Tectonic archaeology: subduction zone geology in Japan and its archaeological implications
The effects of tectonic processes on archaeological sites are evidenced by earthquake damage, volcanic eruptions, and tsunami destruction. However, these processes affect a far broader sphere of landform structures, environment, and even climate that envelops an archaeological site and triggers huma...
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| Zusammenfassung: | The effects of tectonic processes on archaeological sites are evidenced by earthquake damage, volcanic eruptions, and tsunami destruction. However, these processes affect a far broader sphere of landform structures, environment, and even climate that envelops an archaeological site and triggers human behavioural activities. Tectonic processes derive directly or indirectly from Plate Tectonics and associated magmatic activity of the Earth?s mantle. This volume thus provides a primer on crucial subduction- and suprasubduction-zone processes due to Plate Tectonics, where many earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are generated. After a general survey of how tectonic effects are dealt with in geoarchaeology, Part I details how these processes are applied to understand the Japanese landmass?s development, from continental accretion to volcanic archipelago, as a world-standard example. A full glossary of geological terms is included for easy reference.0This is followed by detailed examinations of Japan?s tectonic archaeologies in Part II: TephroArchaeology, Earthquake Archaeology, and Tsunami Archaeology. Part III summarizes and critiques the authors? own geoarchaeological fieldwork in Japan which was underwritten by a clear exposition of its geological and geomorphological background. Looking holistically at a locale and its development through geological time is fruitful in understanding the lay of the land, its resources, and its hazards that affect human occupation potential |
| Beschreibung: | xxvi, 521 Seiten Illustrationen, Karten (teilweise farbig) 27,6 cm |
| ISBN: | 9781803273990 |
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| 520 | 3 | |a The effects of tectonic processes on archaeological sites are evidenced by earthquake damage, volcanic eruptions, and tsunami destruction. However, these processes affect a far broader sphere of landform structures, environment, and even climate that envelops an archaeological site and triggers human behavioural activities. Tectonic processes derive directly or indirectly from Plate Tectonics and associated magmatic activity of the Earth?s mantle. This volume thus provides a primer on crucial subduction- and suprasubduction-zone processes due to Plate Tectonics, where many earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are generated. After a general survey of how tectonic effects are dealt with in geoarchaeology, Part I details how these processes are applied to understand the Japanese landmass?s development, from continental accretion to volcanic archipelago, as a world-standard example. A full glossary of geological terms is included for easy reference.0This is followed by detailed examinations of Japan?s tectonic archaeologies in Part II: TephroArchaeology, Earthquake Archaeology, and Tsunami Archaeology. Part III summarizes and critiques the authors? own geoarchaeological fieldwork in Japan which was underwritten by a clear exposition of its geological and geomorphological background. Looking holistically at a locale and its development through geological time is fruitful in understanding the lay of the land, its resources, and its hazards that affect human occupation potential | |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text | Gina L. Barnes Tectonic Archaeology Table of Contents Dedication to William R. Farrand Preface Readership Chapter Outline PART I A Geological Introduction to the Japanese Islands PART II The Tectonic Archaeologies ofJapan PART III Nara Basin Studies Sources Acknowledgments A Personal Journey Landscape archaeology excavation Jade Plate Tectonics Style Notes Referencing System Chapter 1 Tectonic Archaeology vs Geoarchaeology A Comparison, For Starters Why Japan? The ‘Geo’ in Geoarchaeology Tectonics in Geoarchaeology Tectonics in Major Scientific Archaeology Journals 1958, “Archaeometry” 1972, “Journal of Human Evolution” 1974, “Journal of Archaeological Science” 1986, “Geoarchaeology, an International Journal” Journal summary Books Inciting Great Expectations 1985, “Archaeological Geology” 2001, “Earth Sciences and Archaeology” Tectonics Earthquakes 2006, “Practical and Theoretical Geoarchaeology” Tectonics Tsunami Tephra Earthquakes 2009, “Geoarchaeology”, the textbook Tectonics Volcanism Seismicity Tsunami 2017, “Encyclopedia of Geoarchaeology” Reflections on books Conclusions Prospects Further Reading xi i i ii ii iii iv iv v vi vi viii ix 1 1 4 5 7 9 10 10 10 12 12 12 12 13 13 14 14 14 14 15 15 16 16 16 18 18 19 19 19 21
PREFACE AND TABLE OF CONTENTS Part I ARCHAEOPRESS, 2022 Earth Sciences Plate Tectonics Tectonic Geomorphology Geoarchaeology Geological maps 21 21 21 22 22 A Geological Introduction to the Japanese Islands 27 1) Geological Time 2) Uniformitarianism 3) Plate Tectonics Illustration: The Rock Cycle Chapter 2 A Primer in Plate Tectonics, with Specific Reference to Japan 2.1 From Geosynclines to Plates 2.2 Plate Tectonics in Japan BOX 1 Early Contributions ofJapanese Researchers to Plate Tectonic Theory 2.3 Tectonic Plate Construction 2.3.1 Boundaries and distributions 2.3.2 Types of Earth’s crust 2.3.2.1 Cratons mobile belts 2.3.2.2 Oceanic crust 2.3.2.3 Continental crust 2.4 Subduction Zone Processes 2.4.1 Overview 2.4.2 Seismic processes 2.4.2.1 Subduction vs Active Fault earthquakes 2.4.2.2 Earthquake magnitude and intensity 2.4.3 Igneous processes 2.4.4 Accretionary orogens 2.4.5 Collision tectonics 2.4.6 Paired metamorphic belts 2.5 Metamorphism 2.5.1 Metamorphic facies series 2.5.2 Types of metamorphism 2.5.3 Burial exhumation 2.6 Vertical Movements Recycling 2.6.1 Extensional compressional tectonics 2.6.2 Folds 2.6.3 Faults 2.6.3.1 General typologies 2.6.3.2 Fault types specific to Japan 2.6.4 Uplift 2.6.5 Subsidence 2.6.6 Isostacy 2.7 Obduction Processes Ophiolites 2.8 Rifting Processes: combined extension, faulting, and volcanics 2.9 Prospectus 27 27 27 28 29 29 30 31 32 32 36 36 37 38 38 38 41 41 42 44 45 50 50 51 51 52 55 55 56 56 57 57 59 59 60 60 62 63 65
Gina L. Barnes Tectonic Archaeology Chapters The Palaeogeographic Compilation of the Japanese Landmass From Myth to Plate Japan’s Geological Belts Classifications 80% Accretionary Complexes 20% Metamorphics and granites Metamorphic Belts (MB) Faults and Tectonic Lines (TL) BOX 2 The Median Tectonic Line Museum Looking Forward Tracking Japan Throughout the Ages Setting the stage Precambrian events (before 541 Ma) Palaeozoic ca. (541-300 Ma): evidence of early subduction Permian (ca. 299-252 Ma): Farallon Plate subduction BOX 3 The Akiyoshidai Karst Park of Western Honshu Triassic (ca. 250-200 Ma): uniting the China blocks Jurassic (ca. 200-145 Ma): meeting Izanagi Pacific Basin plate reorganization ca. 170-65 Ma Cretaceous (ca. 145-66 Ma): episodic growth Peripheral developments from Cretaceous to the Palaeogene (66-23 Ma) Hokkaido assembly Philippine Plate IBM Arc creation Structural realignments Conclusions 74 74 75 75 77 78 78 79 80 81 81 81 82 83 86 87 87 89 90 90 94 94 95 95 96 Chapter 4 Shaping the Japanese Archipelago Revolutionary Advances Rifting, Magmatism Japan Sea Basin Formation Opening ofthejapan Sea Basin The newly formed archipelago and sea Competing hypotheses for rifting cause Repositioning the Japanese landmass The ‘Green Tuff Movement BOX 4 The Geology of Oya-ishi Tuff and its Quarry Museum The Setouchi Volcanic Zone BOX 5 Sanukite Past and Present Honshu-Izu Arc-Arc Collision Ramifications Arc-arc collision accretion The Kanto Syntaxis The Fossa Magna Perspectives 103 103 105 105 106 108 109 110 113 114 115 116 117 117 118 119 Chapter 5 Making Japan’s
