 Roosevelt Study Centre 5 Rosenthal, Abe, expulsion of 73 Rostow, Walt 111-2, 116, 129, 152, 177, 179, 212, 214, 218 Rozmarek, Charles 56 Rubinstein, Artur 89 Rusk, Dean 112-3, 115, 117-8, 126, 129, 131-3, 138, 141, 146, 153-4, 159, 165, 167, 172, 180, 193, 213-5, 217 satellite countries see Eastern Europe Scarbeck, Irving 121 Schaver, Emma 140 Schroder, Gerhard 214 Second Polish Republic see Poland “Second World” 2 Semi-peripheral country 1 Sherer, Albert W. 143 Smith 205 Smithsonian Institute 196 Sorensen, Ted 211 Soviet bloc 1, 4, 8, 17, 57-8, 65-6, 102-4,113-5,119-20,128,138, 141, 149, 152, 157, 162, 194,
197, 207, 214, 225-6, 228; communism in 44; countries 17, 23, 44, 56; dissolving of 154, 225; economy of 133; heterogeneity 115; monolith of 65-6; Poland in 109; US exchanges with 162; US liberalizing trade with 131; US relations with 196 Soviet dependent countries see Eastern Europe “Soviet related matters” 1, 7, 29, 103 Soviet satellites see Eastern Europe Soviet Union 2, 5-7, 16, 18, 21, 23-4, 27, 35-49, 55, 58, 61, 63, 65-71, 73, 91, 97, 99, 101, 109, 112-3, 115-8, 121, 143, 146-8, 150-4, 158, 162-5, 172, 176, 180, 182-3, 192, 194, 196-8, 203-5, 207-15, 218, 225-7; aggressive actions (aggression)7 41; army 203, 205, 225; authorities 212; borders 58; counteraction to US aid 56; denuclearizing initiatives 68-9; disarmament proposals 119; domination 18; foreign policy 227; hegemony 149; intelligence 48; internal changes 150; leadership 16, 23, 27, 39, 41-2, 62, 109; lines of communications 44; military power 41; negotiations with West 207; nuclear treat 40-41; patterns 56, 65; opening of US ports 154; politics 150; propaganda 119; regime 68; sanctions against 43; security interests 44, 183; US export to 151; US policy toward 7-8, 21-2, 87, 138, 182; consular convention 164; war with US 42, 117 Soviet-Chinese ideological disputes 159 Soviet-US relations 147, 180 Soviets 43, 67
Index 259 Spasowski, Romuald 21, 22, 80, 111, 128; asylum in US 21 Special Committee on US Trade Relations with East European Countries and the Soviet Union 151 Special National Intelligence Estimates (SNIE); 12-2-56 24; 12-3-56 38 Spychalski, Marian, Marshall 119 South America 72 Stalin, Joseph 5-6, 16; German reunification proposal 207; policies 15 Stalinism 15, 21; methods 19 Stassen, Harold 23 State Department 2, 4, 17, 18, 21, 26-9, 37, 45, 48-50, 55-8, 62, 66, 68, 71, 73, 79-84, 88, 91-2, 95-6, 98-100, 103, 111-2, 115-7, 119-21, 127-31, 133, 138-9, 142, 146-9, 151-4, 158-63, 166-8,173-80,191-3,195,197, 205-10, 212, 214-17, 225, 228; analysts 159; Bureau of European Affairs (BEA) 27, 44, 103, 174, 193; Bureau of Intelligence and Research (INR) 73-4, 117, 121, 159, 173, 178, 209, 215; Division of Central European Affairs 62; Foreign Leaders Grants 140; intelligence 210; Intelligence Bureau 55, 62, 69, 79; memorandums 28; Office of Eastern European Affairs (OEEA) 27, 55, 62, 83, 110, 138, 191; Office of the Special Assistant for NSC40; officials 111, 130; Policy Planning Board 62; Polish desk 166; Staff meeting 18 Stefanik, Edward 121 Stoessel, Walter J. 128, 130, 174, 179, 182-3, 195-6, 218 Stokowski, Leopold 89 Stone, Shepard 90, 139; visit to Poland 90 Strategic Air Command 38 Stull, Lee T. 191 Stuttgart 205 superpowers 182, 218, 226; deterioration of relations 196, 226 Sweden 46 Swiatlo, Jozef 15 Swinoujscie 204 Szczecin (Stettin) 203, 206; interim administration 204; Soviet control of 203-4 Teacher Development and Student Program 90 Tebinka, Jacek 4 Tehran