Mountains Basins Setting the Stage Plains, terraces uplands Changing tectonic regimes 124 124 124 125 xiii
PREFACE AND TABLE OF CONTENTS ARCHAEOPRESS, Current landmass movement Regional Landscape Changes Post-rifting uplift subsidence Northeast Japan Tohoku fold belts Green Tuff basins Centraljapan Kanto Basin Faulted mountains Southwest Japan SW Japan the Seto depression The Kinki Triangle BOX 6 The Inland Sea Kyushu rotation Conclusions 2022 126 127 127 128 129 130 130 130 131 132 132 133 135 136 136 Chapter 6 Japan’s Igneous Activity Volcanic Arcs Japan as a Volcanic Archipelago Granitic rocks Early volcanic rocks Plio-Pleistocene Two-Plate Subduction Regime Philippine vs Pacific Plate subduction Quaternary volcanic fronts Zonation geochemistry Active volcanoes Volcanic Eruption Patterns Regional Volcanoes Hokkaido: Kurile NE Japan arcs NEJapan Arc in Honshu BOX 7 Towada Caldera Central Honshu SW Japan Arc Arc characteristics Continuing plume activity Northwestern Honshu coast Kyushu Island Whole island concerns Northwest Kyushu Central Kyushu Southwest Kyushu Ryukyu Arc Tephra Definitions Distributions Kanto loam Identification Dating Retrospection xiv 140 140 141 141 142 142 143 144 145 145 148 148 149 151 151 153 153 155 155 156 156 156 157 157 159 159 159 160 162 164 165 167
Gina L. Barnes Tectonic Archaeology Chapter 7 Tephra-derived Soils ofJapan in comparative context Tephrogenic Soils Andosols: what are they? Tephra in other soil classes Implications Tephra Transformations From tephra to clay Weathering of tephra Weathering of volcanic glass into crystalline clays Clay formation Amorphous clays and alterite formation Alteration rates Turning tephra into soil Plant activity Nitrogen-N Plant Regeneration Andolization Andolizer species Andosol soil profiles Grasslands as ‘pyromes’ International concerns Kurobokudo as a pyrome Japanese grassland formation continuity Kurobokudo and prehistoric humans Andosol productivity Andosol properties General cropping BOX 8 The Japanese Silk Industry on Volcanic Soils Summary 175 175 175 179 180 180 181 182 183 184 185 185 185 185 186 187 188 188 189 191 191 192 194 196 197 197 200 201 202 Part I 210 Reflections The Relative Importance of Magmatism and Accretion Tectonics Episodic Formation of the Japanese Landmass Confusion over Collision Nappes and thrust zones Accretion vs collision A New Paradigm: Second Continent Formation Illustration: Plumes, second continents, and slab graveyards Dividing Northeast and Southwest Japan Japan as a Subduction Zone Product Conclusions Part II The Tectonic archaeologies of japan 210 210 212 212 213 214 214 215 215 216 219 220 220 221 Chapter 8 TephroArchaeology A Brief Comparison TephroArchaeology inJapan XV
PREFACE AND TABLE OF CONTENTS ÄRCHAEOPRESS, Development of the field Why ‘tephro’? Homelands of TephroArchaeology Artefact Distributions Population Recovery in Kyushu Aira eruption 30,000 BP: Palaeolithic consequences Kikai eruption 7280 BP: Jomon consequences Environmental recovery Villages Households Northwest Kanto Plain: Mt Haruna Mt Asama BOX 9 Boulders Transported by Lahars Nishigumi site: a farmyard buried in pumice Kuroimine site: a village buried in pumice The Kanai sites: elite attempts at escape Mitsudera site: an abandoned housestead Kanbara Kannondo Temple: last refuge Northern Tohoku: Mt Towada Mt Paektu Katakai-Ienoshita site: the dragon lahar Northern population migrations Southern Kyushu: Mt Kaimondake Hashimure-gawa site: destruction of a house236 Preserved Field Systems Paddy-fields Horse hoofprints Moto-Soja Kitakawa site: building a small dam Field restoration land use changes Seasonality of eruptions Interdisciplinary Contributions Conclusions Chapter 9 Earthquake Archaeology 2022 221 222 223 223 224 225 227 227 227 229 230 231 232 233 234 234 234 235 236 237 237 238 238 239 240 241 242 248 The New Subdiscipline Sangawa’s creation The Athens conference Japan and the Mediterranean compared Buildings in Japan Damage to traditional and monumental architecture Survival of traditional architecture Earthquake Records Earthquake Types Archaeological Correlations Subduction earthquake damage Active Fault earthquake damage identifying and dating earthquake damage Earthquake Evidence in Sediments Liquefaction features Soft-sediment deformation structures BOX 10
Archaeological Contributions to Understanding the Kobe Earthquake Concluding Remarks xvi 248 248 249 250 251 251 254 255 256 256 257 258 259 259 262 266 268
Tectonic Archaeology GiNAL. BARNES Chapter 10 Tsunami Archaeology Introduction The New Field of Tsunami Archaeology Defining and Measuring Tsunami Definition Causes Measurements Actions Tsunami Sedimentary Evidence Inundation processes Identifying previous tsunami deposits Cyclical Tsunami and Recovery Tsunami Excavations in Japan: Case Studies 2011 Tohoku-oki tsunami Sendai Plain, Miyagi Prefecture Minami Soma-shi, Fukushima Prefecture Takaose site, Iwanuma City, Miyagi Prefecture Hasunuma site, Kujukuri-cho, Chiba Prefecture 1771 AD Yaeyama tsunami in the Ryukyu Islands Miyako Island, Okinawa Prefecture Ishigaki Island, Okinawa Prefecture 1707 AD tsunami from Philippine Plate subduction earthquakes Shimizu Plain, Shizuoka Prefecture Old Kobe Foreigners’ Residence site, Kobe, Hyogo Prefecture Ryujin Lake, Kyushu 869 AD (Jogan 11) Heian-period tsunami Shimomasuda Iizuka Tomb Cluster, Natori City, Miyagi Prefecture Middle Yayoi-period tsunami ca. 100 BC Kutsukata site, Wakabayashi-ku, Sendai City, Miyagi Prefecture Arai-Minami, Wakabayashi-ku, Sendai City, Miyagi Prefecture Arai-Hirose site, Wakabayashi-ku, Sendai City, Miyagi Prefecture Nakazaike-Minami site, Wakabayashi-ku, Sendai City, Miyagi Prefecture Nakasuji site, Yamamoto-cho, Miyagi Prefecture Middle Holocene tsunami after Kikai Akahoya eruption 7300 cal. BP Yoko-o site, Oita City, Oita Prefecture BOX 11 Surviving (or not) the Middle Yayoi Tsunami Conclusions 273 273 274 275 275 275 276 278 278 278 280 282 285 285 285 286 287 287 287 287 287 288 288 288 289 289 290 290 291 292 292 292 293 293 293 294 294 Chapter 11
The Inter-relatedness of Tectonics Hazard Research The Hazards of Living in Japan Volcanic Hazards Prediction monitoring Mitigation Fatalities Earthquake Hazards Earthquake types magnitudes Monitoring earthquakes 302 302 305 305 307 309 310 310 312 xvii
PREFACE AND TABLE OF CONTENTS ARCHAEOPRESS, Earthquake warning systems Earthquake volcano interactions The ‘seismic staircase’ Tsunami Hazards Major tsunami occurrences Tsunami databases Tsunami warning prediction Volcano tsunami inter-relationships Landslides The most feared Landslide generalities Landslides in Japan Typhoons Tectonics Disaster Archaeology Becoming Disaster Archaeology Disaster Archaeology in Japan The 2011 Tohoku-oki earthquake and tsunami Organizational outcomes BOX 12 1995 Kobe Earthquake Disaster Monuments Prospective Chapter 12 True Jades, False Friends 2022 312 313 313 313 314 314 316 316 317 317 317 319 321 322 323 325 326 327 328 329 338 Introduction The categoryjade/yu Rock vs mineral New revelations from feicui True Jades and False Friends Archaeological perspectives Modern marketing concerns Plate Tectonics and Formation of True Jades True Jade Minerals The problem with nephrite Nephrite: rock and minerals Nephrite’s solid solution minerals Nephrite colours Nephrite summary BOX 13 Taiwanese Nephrite Case Study Jadeitite problems Jadeite-jade P-jadeite R-jadeite P/T-jadeite The other feicui jades Kosmochlor-jade Omphacite-jade Jadeitite summary True Jade Rocks and their Host Rocks xviii 338 338 339 341 342 342 343 344 347 348 348 349 351 352 353 354 354 354 356 356 356 356 357 358 358