conference 203 Texas 164 The New York Times 73, 131,164, 175 The Scientific Revolution exhibition 194 The Seven Sea Worlds exhibition 194 The Wall Street Journal 89; subscription of 89 The Washington Post 131, 175 Tito (Josip Broz) 25, 29 Thompson, Llewellyn E. 212, 217 Three Generations of Jazz exhibition 141, 194 Transportation USA exhibition 141 Truman, Harry 6-7, 204 Trybuna Ludu 143, 181 Twining, Nathan F., General 38 Ullrich, Weston 4 United Kingdom see Great Britain United Nations 36-42, 46, 75, 113, 117-8, 121; actions in case of Soviet intervention in Poland 36-9; agencies 66, 75; ArabAsian bloc 38; contingent 47; Disarmament Committee 148; Economic and Social Council 18, 75; forces 37-8, 44, 47; General Assembly 36, 40, 46, 62, 113, 117, 148; intervention in Poland 44, 46; meetings 62; members 38; police force 39, 41-2; Polish headquarters 168; Polish competition with Turkey 75; resolutions 43; Security Council 18, 36, 75 United States (US) 2, 5, 7, 17, 21-2, 26-7, 29, 35-43, 45-6, 49, 56, 67, 70, 72-4, 80-2, 90-1, 98, 104,110-22, 127-9,132-3,138, 140-4, 147-50, 153-4, 158, 160-4, 166, 169-73, 175-9, 181-2, 192, 195-8, 203-9, 212-9, 225, 227-8; actions in case of Soviet intervention in Poland 37, 39-40; activity 109;
260 Index administration 20,28, 35, 95; aid to Hungary 25; aid to Poland 21, 23, 25-6, 29-30, 50, 55, 57, 61, 64-6, 73, 79-82; political consequence of 57; and armed confrontation with Soviets 35, 38; and European affairs 4; anti Polish speeches 178; architectural education 89; architecture 166, 195; archives 3-5; artists 89; arts 195-6; asylum to Polish Jews 179; atom bomb 6; Attorney General 179; authorities 115, 122, 192, 226-7; aviation 170; books 141,197; boycott of Polish goods 119, 132, 157; bureaucratic restrictions 79; charitable actions 91-2; cities 157; citizens 82, 84, 149, 166, 174, 177; clergymen 167; closed zones for communist diplomats 121, 165, 177; commerce 195; commodity licenses 151; commitments 41; communists 119; community 119; companies 142; consumer goods 142; contacts with Polish society 129; containment policy 116; courts 74; cultural policy toward Poland 88; cultural programs 87, 89; culture 195; currency 133; customs restrictions 114; defense leadership 39; democracy 88; diplomacy 68; diplomacy behind Iron Curtain 8; diplomacy 218; diplomatic and consular missions 4-5, 58; diplomats 62, 70, 116-7, 131,165, 177, 180, 182, 210; diverse culture 88; documentary 88; domestic problems 132; Eastern European officials in 165; economic aid to Poland 1, 4, 6, 18, 27-8, 63, 65; economic aid to Yugoslavia 4; economic assistance 130; economic policy 129; economy 151; education 195; emigration to 149; exhibitions 197; in Poland 142; export concessions 154; export licenses 121, 128-9, 148, 151-2, 180; export of nonstrategic goods 153; exports to Poland 127;
farms 91 favorable treatment of Poland 180; films 88,104,140-1,148,194-7,226; foreign economic policy 127-8; forces 37, 39-40, 42-3, 45-8; foreign policy 40, 70, 81, 154; foundations 139; friendship toward Poland 118; goals of policy 7,18, 26,48,55,57-8, 61, 64, 73, 83, 87, 103, 113-4, 130, 133, 152; government 39, 100, 111, 113, 116-7, 119, 121, 128-32, 140-1, 160, 164, 166, 175-7, 179, 197-8, 203, 205, 207-9, 212-4, 217, 228; government agencies 28, 37, 55, 98, 138, 175; grain 127, 129, 143; history 164; holding the distinction between Poland and USSR 64; hospital architecture 89; humanitarian organizations 112; image of 113; immigrant visas 162; immigration policy 149; “imperialism” 81, 110-22, 127-9, 132-3, 138, 140-4, 147-50,153-4,158,160-4,166, 169-73, 175-79, 181-82, 192, 195-8, 203-9, 212-9, 225, 227-8; import restrictions 62; individual aid 91; industry 142, 195; information policy 89, 149; informational activities 89; institutions 196; intelligence 63-4, 69, 148; analyses of 117, 150; intelligence community 20, 24,44, 55,57,149-50,152,161, 178, 193; interests 40-2, 48, 80, 103, 115, 151, 153; jazz ensembles 89; Jews 179, 218; journalists 56; leaders 47; legislation 114; licensing restrictions 149; life 195; linguists 195; literature 88, 196; market 132-3; mass media 22, 100, 164, 173; mechanisms of power 42; merchants 119; military action in 116; military aid to Hungary 25; military analysts 45; military circles 68, 159; military power 39, 47; using for peace 72; military policy 48; nation 139; national interest 35, 110, 132, 151, 153, 176, 196; national security