Gina L. Barnes Tectonic Archaeology Hierarchical metamorphic processes Three derivations of nephrite Dnephrite from dolomite (dN) Dnephrite via diopside Snephrite from serpentine (sN) Distinguishing sN and dN Two derivations ofjadeitite Jadeitite from serpentinizing peridotite Jadeitites within blueschist/eclogite rocks Conclusions BOX 14 Tectonic Contexts ofJapanese Jadeitite 358 360 360 362 362 362 364 364 365 365 366 Part II Reflections 373 PART III NARA BASIN STUDIES 375 Chapter 13 Nara Basin Geology Geomorphology Topographic Tour Local Geology in Brief Basement rocks Rock types sediments Basin Faulting Sedimentation Tectonic basin formation Sediment Groups Formations Sediments with respect to changing land/seascapes Inland Sea #1 The Seto Depression Second Setouchi Geologic Province I Inland Sea #2 Stage 1: Pliocene~early Early Pleistocene Stage 2: late Early Pleistocene to early Middle Pleistocene Stage 3: late Middle Pleistocene Stage 4: Upper Pleistocene Landforms for human occupation ‘Terraces’ Holocene alluvium River incision An old lake in Nara? Active Fault Systems Fault types and locations Earthquake record Active Fault earthquakes Subduction zone earthquakes Earthquakes affecting Nara Summary xix 377 377 380 380 381 382 382 384 384 385 385 385 386 386 387 389 389 391 393 393 394 396 396 400 400 401 401 403
PREFACE AND TABLE OF CONTENTS ARCHAEOPRESS, 2022 Chapter 14 Geoarchaeological Studies in Nara, Japan: the Integrated Findings Introduction Prehistoric Occupation Landscape Reconstruction Lowland Geomorphology: the Asawa Project Core, sediment, and water Diatoms Pollen Phytolithes Upland Geomorphology: the Miwa Project The Miwa site location Landform reconstruction Terracing re-terracing Local environment site use A Final Valuation 409 409 410 412 413 415 416 418 420 421 422 423 425 426 Chapter 15 Acid Soils and Acid Rocks: Misunderstood Implications for Bone Preservation in Japan The Problem Acidity: the pH Measure Sediment acidity BOX 15 The Principles of pH Soil acidity Acid Igneous Rocks vs pH Acidity Igneous rock classifications Alkaline igneous rocks vs pH alkalinity Acidification by Climate and Plant Activity Bone Preservation in Japan Conclusions 430 Part III Reflections 445 Volume Conclusions 448 APPENDICES (Tables and Figures within numbered below) 1 Abbreviations 2 Japanese Placenames Periodizations 3 The Formal Timeline for Geological Chrono-stratigraphic Divisions 4 Reading Geological Maps Basic considerations National Resources 5 Elements, Minerals Rocks Elements Minerals Magma types Igneous rocks 6 Major Geological Belts ofJapan 7 Japan Earthquake Shaking Index 449 449 452 454 455 455 456 458 458 458 461 462 465 469 XX 430 431 431 432 433 435 435 436 438 439 442
Tectonic Archaeology GlNAL. BARNES 8 Geological Events Relating to Japan 9 Chronology ofJapan Sea Basin Rifting and Rift Volcanics 10 Select Granitic Belts, Plutons, and Batholiths relating to Subduction Events 11 Major Pre-Miocene Volcanic Rock Bodies 12 Clay Groups and Their Characteristics 13 Volcanic Soils Geochemistry Physical properties Humus humic and fulvic acids Andosol nutrients Nitrogen-N Phosphorus-P Potassium-K Soil pH Al toxicity tolerance 14 Metasomatic processes Dolomitization Serpentinization 15 Legend for Nara Basin ‘Seamless’ Geological Map 16 Analysis of Sediment pH from Nara, Gunma, and Niigata 17 Value Ranges of pH for Soil Profiles ofJapanese Soil Types 470 473 475 476 477 478 478 479 479 480 481 482 482 482 484 484 484 486 488 490 Classified Index Glossary of East Asian Words Glossary Index of Geological Terms 494 499 501 BOXES (including illustrations) BOX 1 Early Contributions ofjapanese Researchers to Plate Tectonic Theory BOX 2 The Median Tectonic Line (MTL) Museum BOX 3 The Akiyoshidai Karst Park of Western Honshu BOX 4 The Geology of Oya-ishi Tuff and its Quarry Museum BOX 5 Sanukite Past and Present BOX 6 The Inland Sea BOX 7 Towada Caldera BOX 8 The Japanese Silk Industry on Volcanic Soils BOX 9 Boulders Transported by Lahars BOX 10 Archaeological Contributions to Understanding the Kobe Earthquake BOX 11 Surviving (or not) the Middle Yayoi Tsunami BOX 12 1995 Kobe Earthquake Disaster Monuments BOX 13 Taiwanese Nephrite Case Study BOX 14 Tectonic Contexts ofjapaneseJadeitite BOX 15 pH Explained 31 80 87 113 115 136 151 201 229 266 294 328 353
366 430 FIGURES Part I Introduction to the Rock Cycle Figure 2.1 Major plate divisions of the Earth’s crust Figure 2.2 Cross-section of the Earth 28 33 34 xxi
ARCHAEOPRESS, 2022 PREFACE AND TABLE OF CONTENTS Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6 Figure 2.7 Figure 2.8 Figure 2.9 Figure 2.10 Figure 2.11 Figure 2.12 Figure 2.13 Figure 2.14 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5 Figure 3.6 Figure 3.7 Figure 3.8 Figure 3.9 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 Figure 5.3 Figure 5.4 Figure 5.5 Figure 5.6 Figure 5.7 Figure 5.8 Figure 5.9 Figure 5.10 Figure 5.11 Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3 Figure 6.4 Figure 6.5 Figure 6.6 Figure 6.7 Figure 6.8 Japan at the juncture of four plates Idealized ocean plate stratigraphy The ideal life of an oceanic plate Intensity of shaking during the 2011 Tohoku-oki earthquake Seismic profile of the Nankai Prism in southwest Japan Metamorphic facies, facies series, metamorphic grades Fold geometry and terminology Major types of faults Gravity and heat measurements around Japan The ophiolite in the Isua Supercrustal Belt, Greenland Mechanics of rifting A seismic profile of the Japan Sea floor The geotectonic belts ofJapan Complex contents of select geotectonic belts Possible continental positions of Hida and Oki Continental fragments and Palaeozoic geotectonic belts Relations of North and South China Blocks after collision in the Triassic Jurassic AC locations in modern-day Japan Late Cretaceous geotectonic belts Early and Late Cretaceous granites belts Model of Philippine Plate rotation and movement Geography of the Japan Sea Basin Post-riftedjapanese Islands Models for the opening of the Japan Sea Basin The Green Tuff
Zone Green Tuff landscapes and artefacts The Izu Arc on the Philippine Plate The Kanto Syntaxis Current neotectonic activity in Japan Progressive uplift and subsidence Folded Miocene-Pliocene hills Basins between N-S trending mountain ranges in Tohoku Tectonically formed mountain ranges in Japan Cross-section of the Niigata Basin Subsidence levels of the Kanto Basin Faulted mountains of Kiso and Hida Transect across western Honshu and Shikoku Tectonics in the Kinai region Kyushu neotectonics Mountains and plains ofJapan Volcanic Fronts, geochemical zones, and Active Volcanoes in modern Japan Volcanic eruption ‘styles’ Different eruption styles of Mt Asama Volcanics in Hokkaido Volcanism in Tohoku The crater lake at Kusatsu-Shirane Overlapping subducting plates under central Honshu xxii 35 37 39 43 48 52 57 58 61 62 64 64 76 77 83 84 88 89 91 92 95 103 104 110 111 112 116 118 126 127 128 129 129 130 131 131-2 133 134 136 140 144 146 146 148 150 151 152
Gina L. Barnes Tectonic Archaeology Figure 6.9 Obsidian resources and archaeological sites in Nagano Prefecture Figure 6.10 SW Japan Arc volcanics Figure 6.11 The Ryukyu Arc Figure 6.12 Tephra identification by deposit type Figure 6.13 The shirasu (Ito pumice) Figure 6.14 Distributions of Aira and Kikai caldera tephra eruptions Figure 6.15 Kanto loam development and distribution Figure 6.16 Major Late Pleistocene marker-tephra distributions and volcanic soils Figure 7.1 Distribution of andosols in Japan Figure 7.2 The proposed ten Great Soil Groups ofJapan Figure 7.3 Distribution of allophanic and non-allophonic andosols in Japan Figure 7.4 Layered phyllosilicates Figure 7.5 Proposed structure of vitreous glass Figure 7.6 Corrosion of glass by water Figure 7.7 Normal’ clay and glassy rock clay successions Figure 7.8 The Miscanthus fields of Sengokuhara, Japan Figure 7.9 Soil profiles for genetic sequences and an allophanic andosol Figure 7.10 Select andosol profiles as found in Japan Figure 7.11 Two bamboo types: sasa and nezasa Figure 7.12 The annual celebratory firing of Mt Wakakusa Figure 7.13 Ploughed fluffy andosol field Part I Reflections Plumes, second continents, and slab graveyards Figure 8.1 The volcanoes of Kyushu and their pyroclastic flow extents Figure 8.2 Mt Haruna eruptions from the Futatsudake vent Figure 8.3 Housing complex, stables, and dry-fields at Nishigumi site, Gunma Figure 8.4 A three-layered fence at Kanai Shimo-Shinden site, Gunma Figure 8.5 The Mitsudera elite moated compound Figure 8.6 Path of the Towada lahar down the Yoneshiro River drainage
Figure 8.7 Tohoku pit-house fills with different tephra stratigraphies Figure 8.8 Five hypothesized stages of house destruction from tephra fallout Figure 8.9 Stratified layers of different field sizes at Dodo site Figure 8.10 Cross-section of the Sanbe forest buried by tephra Figure 9.1 The Kondayama Tomb and Konda fault Figure 9.2 A raised storehouse of Late Yayoi agriculturalists Figure 9.3 Remains of an Early Kofun-period pit-building Figure 9.4 Chinese-style architecture Figure 9.5 Small landslips on the Oyama Tomb Figure 9.6 Subduction earthquakes of southwestern Japan Figure 9.7 Active faults in the Kinai region and archaeological sites Figure 9.8 Liquefaction and faulted structures Figure 9.9 Liquefaction draw-in of cultural materials Figure 9.10 Liquefaction eruption of cobbles at the Late Yayoi Izumida site Figure 9.11 Liquefaction structures at Nishi-Sanso/Yakumo-Higashi site Figure 9.12 Correlation of soft-sediment deformation zones at Osaka sites Figure 9.13 Soft-sediment deformation and anthropogenic zones at Kitoragawa site Figure 9.14 Radiographs of soft-sediment deformation structures Figure 10.1 Major geographical locations mentioned xxiii 153 154 158 159 160 161-2 163 166 176 177 179 179 182 183 184 189 189 190 193 195 202 214 226 228 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 242 249 251 251 252 253 256 257 259 260 261 261 263 264 265 274
PREFACE AND TABLE OF CONTENTS ARCHAEOPRESS, 2022 Figure 10.2 Relationships between different tectonic activities and their possiblerepercussions Figure 10.3 Comparison of tsunami and storm wave sand deposits Figure 10.4 Heian occupation of Sendai Plain Figure 10.5 Yayoi-Kofun occupation of the Natori River drainage on the Sendai Plain Figure 10.6 Comparison of sand grain-sizes Figure 11.1 Proportions of hazard risks in Japan Figure 11.2 Volcanic hazard map for Mt Fuji Figure 11.3 Multiple landslides in southern Hokkaido after Iburi Earthquake Figure 11.4 Interrelationships between society and nature Figure 11.5 Disturbed archaeological storage at Nobiru, Higashi Matsushima Figure 12.1 Loci ofjadeite formation in the subduction channel Figure 12.2 Back-arc basin closure in Tibet resulting in an ophiolite Figure 12.3 Ternary composition diagram for the TAF-a solid solution series Figure 12.4 Spot EMPA analyses on nephrite slit-rings Figure 12.5 The ternary diagram for Q-jd-Aeg Figure 12.6 P/T conditions for albite vs jadeite+quartz formation Figure 12.7 The hierarchical metamorphism of host rocks and jade mineral formation Figure 12.8a The Alamas ophiolite Figure 12.8b Zoned nephrite in the Alamas ophiolite Figure 12.9 Distinguishing S-nephrite and D-nephrite by Factor Analysis Figure 12.10 Cross-section of a jadeitite vein forming in serpentinite Figure 12.11 Jadeitite pod formation in serpentinite Figure 13.1 Modern view of Nara Basin and surroundings Figure 13.2 Nara Basin landscape reconstruction Figure 13.3 Nara Basin in the Ryoke Belt Figure 13.4 Geology of the Nara
Basin region Figure 13.5 E-W section of Nara Basin at north end Figure 13.6 Landform changes in central Japan from Early to Middle Pleistocene Figure 13.7 Important sedimentary groups on the flanks of the Nara Basin Figure 13.8 “Terrace” classifications along the easternflank of the Nara Basin Figure 13.9 The mistaken concept of an ‘old lake’ in the Nara Basin Figure 13.10 Kinki Triangle faults Figure 13.11 Fault segment definitions Figure 13.12 Faults along eastern Osaka, Kyoto, and Nara Basins Figure 14.1 Aerial photographic reconstruction of natural topography in the Nara Basin Figure 14.2 Fence diagram of sediments overlying peat layers Figure 14.3 Locations of cores taken in the 1984 Asawa Project Figure 14.4 Radiocarbon dates of black carbonaceous clay deposits from the Asawa cores Figure 14.5 Extent of ponding through time at Asawa Figure 14.6 Changing proportions of SP, NAP, AP in the 1984 Asawa cores Figure 14.7 Relative frequencies of Gramineae phytoliths in three cores at Asawa Figure 14.8 The Miwa site area and location of the Shikishima Tenri-kyo Church Figure 14.9 Reconstruction of landforms in the Miwa area Figure 14.10 1988 grid corings displayed on the 1989 resistivity survey Figure 14.11 Core transects from north to south Figure 15.1 The pH logarithmic scale Figure 15.2 Incipient Jomon burial in Oya tuff, Oya Temple, Tochigi xxiv 276 281 290 291 292 303 308 320 324 326 345 346 350 351 355 356 359 361 361 363 364 364 378 379 380 381 383 387 390 392 394 386 397 397 410 412 413 414 415 418 419 420 421 423 424 431 440
Gina L. Barnes Tectonic Archaeology Figure 15.3 An example of Late Kofun burial caves at Yoshimi, Saitama Figure 15.4 Double burial at Shibu site, Nara 440 441 APPENDIX FIGURES Apx 2: Fig. A Apx 4: Fig. A Apx 5: Fig. A Apx 5: Fig. В Apx 5: Fig. C Apx 5: Fig. D Apx 5: Fig. E Apx 5: Table В Apx 5: Fig. F Apx 5: Fig. G Prefectures and districts in Japan Geological map symbols The Periodic Table of elements The Bowen reaction series Mineral stability series in weathering Mohs hardness scale Magma composition according to silica content Silica tetrahedron construction Igneous rock classes and mineral constituents IUGS classification of volcanic rocks 453 455 459 460 460 461 461 462 462 463 TABLES Table 1.1 Results of select journal online searches Table 2.1 Comparison between subduction and Active Fault earthquakes Table 2.2 JMA intensity and Modified Mercalli intensity levels Table 2.3 Trajectories of metamorphic facies Table 3.1 Plates, continents, and oceans through time in relation to Japan Table 3.2 Palaeozoic arc remnants, serpentinite, and ophiolites Table 3.3 Revisions in Japanese plate tectonics research Table 4.1 Simplified chronology ofJapan Sea Basin opening and volcanics Table 5.1 Composition of some major plains i Table 6.1 Comparison of Pacific and Philippine Plates Table 6.2 Quaternary volcanic rocks in Hokkaido Table 6.3 Particle composition of North and South Kanto loams Table 6.4 Analyses leading to tephra identification Table 7.1 Andosol characteristics Table 7.2 Comparison of the two major andosol groups Table 7.3 Tephric vitric properties of soils compared
Table 7.4 Properties of the two main diagnostic andosol horizons Table 7.5 Characteristics of five pyromes Table 7.6 Andosol properties Table 7.7 Comparisons of productivity among andosol types common in Japan Table 8.1 Archaeologically relevant volcanic eruptions in Kyushu Table 8.2 Major sites in Gunma affected by tephra cover Table 8.3 Tephra fallout stages and their consequences at Kuroimine site Table 9.1 Earthquake damage at archaeological sites in the Mediterranean and Japan Table 10.1 Multiple causes of tsunami Table 10.2 Ways of measuring tsunami Table 10.3 Some diagnostic characteristics for distinguishing tsunami deposits Table 10.4 Dates of major tsunami Table 10.5 Comparative sand grain-sizes at Kutsukata site Table 10.6 Differential settlement across the Sendai Plain through time Table 11.1 Coloured triangle system for volcanic activity warnings xxv 11 42 43 52 82 85 97 107 124 143 149 163 164 176 178 181 191 192 198 199 224 230 231 250 276 277 281 283 292 293 307