121;
Index 261 NATO allies 148, 152; 1960 presidential election 84; non government media 191; nonstrategic goods 150, 154; nuclear weapons testing 119; officials 35, 84; “open door” policy 113; opening ports to communist vessels 148, 157; paintings 89; passport regulations 153; people 24; pharmaceutical companies 91; picture of 87; Poland’s special treatment 121; Polish accusations of supporting West Germany 208; Polish ambassadors in 163; Polish assets in 58; Polish attachés, illegal activity 120,167, 169; Polish cash purchases 132; Polish commercial staff 170; Polish debts in 160; Polish delegation in 56; Polish espionage in 65, 121; Polish exhibitions in 181; Polish image in 182; Polish military attachés 121; Polish military personnel 169; Polish programs in 163; Polish public attacks on 80; Polish purchases 174; Polish senior officers visits in US 62, 66; Polish specialists, visits 196; political bodies 2; political freedom 88; politics 193; ports 114, 154; Postmaster General 216; possible military aid to Poland 4, 25, 48, 50, 61, 103; President 20, 62, 104, 130-2, 150-1, 153, 165, 179, 226; presidential administrations 3-4; press 88, 119, 179, 197, 214; access to Poles 88; pressure on Soviet Union 109; prestige 39, 42; private foundations 87, 91, 104, 226; private social organizations 193; programs of exchange 139; propaganda 4, 47, 97, 119-20, 192, 226; public diplomacy 87, 104, 149, 166, 226; public opinion 3, 6, 29, 40, 71, 84, 110, 113, 119, 128, 140, 148-9, 162-3, 178, 183, 192, 196, 198, 226-7; publications 148, 197; radio broadcast 18, 114, 191-3, 226; renewal of
ties with Eastern Europe 128; respect for integrity of state borders 218; right-wing groups 157; security 19, 80; scientific potential 88; Soviet experts 152; special treatment of Poland 50, 57-8, 73, 75; strategic control lists 153; strategic materials 27; subverting the Soviet Bloc 4; supporting evolutionary changes in Poland 55, 61; surplus agricultural commodities 131; taxpayers 132; technology 27; toward changes in Poland 22; toward events in Eastern Europe 35; trade controls 128; trade unions 154-5; trade with Soviet bloc, legislative barriers 19, 25, 57-8; travel restrictions 147; unlocking Polish assets in 58; visa policy 114, 149; West German dipomats in 214, 218; Western allies 128, 212, 219; writing 104, 226 United States Information Agency (USIA) 5, 8, 18, 96-7, 101, 139, 142, 193-6; Eastern Europe Bureau 194; Office of Special Projects 194; programs in Poland 170; Soviet Union Bureau 194 United States Information and Cultural Center, project of 139 United States Information Service (USIS) 7; possible facility in Poland 139 University of Illinois 195 University of Wisconsin 164 Upper Silesia 205-6 US Agency for International Development (AID) 163 US Congress (Capitol Hill) 3, 17, 25, 27-8, 40, 50, 57-8, 71, 83-4, 110, 116, 118-9, 121, 127, 128, 130-2, 140, 148-9, 151-2, 154, 157-8, 160, 163-4, 166-7, 170, 173-4, 176, 178-80, 196-8, 225-7; actions 161, 194; authorization 42; bills 110; Captive Nations Week, proclamation 149; committees 131, 151; US Congress, congressmen 119, 128, 131, 151, 154-5,160,165-6, 176,179-80, 192, 196; debate 118; decisions 131;
Democrats 153, 176; EastWest Trade Relations Act 151,