Preface and Table of Contents ARCHAEOPRESS, 2022 Table 11.2 Landslide types as presented by the USGS Table 12.1 Composition analysis of a ‘nearly ideal tremolite’ mineral Table 12.2 Comparisons of the two‘true jades’ Table 12.3. Distinguishing tremolite, actinolite, and ferro-actinolite in solid solution Table 12.4 Summary chart of nephrite definitions and list of some associated minerals Table 12.5 Chemical formulae of minerals mentioned in jadeite section Table 12.6 Primary and secondary minerals occurring in select worldwide jadeitites Table 13.1 Comparison of traditional and redefined Osaka Group stages Table 13.2 Sedimentary divisions in the Nara Basin Table 13.3 Details of some Active Faults in the Nara and Osaka Basins Table 13.4 Instances of earthquakes felt in Nara Table 14.1 Core summaries for Asawa (1984) and Miwa (1988) coring projects Table 14.2 Depths of early-dated radiocarbon samples Table 14.3 Forest succession in the Nara Basin Table 14.4 Stratigraphic relationships of forest types in individual cores Table 14.5 Radiocarbon dates on wooden stakes from Trench 3 at Miwa Table 15.1 pH distributions of sample sediment/soil type Table 15.2 Ranges of pH values of soil types I to XXII Table 15.3 Towada caldera Holocene tephras Table 15.4 Minerals occurring in igneous rock types and their chemical formulae 318 339 340 349 352 355 357 386 388 398 402 411 414 416 417 424 433 434 436 437 APPENDIX TABLES Apx 2: Table A Apx 2: Table В АрхЗ Apx 5: Fig. A Apx 5: Table A Apx 5: Table В Apx 6 Apx 7 Apx 8 Apx 9 Apx 10 Apx 11 Apx 12: Table A Apx 13: Table A Apx 13: Table В
Apx 13: Table C Apx 15 Apx 16 Apx 17 Jomon periodization Yayoi-Kofun period divisions Geological chrono-stratigraphic divisions The Periodic Table Major elements and minerals Classification of igneous rocks by silica and grain-size Major geological belts ofJapan JMA shaking intensity measure Geological events relating to Japan Chronology ofjapan Sea Basin rifting and rift volcanics Select granitic belts, plutons, and batholiths Pre-Miocene volcanism Clay groups and their characteristics Humic substances, their relationships, and characteristics Comparison of humic and fulvic acids Comparison of P-sorbtion between andosols Legend for Nara Basin ‘Seamless’ geological map Analysis of Sediment pH from Nara, Gunma, and Niigata Value Ranges of pH for Soil Profiles ofJapanese Soil Types xxvi 452 452 454 459 460 462 465 469 470 473 475 476 477 480 480 482 486 488 490
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Gina L. Barnes Tectonic Archaeology Table of Contents Dedication to William R. Farrand Preface Readership Chapter Outline PART I A Geological Introduction to the Japanese Islands PART II The Tectonic Archaeologies ofJapan PART III Nara Basin Studies Sources Acknowledgments A Personal Journey Landscape archaeology excavation Jade Plate Tectonics Style Notes Referencing System Chapter 1 Tectonic Archaeology vs Geoarchaeology A Comparison, For Starters Why Japan? The ‘Geo’ in Geoarchaeology Tectonics in Geoarchaeology Tectonics in Major Scientific Archaeology Journals 1958, “Archaeometry” 1972, “Journal of Human Evolution” 1974, “Journal of Archaeological Science” 1986, “Geoarchaeology, an International Journal” Journal summary Books Inciting Great Expectations 1985, “Archaeological Geology” 2001, “Earth Sciences and Archaeology” Tectonics Earthquakes 2006, “Practical and Theoretical Geoarchaeology” Tectonics Tsunami Tephra Earthquakes 2009, “Geoarchaeology”, the textbook Tectonics Volcanism Seismicity Tsunami 2017, “Encyclopedia of Geoarchaeology” Reflections on books Conclusions Prospects Further Reading xi i i ii ii iii iv iv v vi vi viii ix 1 1 4 5 7 9 10 10 10 12 12 12 12 13 13 14 14 14 14 15 15 16 16 16 18 18 19 19 19 21
PREFACE AND TABLE OF CONTENTS Part I ARCHAEOPRESS, 2022 Earth Sciences Plate Tectonics Tectonic Geomorphology Geoarchaeology Geological maps 21 21 21 22 22 A Geological Introduction to the Japanese Islands 27 1) Geological Time 2) Uniformitarianism 3) Plate Tectonics Illustration: The Rock Cycle Chapter 2 A Primer in Plate Tectonics, with Specific Reference to Japan 2.1 From Geosynclines to Plates 2.2 Plate Tectonics in Japan BOX 1 Early Contributions ofJapanese Researchers to Plate Tectonic Theory 2.3 Tectonic Plate Construction 2.3.1 Boundaries and distributions 2.3.2 Types of Earth’s crust 2.3.2.1 Cratons mobile belts 2.3.2.2 Oceanic crust 2.3.2.3 Continental crust 2.4 Subduction Zone Processes 2.4.1 Overview 2.4.2 Seismic processes 2.4.2.1 Subduction vs Active Fault earthquakes 2.4.2.2 Earthquake magnitude and intensity 2.4.3 Igneous processes 2.4.4 Accretionary orogens 2.4.5 Collision tectonics 2.4.6 Paired metamorphic belts 2.5 Metamorphism 2.5.1 Metamorphic facies series 2.5.2 Types of metamorphism 2.5.3 Burial exhumation 2.6 Vertical Movements Recycling 2.6.1 Extensional compressional tectonics 2.6.2 Folds 2.6.3 Faults 2.6.3.1 General typologies 2.6.3.2 Fault types specific to Japan 2.6.4 Uplift 2.6.5 Subsidence 2.6.6 Isostacy 2.7 Obduction Processes Ophiolites 2.8 Rifting Processes: combined extension, faulting, and volcanics 2.9 Prospectus 27 27 27 28 29 29 30 31 32 32 36 36 37 38 38 38 41 41 42 44 45 50 50 51 51 52 55 55 56 56 57 57 59 59 60 60 62 63 65
Gina L. Barnes Tectonic Archaeology Chapters The Palaeogeographic Compilation of the Japanese Landmass From Myth to Plate Japan’s Geological Belts Classifications 80% Accretionary Complexes 20% Metamorphics and granites Metamorphic Belts (MB) Faults and Tectonic Lines (TL) BOX 2 The Median Tectonic Line Museum Looking Forward Tracking Japan Throughout the Ages Setting the stage Precambrian events (before 541 Ma) Palaeozoic ca. (541-300 Ma): evidence of early subduction Permian (ca. 299-252 Ma): Farallon Plate subduction BOX 3 The Akiyoshidai Karst Park of Western Honshu Triassic (ca. 250-200 Ma): uniting the China blocks Jurassic (ca. 200-145 Ma): meeting Izanagi Pacific Basin plate reorganization ca. 170-65 Ma Cretaceous (ca. 145-66 Ma): episodic growth Peripheral developments from Cretaceous to the Palaeogene (66-23 Ma) Hokkaido assembly Philippine Plate IBM Arc creation Structural realignments Conclusions 74 74 75 75 77 78 78 79 80 81 81 81 82 83 86 87 87 89 90 90 94 94 95 95 96 Chapter 4 Shaping the Japanese Archipelago Revolutionary Advances Rifting, Magmatism Japan Sea Basin Formation Opening ofthejapan Sea Basin The newly formed archipelago and sea Competing hypotheses for rifting cause Repositioning the Japanese landmass The ‘Green Tuff Movement BOX 4 The Geology of Oya-ishi Tuff and its Quarry Museum The Setouchi Volcanic Zone BOX 5 Sanukite Past and Present Honshu-Izu Arc-Arc Collision Ramifications Arc-arc collision accretion The Kanto Syntaxis The Fossa Magna Perspectives 103 103 105 105 106 108 109 110 113 114 115 116 117 117 118 119 Chapter 5 Making Japan’s
Mountains Basins Setting the Stage Plains, terraces uplands Changing tectonic regimes 124 124 124 125 xiii
PREFACE AND TABLE OF CONTENTS ARCHAEOPRESS, Current landmass movement Regional Landscape Changes Post-rifting uplift subsidence Northeast Japan Tohoku fold belts Green Tuff basins Centraljapan Kanto Basin Faulted mountains Southwest Japan SW Japan the Seto depression The Kinki Triangle BOX 6 The Inland Sea Kyushu rotation Conclusions 2022 126 127 127 128 129 130 130 130 131 132 132 133 135 136 136 Chapter 6 Japan’s Igneous Activity Volcanic Arcs Japan as a Volcanic Archipelago Granitic rocks Early volcanic rocks Plio-Pleistocene Two-Plate Subduction Regime Philippine vs Pacific Plate subduction Quaternary volcanic fronts Zonation geochemistry Active volcanoes Volcanic Eruption Patterns Regional Volcanoes Hokkaido: Kurile NE Japan arcs NEJapan Arc in Honshu BOX 7 Towada Caldera Central Honshu SW Japan Arc Arc characteristics Continuing plume activity Northwestern Honshu coast Kyushu Island Whole island concerns Northwest Kyushu Central Kyushu Southwest Kyushu Ryukyu Arc Tephra Definitions Distributions Kanto loam Identification Dating Retrospection xiv 140 140 141 141 142 142 143 144 145 145 148 148 149 151 151 153 153 155 155 156 156 156 157 157 159 159 159 160 162 164 165 167