262 Index 170; Export-Import Bank Act 154, 176; foreign aid legislation 151; Foreign Assistance Act 130, 132; House of Representatives 56, 110, 131, 180, 151, 192; Committee on Ways and Means 132; House Select Committee on Export Control 112; Immigration Act 179; leaders 56; legislation 116, 148, 152; Proxmire-Lausche amendment 130-1; representatives 28, 56, 141; Republicans 153, 176; resolutions 49; Senate 56, 110, 131, 150-1, 160, 176-7, 196; Committee on Foreign Relations 28, 96, 132, 141; Committee on Security Affairs 74; senators 131, 141; Trade and Foreign Assistance Acts 118; Trade Expansion Act 131-2 US Council on Foreign Economic Policy (CFEP) 25, 26, 28 US policy 48-9, 62-4, 67, 73, 75, 80, 82, 95, 97, 113-20, 128-9, 139, 153-4, 163, 165, 169, 174, 183, 191, 196-7, 203, 225-6; achievements 73; criticism by Polish communists 71; directives 19; differentiation 73; objectives 19, 22, 37, 38, 39, 102, 227; relations with PRC 172; toward communist system 8; toward Poland 1-4, 7, 17, 20-1, 25-6, 28, 43, 64-5, 70, 73, 100, 104, 112-3, 116, 225; toward Soviet bloc 4, 97, 138; toward Soviet Union 7, 22, 97; toward West Germany 71 US-Soviet relations 7, 22, 97, 121, 204, 226; negotiations 218 USS Pueblo 195 USSR see Soviet Union Vatican 215 Vedeler, Harold C. 110, 141 Venezuela 116 Vienna 194 Vietnam 154, 163, 165, 173, 175, 181, 194, 227; authorities 227; communists 171-2; Vietnam, Polish aid to 175-6; US, bombing of 171-2; US peace plan 171-2; US policy toward 171 Vietnam war 154, 162-4,171, 176,178, 181, 194, 197, 226; US involvement in 163, 165, 172, 194, 197-8, 227
Voice of America (VOA) 8, 96-7, 101, 142, 193, 226; lack of jamming 112 Wallerstein theory 1-2 Wandycz, Piotr 3 Wahkowicz, Melchior, trial of 160 Warren Commission 161 Warsaw 1-2, 7, 8,15-7,21-2, 24,26-9, 30, 36, 41,44, 55-7, 61-5, 67-8, 70-1, 73-5, 79-84, 88-90, 96-100, 103, 109-23, 127-33, 138-41, 157, 159-83, 191-2, 194-8, 203, 205, 207-12, 215, 217-8, 225-7; British Council 195; Ghetto 72; Jazz Jamboree festival 195; Mysliwiecki Palace 71; Powqzki military cemetery 160; St. John’s Cathedral, Nixon visit to 72; US Embassy in 2, 6, 17, 18, 20, 23, 72, 89, 99-100; US diplomats in 27,129,139-43, 160, 163, 165, 168, 170, 172, 174, 176, 178-9, 181, 183, 191, 193-4, 197, 218, 225; US-PRC meetings Western ambassadors in 165; see also Poland Warsaw Autumn, festival 140 Warsaw Pact 29, 66-7, 103, 154, 161, 180, 213 Warsaw Uprising Day, proclamation of 159 Washington 1-3, 6-8, 17-21, 23-4, 26-7, 29-30, 36, 38-9, 41, 43, 46-7, 49, 55-7, 61-5, 67-9, 72-5, 81-4, 87-8, 90, 95, 99, 103, 110-1, 113-7, 119, 120-2, 127-34, 139-44, 146-9, 151^1, 157-74, 176-7, 179-83, 191-3, 195, 197-8, 203-4, 206-9, 213-9, 225-8; Polish diplomats in 27-8, 110, 118; Polish delegations in 55—8; Polish Embassy in 21, 55, 110-1, 116, 121, 130, 160, 163, 165, 169; see also United States
Index 263 Welch, Frank J. 141 West (Western countries) 2, 22-3, 27, 29, 41, 55, 57-8, 61, 67-8, 70, 79, 102-3,173, 213,215; aid 29; armed aid to Poland 102; assistance to Poland 64; countries 114; Polish cultural ties with 69; democratic communities 66; disarmament initiatives 68; expansion of 177; immigration of Poles 112; interest of Poland 64; openness of Polish authorities to 103; press 72; radio stations 29; lack of jamming of 63, 69; standard trade policy with US 128; strategic materials 128 Western civilization 102 West Germany 67-8, 208, 213-4, 216; as US ally 213, 218-9, 228; Bundeswehr 68, 208; equipping with nuclear weapons 68; government 114, 208, 216, 218; Hallstein Doctrine 216; imperialism 119; NATO allies 218; NATO troops in 24; policy toward Eastern Europe 210, 212, 216; refugees 214; remilitarization 114; revanchism 119, 218; territorial issues 114 Western allies 5-6 Western civilization 146 Western Europe 38, 72, 113-4, 117, 147, 