Gina L. Barnes Tectonic Archaeology Chapter 7 Tephra-derived Soils ofJapan in comparative context Tephrogenic Soils Andosols: what are they? Tephra in other soil classes Implications Tephra Transformations From tephra to clay Weathering of tephra Weathering of volcanic glass into crystalline clays Clay formation Amorphous clays and alterite formation Alteration rates Turning tephra into soil Plant activity Nitrogen-N Plant Regeneration Andolization Andolizer species Andosol soil profiles Grasslands as ‘pyromes’ International concerns Kurobokudo as a pyrome Japanese grassland formation continuity Kurobokudo and prehistoric humans Andosol productivity Andosol properties General cropping BOX 8 The Japanese Silk Industry on Volcanic Soils Summary 175 175 175 179 180 180 181 182 183 184 185 185 185 185 186 187 188 188 189 191 191 192 194 196 197 197 200 201 202 Part I 210 Reflections The Relative Importance of Magmatism and Accretion Tectonics Episodic Formation of the Japanese Landmass Confusion over Collision Nappes and thrust zones Accretion vs collision A New Paradigm: Second Continent Formation Illustration: Plumes, second continents, and slab graveyards Dividing Northeast and Southwest Japan Japan as a Subduction Zone Product Conclusions Part II The Tectonic archaeologies of japan 210 210 212 212 213 214 214 215 215 216 219 220 220 221 Chapter 8 TephroArchaeology A Brief Comparison TephroArchaeology inJapan XV
PREFACE AND TABLE OF CONTENTS ÄRCHAEOPRESS, Development of the field Why ‘tephro’? Homelands of TephroArchaeology Artefact Distributions Population Recovery in Kyushu Aira eruption 30,000 BP: Palaeolithic consequences Kikai eruption 7280 BP: Jomon consequences Environmental recovery Villages Households Northwest Kanto Plain: Mt Haruna Mt Asama BOX 9 Boulders Transported by Lahars Nishigumi site: a farmyard buried in pumice Kuroimine site: a village buried in pumice The Kanai sites: elite attempts at escape Mitsudera site: an abandoned housestead Kanbara Kannondo Temple: last refuge Northern Tohoku: Mt Towada Mt Paektu Katakai-Ienoshita site: the dragon lahar Northern population migrations Southern Kyushu: Mt Kaimondake Hashimure-gawa site: destruction of a house236 Preserved Field Systems Paddy-fields Horse hoofprints Moto-Soja Kitakawa site: building a small dam Field restoration land use changes Seasonality of eruptions Interdisciplinary Contributions Conclusions Chapter 9 Earthquake Archaeology 2022 221 222 223 223 224 225 227 227 227 229 230 231 232 233 234 234 234 235 236 237 237 238 238 239 240 241 242 248 The New Subdiscipline Sangawa’s creation The Athens conference Japan and the Mediterranean compared Buildings in Japan Damage to traditional and monumental architecture Survival of traditional architecture Earthquake Records Earthquake Types Archaeological Correlations Subduction earthquake damage Active Fault earthquake damage identifying and dating earthquake damage Earthquake Evidence in Sediments Liquefaction features Soft-sediment deformation structures BOX 10
Archaeological Contributions to Understanding the Kobe Earthquake Concluding Remarks xvi 248 248 249 250 251 251 254 255 256 256 257 258 259 259 262 266 268
Tectonic Archaeology GiNAL. BARNES Chapter 10 Tsunami Archaeology Introduction The New Field of Tsunami Archaeology Defining and Measuring Tsunami Definition Causes Measurements Actions Tsunami Sedimentary Evidence Inundation processes Identifying previous tsunami deposits Cyclical Tsunami and Recovery Tsunami Excavations in Japan: Case Studies 2011 Tohoku-oki tsunami Sendai Plain, Miyagi Prefecture Minami Soma-shi, Fukushima Prefecture Takaose site, Iwanuma City, Miyagi Prefecture Hasunuma site, Kujukuri-cho, Chiba Prefecture 1771 AD Yaeyama tsunami in the Ryukyu Islands Miyako Island, Okinawa Prefecture Ishigaki Island, Okinawa Prefecture 1707 AD tsunami from Philippine Plate subduction earthquakes Shimizu Plain, Shizuoka Prefecture Old Kobe Foreigners’ Residence site, Kobe, Hyogo Prefecture Ryujin Lake, Kyushu 869 AD (Jogan 11) Heian-period tsunami Shimomasuda Iizuka Tomb Cluster, Natori City, Miyagi Prefecture Middle Yayoi-period tsunami ca. 100 BC Kutsukata site, Wakabayashi-ku, Sendai City, Miyagi Prefecture Arai-Minami, Wakabayashi-ku, Sendai City, Miyagi Prefecture Arai-Hirose site, Wakabayashi-ku, Sendai City, Miyagi Prefecture Nakazaike-Minami site, Wakabayashi-ku, Sendai City, Miyagi Prefecture Nakasuji site, Yamamoto-cho, Miyagi Prefecture Middle Holocene tsunami after Kikai Akahoya eruption 7300 cal. BP Yoko-o site, Oita City, Oita Prefecture BOX 11 Surviving (or not) the Middle Yayoi Tsunami Conclusions 273 273 274 275 275 275 276 278 278 278 280 282 285 285 285 286 287 287 287 287 287 288 288 288 289 289 290 290 291 292 292 292 293 293 293 294 294 Chapter 11
The Inter-relatedness of Tectonics Hazard Research The Hazards of Living in Japan Volcanic Hazards Prediction monitoring Mitigation Fatalities Earthquake Hazards Earthquake types magnitudes Monitoring earthquakes 302 302 305 305 307 309 310 310 312 xvii
PREFACE AND TABLE OF CONTENTS ARCHAEOPRESS, Earthquake warning systems Earthquake volcano interactions The ‘seismic staircase’ Tsunami Hazards Major tsunami occurrences Tsunami databases Tsunami warning prediction Volcano tsunami inter-relationships Landslides The most feared Landslide generalities Landslides in Japan Typhoons Tectonics Disaster Archaeology Becoming Disaster Archaeology Disaster Archaeology in Japan The 2011 Tohoku-oki earthquake and tsunami Organizational outcomes BOX 12 1995 Kobe Earthquake Disaster Monuments Prospective Chapter 12 True Jades, False Friends 2022 312 313 313 313 314 314 316 316 317 317 317 319 321 322 323 325 326 327 328 329 338 Introduction The categoryjade/yu Rock vs mineral New revelations from feicui True Jades and False Friends Archaeological perspectives Modern marketing concerns Plate Tectonics and Formation of True Jades True Jade Minerals The problem with nephrite Nephrite: rock and minerals Nephrite’s solid solution minerals Nephrite colours Nephrite summary BOX 13 Taiwanese Nephrite Case Study Jadeitite problems Jadeite-jade P-jadeite R-jadeite P/T-jadeite The other feicui jades Kosmochlor-jade Omphacite-jade Jadeitite summary True Jade Rocks and their Host Rocks xviii 338 338 339 341 342 342 343 344 347 348 348 349 351 352 353 354 354 354 356 356 356 356 357 358 358
Gina L. Barnes Tectonic Archaeology Hierarchical metamorphic processes Three derivations of nephrite Dnephrite from dolomite (dN) Dnephrite via diopside Snephrite from serpentine (sN) Distinguishing sN and dN Two derivations ofjadeitite Jadeitite from serpentinizing peridotite Jadeitites within blueschist/eclogite rocks Conclusions BOX 14 Tectonic Contexts ofJapanese Jadeitite 358 360 360 362 362 362 364 364 365 365 366 Part II Reflections 373 PART III NARA BASIN STUDIES 375 Chapter 13 Nara Basin Geology Geomorphology Topographic Tour Local Geology in Brief Basement rocks Rock types sediments Basin Faulting Sedimentation Tectonic basin formation Sediment Groups Formations Sediments with respect to changing land/seascapes Inland Sea #1 The Seto Depression Second Setouchi Geologic Province I Inland Sea #2 Stage 1: Pliocene~early Early Pleistocene Stage 2: late Early Pleistocene to early Middle Pleistocene Stage 3: late Middle Pleistocene Stage 4: Upper Pleistocene Landforms for human occupation ‘Terraces’ Holocene alluvium River incision An old lake in Nara? Active Fault Systems Fault types and locations Earthquake record Active Fault earthquakes Subduction zone earthquakes Earthquakes affecting Nara Summary xix 377 377 380 380 381 382 382 384 384 385 385 385 386 386 387 389 389 391 393 393 394 396 396 400 400 401 401 403