154, 228; ’’catholic countries of” 64; Polish loans Staci” from 82; Polish turn to 80; unity of 147; US allies 128, 203, 216; solidifying Poland’s ties with 64 Western hemisphere 110 Western powers 207, 209, 213 Wheeler, Earle 36 White House 2, 5, 21-4, 26-7, 50, 58, 71, 84, 109, 111, 132, 139, 140, 151-2, 164-5, 170, 176, 179, 193, 206, 210, 213 Williamsburg Roundtable Conference 163 Winiewicz, Jozef 22-3, 26-8, 81, 83, 100-1, 115-6, 173-5, 181, 217 Wojciechowski, Miroslaw 121 Wooten, Ed 168 World public opinion 47, 79 World War II 4-6, 8 8, 109, 178, 203, 207; crimes 167 World War III 36 Wright, Frank Lloyd 141 Wroclaw
(Breslau) 149, 181, 195, 203 Wyszynski, Stefan, Primate 17, 72, 171, 215; internment of 15-7 Yale, Richard 89 Yalta conference 3, 6, 203-5; agreements 6, 7 Yugoslavia 25, 46, 63, 66, 103, 112-3, 116-8, 129, 131-2, 151, 158; sale of US agricultural products 151, 160; US support 25 4Ά |
| any_adam_object | |
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| author | Tyszkiewicz, Jakub 1966- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)132844745 |
| author_facet | Tyszkiewicz, Jakub 1966- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Tyszkiewicz, Jakub 1966- |
| author_variant | j t jt |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV049493544 |
| classification_rvk | NQ 8342 NQ 8280 NK 7700 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1388384910 (DE-599)BVBBV049493544 |
| discipline | Geschichte |
| era | Geschichte 1956-1968 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1956-1968 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic_facet | USA Polen |
| id | DE-604.BV049493544 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-03T23:20:01Z |
| indexdate | 2025-05-22T10:01:51Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9781032332376 1032332379 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-034838824 |
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| physical | viii, 263 Seiten |
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| publishDate | 2024 |
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| publisher | Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group |
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| series2 | Routledge histories of Central and Eastern Europe |
| spelling | Tyszkiewicz, Jakub 1966- Verfasser (DE-588)132844745 aut The open window into the Soviet bloc US policy toward Poland, 1956-1968 Jakub Tyszkiewicz London ; New York Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group 2024 viii, 263 Seiten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Routledge histories of Central and Eastern Europe "This volume analyzes US policy towards communist-ruled Poland in the fields of diplomacy, economy, culture, and public diplomacy. It highlights the limitations in developing cooperation between democratic and non-democratic countries resulting from the Cold War conflict. No comprehensive account of US policy towards Poland from 1956-1968 has emerged in historiography. This book aims to answer why, since the political changes of the Polish October 1956, Washington ceased to see Polish affairs as "Soviet-related matters." Instead, it recognized communist-ruled Poland as a separate political entity among other Kremlin-dependent states in Eastern Europe. This policy, introduced by the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration, was continued by his successors John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. Recently declassified US and Polish archival sources allow the presentation of more considerations around the decision-making mechanisms by presidential administrations regarding communist Poland after 1956. They also reveal the dependence of the implementation of US actions on the climate of international relations. Moreover, they can now explain how Poland became an "open window" towards the Soviet bloc and a model example of the changes in the US policy of diversifying its approach to Eastern European countries under Soviet control in the next decades"-- Geschichte 1956-1968 gnd rswk-swf Ost-West-Konflikt (DE-588)4075770-5 gnd rswk-swf Außenpolitik (DE-588)4003846-4 gnd rswk-swf Außenbeziehungen (DE-588)4143618-0 gnd rswk-swf USA (DE-588)4078704-7 gnd rswk-swf Polen (DE-588)4046496-9 gnd rswk-swf United States / Foreign relations / Poland Poland / Foreign relations / United States Cold War United States / Foreign relations / 1945-1989 Poland / Foreign relations / 1945-1989 États-Unis / Relations extérieures / Pologne Pologne / Relations extérieures / États-Unis Guerre froide États-Unis / Relations extérieures / 1945-1989 Pologne / Relations extérieures / 1945-1989 USA (DE-588)4078704-7 g Polen (DE-588)4046496-9 g Außenpolitik (DE-588)4003846-4 s Außenbeziehungen (DE-588)4143618-0 s Ost-West-Konflikt (DE-588)4075770-5 s Geschichte 1956-1968 z DE-604 Äquivalent London ; New York : Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2025 Druck-Ausgabe, Paperback 978-1-032-33241-3 1-032-33241-7 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, Taylor & Francis 978-1-003-31882-8 (DE-604)BV049500986 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, EPUB, Ebook Central 978-1-000-96338-0 (DE-604)BV049500986 PDF https://urn.ub.unibe.ch/urn:ch:slsp:zbz:1032332417:ihv:pdf Titelblatt und Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment https://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:443/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034838824&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment https://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:443/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034838824&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Literaturverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment https://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:443/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034838824&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Tyszkiewicz, Jakub 1966- The open window into the Soviet bloc US policy toward Poland, 1956-1968 Ost-West-Konflikt (DE-588)4075770-5 gnd Außenpolitik (DE-588)4003846-4 gnd Außenbeziehungen (DE-588)4143618-0 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4075770-5 (DE-588)4003846-4 (DE-588)4143618-0 (DE-588)4078704-7 (DE-588)4046496-9 |
| title | The open window into the Soviet bloc US policy toward Poland, 1956-1968 |
| title_auth | The open window into the Soviet bloc US policy toward Poland, 1956-1968 |
| title_exact_search | The open window into the Soviet bloc US policy toward Poland, 1956-1968 |
| title_exact_search_txtP | The open window into the Soviet bloc US policy toward Poland, 1956-1968 |
| title_full | The open window into the Soviet bloc US policy toward Poland, 1956-1968 Jakub Tyszkiewicz |
| title_fullStr | The open window into the Soviet bloc US policy toward Poland, 1956-1968 Jakub Tyszkiewicz |
| title_full_unstemmed | The open window into the Soviet bloc US policy toward Poland, 1956-1968 Jakub Tyszkiewicz |
| title_short | The open window into the Soviet bloc |
| title_sort | the open window into the soviet bloc us policy toward poland 1956 1968 |
| title_sub | US policy toward Poland, 1956-1968 |
| topic | Ost-West-Konflikt (DE-588)4075770-5 gnd Außenpolitik (DE-588)4003846-4 gnd Außenbeziehungen (DE-588)4143618-0 gnd |
| topic_facet | Ost-West-Konflikt Außenpolitik Außenbeziehungen USA Polen |
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