PREFACE AND TABLE OF CONTENTS ARCHAEOPRESS, 2022 Chapter 14 Geoarchaeological Studies in Nara, Japan: the Integrated Findings Introduction Prehistoric Occupation Landscape Reconstruction Lowland Geomorphology: the Asawa Project Core, sediment, and water Diatoms Pollen Phytolithes Upland Geomorphology: the Miwa Project The Miwa site location Landform reconstruction Terracing re-terracing Local environment site use A Final Valuation 409 409 410 412 413 415 416 418 420 421 422 423 425 426 Chapter 15 Acid Soils and Acid Rocks: Misunderstood Implications for Bone Preservation in Japan The Problem Acidity: the pH Measure Sediment acidity BOX 15 The Principles of pH Soil acidity Acid Igneous Rocks vs pH Acidity Igneous rock classifications Alkaline igneous rocks vs pH alkalinity Acidification by Climate and Plant Activity Bone Preservation in Japan Conclusions 430 Part III Reflections 445 Volume Conclusions 448 APPENDICES (Tables and Figures within numbered below) 1 Abbreviations 2 Japanese Placenames Periodizations 3 The Formal Timeline for Geological Chrono-stratigraphic Divisions 4 Reading Geological Maps Basic considerations National Resources 5 Elements, Minerals Rocks Elements Minerals Magma types Igneous rocks 6 Major Geological Belts ofJapan 7 Japan Earthquake Shaking Index 449 449 452 454 455 455 456 458 458 458 461 462 465 469 XX 430 431 431 432 433 435 435 436 438 439 442
Tectonic Archaeology GlNAL. BARNES 8 Geological Events Relating to Japan 9 Chronology ofJapan Sea Basin Rifting and Rift Volcanics 10 Select Granitic Belts, Plutons, and Batholiths relating to Subduction Events 11 Major Pre-Miocene Volcanic Rock Bodies 12 Clay Groups and Their Characteristics 13 Volcanic Soils Geochemistry Physical properties Humus humic and fulvic acids Andosol nutrients Nitrogen-N Phosphorus-P Potassium-K Soil pH Al toxicity tolerance 14 Metasomatic processes Dolomitization Serpentinization 15 Legend for Nara Basin ‘Seamless’ Geological Map 16 Analysis of Sediment pH from Nara, Gunma, and Niigata 17 Value Ranges of pH for Soil Profiles ofJapanese Soil Types 470 473 475 476 477 478 478 479 479 480 481 482 482 482 484 484 484 486 488 490 Classified Index Glossary of East Asian Words Glossary Index of Geological Terms 494 499 501 BOXES (including illustrations) BOX 1 Early Contributions ofjapanese Researchers to Plate Tectonic Theory BOX 2 The Median Tectonic Line (MTL) Museum BOX 3 The Akiyoshidai Karst Park of Western Honshu BOX 4 The Geology of Oya-ishi Tuff and its Quarry Museum BOX 5 Sanukite Past and Present BOX 6 The Inland Sea BOX 7 Towada Caldera BOX 8 The Japanese Silk Industry on Volcanic Soils BOX 9 Boulders Transported by Lahars BOX 10 Archaeological Contributions to Understanding the Kobe Earthquake BOX 11 Surviving (or not) the Middle Yayoi Tsunami BOX 12 1995 Kobe Earthquake Disaster Monuments BOX 13 Taiwanese Nephrite Case Study BOX 14 Tectonic Contexts ofjapaneseJadeitite BOX 15 pH Explained 31 80 87 113 115 136 151 201 229 266 294 328 353
366 430 FIGURES Part I Introduction to the Rock Cycle Figure 2.1 Major plate divisions of the Earth’s crust Figure 2.2 Cross-section of the Earth 28 33 34 xxi
ARCHAEOPRESS, 2022 PREFACE AND TABLE OF CONTENTS Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6 Figure 2.7 Figure 2.8 Figure 2.9 Figure 2.10 Figure 2.11 Figure 2.12 Figure 2.13 Figure 2.14 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5 Figure 3.6 Figure 3.7 Figure 3.8 Figure 3.9 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 Figure 5.3 Figure 5.4 Figure 5.5 Figure 5.6 Figure 5.7 Figure 5.8 Figure 5.9 Figure 5.10 Figure 5.11 Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3 Figure 6.4 Figure 6.5 Figure 6.6 Figure 6.7 Figure 6.8 Japan at the juncture of four plates Idealized ocean plate stratigraphy The ideal life of an oceanic plate Intensity of shaking during the 2011 Tohoku-oki earthquake Seismic profile of the Nankai Prism in southwest Japan Metamorphic facies, facies series, metamorphic grades Fold geometry and terminology Major types of faults Gravity and heat measurements around Japan The ophiolite in the Isua Supercrustal Belt, Greenland Mechanics of rifting A seismic profile of the Japan Sea floor The geotectonic belts ofJapan Complex contents of select geotectonic belts Possible continental positions of Hida and Oki Continental fragments and Palaeozoic geotectonic belts Relations of North and South China Blocks after collision in the Triassic Jurassic AC locations in modern-day Japan Late Cretaceous geotectonic belts Early and Late Cretaceous granites belts Model of Philippine Plate rotation and movement Geography of the Japan Sea Basin Post-riftedjapanese Islands Models for the opening of the Japan Sea Basin The Green Tuff
Zone Green Tuff landscapes and artefacts The Izu Arc on the Philippine Plate The Kanto Syntaxis Current neotectonic activity in Japan Progressive uplift and subsidence Folded Miocene-Pliocene hills Basins between N-S trending mountain ranges in Tohoku Tectonically formed mountain ranges in Japan Cross-section of the Niigata Basin Subsidence levels of the Kanto Basin Faulted mountains of Kiso and Hida Transect across western Honshu and Shikoku Tectonics in the Kinai region Kyushu neotectonics Mountains and plains ofJapan Volcanic Fronts, geochemical zones, and Active Volcanoes in modern Japan Volcanic eruption ‘styles’ Different eruption styles of Mt Asama Volcanics in Hokkaido Volcanism in Tohoku The crater lake at Kusatsu-Shirane Overlapping subducting plates under central Honshu xxii 35 37 39 43 48 52 57 58 61 62 64 64 76 77 83 84 88 89 91 92 95 103 104 110 111 112 116 118 126 127 128 129 129 130 131 131-2 133 134 136 140 144 146 146 148 150 151 152
Gina L. Barnes Tectonic Archaeology Figure 6.9 Obsidian resources and archaeological sites in Nagano Prefecture Figure 6.10 SW Japan Arc volcanics Figure 6.11 The Ryukyu Arc Figure 6.12 Tephra identification by deposit type Figure 6.13 The shirasu (Ito pumice) Figure 6.14 Distributions of Aira and Kikai caldera tephra eruptions Figure 6.15 Kanto loam development and distribution Figure 6.16 Major Late Pleistocene marker-tephra distributions and volcanic soils Figure 7.1 Distribution of andosols in Japan Figure 7.2 The proposed ten Great Soil Groups ofJapan Figure 7.3 Distribution of allophanic and non-allophonic andosols in Japan Figure 7.4 Layered phyllosilicates Figure 7.5 Proposed structure of vitreous glass Figure 7.6 Corrosion of glass by water Figure 7.7 'Normal’ clay and glassy rock clay successions Figure 7.8 The Miscanthus fields of Sengokuhara, Japan Figure 7.9 Soil profiles for genetic sequences and an allophanic andosol Figure 7.10 Select andosol profiles as found in Japan Figure 7.11 Two bamboo types: sasa and nezasa Figure 7.12 The annual celebratory firing of Mt Wakakusa Figure 7.13 Ploughed fluffy andosol field Part I Reflections Plumes, second continents, and slab graveyards Figure 8.1 The volcanoes of Kyushu and their pyroclastic flow extents Figure 8.2 Mt Haruna eruptions from the Futatsudake vent Figure 8.3 Housing complex, stables, and dry-fields at Nishigumi site, Gunma Figure 8.4 A three-layered fence at Kanai Shimo-Shinden site, Gunma Figure 8.5 The Mitsudera elite moated compound Figure 8.6 Path of the Towada lahar down the Yoneshiro River drainage
Figure 8.7 Tohoku pit-house fills with different tephra stratigraphies Figure 8.8 Five hypothesized stages of house destruction from tephra fallout Figure 8.9 Stratified layers of different field sizes at Dodo site Figure 8.10 Cross-section of the Sanbe forest buried by tephra Figure 9.1 The Kondayama Tomb and Konda fault Figure 9.2 A raised storehouse of Late Yayoi agriculturalists Figure 9.3 Remains of an Early Kofun-period pit-building Figure 9.4 Chinese-style architecture Figure 9.5 Small landslips on the Oyama Tomb Figure 9.6 Subduction earthquakes of southwestern Japan Figure 9.7 Active faults in the Kinai region and archaeological sites Figure 9.8 Liquefaction and faulted structures Figure 9.9 Liquefaction draw-in of cultural materials Figure 9.10 Liquefaction eruption of cobbles at the Late Yayoi Izumida site Figure 9.11 Liquefaction structures at Nishi-Sanso/Yakumo-Higashi site Figure 9.12 Correlation of soft-sediment deformation zones at Osaka sites Figure 9.13 Soft-sediment deformation and anthropogenic zones at Kitoragawa site Figure 9.14 Radiographs of soft-sediment deformation structures Figure 10.1 Major geographical locations mentioned xxiii 153 154 158 159 160 161-2 163 166 176 177 179 179 182 183 184 189 189 190 193 195 202 214 226 228 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 242 249 251 251 252 253 256 257 259 260 261 261 263 264 265 274
PREFACE AND TABLE OF CONTENTS ARCHAEOPRESS, 2022 Figure 10.2 Relationships between different tectonic activities and their possiblerepercussions Figure 10.3 Comparison of tsunami and storm wave sand deposits Figure 10.4 Heian occupation of Sendai Plain Figure 10.5 Yayoi-Kofun occupation of the Natori River drainage on the Sendai Plain Figure 10.6 Comparison of sand grain-sizes Figure 11.1 Proportions of hazard risks in Japan Figure 11.2 Volcanic hazard map for Mt Fuji Figure 11.3 Multiple landslides in southern Hokkaido after Iburi Earthquake Figure 11.4 Interrelationships between society and nature Figure 11.5 Disturbed archaeological storage at Nobiru, Higashi Matsushima Figure 12.1 Loci ofjadeite formation in the subduction channel Figure 12.2 Back-arc basin closure in Tibet resulting in an ophiolite Figure 12.3 Ternary composition diagram for the TAF-a solid solution series Figure 12.4 Spot EMPA analyses on nephrite slit-rings Figure 12.5 The ternary diagram for Q-jd-Aeg Figure 12.6 P/T conditions for albite vs jadeite+quartz formation Figure 12.7 The hierarchical metamorphism of host rocks and jade mineral formation Figure 12.8a The Alamas ophiolite Figure 12.8b Zoned nephrite in the Alamas ophiolite Figure 12.9 Distinguishing S-nephrite and D-nephrite by Factor Analysis Figure 12.10 Cross-section of a jadeitite vein forming in serpentinite Figure 12.11 Jadeitite pod formation in serpentinite Figure 13.1 Modern view of Nara Basin and surroundings Figure 13.2 Nara Basin landscape reconstruction Figure 13.3 Nara Basin in the Ryoke Belt Figure 13.4 Geology of the Nara
Basin region Figure 13.5 E-W section of Nara Basin at north end Figure 13.6 Landform changes in central Japan from Early to Middle Pleistocene Figure 13.7 Important sedimentary groups on the flanks of the Nara Basin Figure 13.8 “Terrace” classifications along the easternflank of the Nara Basin Figure 13.9 The mistaken concept of an ‘old lake’ in the Nara Basin Figure 13.10 Kinki Triangle faults Figure 13.11 Fault segment definitions Figure 13.12 Faults along eastern Osaka, Kyoto, and Nara Basins Figure 14.1 Aerial photographic reconstruction of natural topography in the Nara Basin Figure 14.2 Fence diagram of sediments overlying peat layers Figure 14.3 Locations of cores taken in the 1984 Asawa Project Figure 14.4 Radiocarbon dates of black carbonaceous clay deposits from the Asawa cores Figure 14.5 Extent of ponding through time at Asawa Figure 14.6 Changing proportions of SP, NAP, AP in the 1984 Asawa cores Figure 14.7 Relative frequencies of Gramineae phytoliths in three cores at Asawa Figure 14.8 The Miwa site area and location of the Shikishima Tenri-kyo Church Figure 14.9 Reconstruction of landforms in the Miwa area Figure 14.10 1988 grid corings displayed on the 1989 resistivity survey Figure 14.11 Core transects from north to south Figure 15.1 The pH logarithmic scale Figure 15.2 Incipient Jomon burial in Oya tuff, Oya Temple, Tochigi xxiv 276 281 290 291 292 303 308 320 324 326 345 346 350 351 355 356 359 361 361 363 364 364 378 379 380 381 383 387 390 392 394 386 397 397 410 412 413 414 415 418 419 420 421 423 424 431 440
Gina L. Barnes Tectonic Archaeology Figure 15.3 An example of Late Kofun burial caves at Yoshimi, Saitama Figure 15.4 Double burial at Shibu site, Nara 440 441 APPENDIX FIGURES Apx 2: Fig. A Apx 4: Fig. A Apx 5: Fig. A Apx 5: Fig. В Apx 5: Fig. C Apx 5: Fig. D Apx 5: Fig. E Apx 5: Table В Apx 5: Fig. F Apx 5: Fig. G Prefectures and districts in Japan Geological map symbols The Periodic Table of elements The Bowen reaction series Mineral stability series in weathering Mohs hardness scale Magma composition according to silica content Silica tetrahedron construction Igneous rock classes and mineral constituents IUGS classification of volcanic rocks 453 455 459 460 460 461 461 462 462 463 TABLES Table 1.1 Results of select journal online searches Table 2.1 Comparison between subduction and Active Fault earthquakes Table 2.2 JMA intensity and Modified Mercalli intensity levels Table 2.3 Trajectories of metamorphic facies Table 3.1 Plates, continents, and oceans through time in relation to Japan Table 3.2 Palaeozoic arc remnants, serpentinite, and ophiolites Table 3.3 Revisions in Japanese plate tectonics research Table 4.1 Simplified chronology ofJapan Sea Basin opening and volcanics Table 5.1 Composition of some major plains i Table 6.1 Comparison of Pacific and Philippine Plates Table 6.2 Quaternary volcanic rocks in Hokkaido Table 6.3 Particle composition of North and South Kanto loams Table 6.4 Analyses leading to tephra identification Table 7.1 Andosol characteristics Table 7.2 Comparison of the two major andosol groups Table 7.3 Tephric vitric properties of soils compared
Table 7.4 Properties of the two main diagnostic andosol horizons Table 7.5 Characteristics of five pyromes Table 7.6 Andosol properties Table 7.7 Comparisons of productivity among andosol types common in Japan Table 8.1 Archaeologically relevant volcanic eruptions in Kyushu Table 8.2 Major sites in Gunma affected by tephra cover Table 8.3 Tephra fallout stages and their consequences at Kuroimine site Table 9.1 Earthquake damage at archaeological sites in the Mediterranean and Japan Table 10.1 Multiple causes of tsunami Table 10.2 Ways of measuring tsunami Table 10.3 Some diagnostic characteristics for distinguishing tsunami deposits Table 10.4 Dates of major tsunami Table 10.5 Comparative sand grain-sizes at Kutsukata site Table 10.6 Differential settlement across the Sendai Plain through time Table 11.1 Coloured triangle system for volcanic activity warnings xxv 11 42 43 52 82 85 97 107 124 143 149 163 164 176 178 181 191 192 198 199 224 230 231 250 276 277 281 283 292 293 307
Preface and Table of Contents ARCHAEOPRESS, 2022 Table 11.2 Landslide types as presented by the USGS Table 12.1 Composition analysis of a ‘nearly ideal tremolite’ mineral Table 12.2 Comparisons of the two‘true jades’ Table 12.3. Distinguishing tremolite, actinolite, and ferro-actinolite in solid solution Table 12.4 Summary chart of nephrite definitions and list of some associated minerals Table 12.5 Chemical formulae of minerals mentioned in jadeite section Table 12.6 Primary and secondary minerals occurring in select worldwide jadeitites Table 13.1 Comparison of traditional and redefined Osaka Group stages Table 13.2 Sedimentary divisions in the Nara Basin Table 13.3 Details of some Active Faults in the Nara and Osaka Basins Table 13.4 Instances of earthquakes felt in Nara Table 14.1 Core summaries for Asawa (1984) and Miwa (1988) coring projects Table 14.2 Depths of early-dated radiocarbon samples Table 14.3 Forest succession in the Nara Basin Table 14.4 Stratigraphic relationships of forest types in individual cores Table 14.5 Radiocarbon dates on wooden stakes from Trench 3 at Miwa Table 15.1 pH distributions of sample sediment/soil type Table 15.2 Ranges of pH values of soil types I to XXII Table 15.3 Towada caldera Holocene tephras Table 15.4 Minerals occurring in igneous rock types and their chemical formulae 318 339 340 349 352 355 357 386 388 398 402 411 414 416 417 424 433 434 436 437 APPENDIX TABLES Apx 2: Table A Apx 2: Table В АрхЗ Apx 5: Fig. A Apx 5: Table A Apx 5: Table В Apx 6 Apx 7 Apx 8 Apx 9 Apx 10 Apx 11 Apx 12: Table A Apx 13: Table A Apx 13: Table В
Apx 13: Table C Apx 15 Apx 16 Apx 17 Jomon periodization Yayoi-Kofun period divisions Geological chrono-stratigraphic divisions The Periodic Table Major elements and minerals Classification of igneous rocks by silica and grain-size Major geological belts ofJapan JMA shaking intensity measure Geological events relating to Japan Chronology ofjapan Sea Basin rifting and rift volcanics Select granitic belts, plutons, and batholiths Pre-Miocene volcanism Clay groups and their characteristics Humic substances, their relationships, and characteristics Comparison of humic and fulvic acids Comparison of P-sorbtion between andosols Legend for Nara Basin ‘Seamless’ geological map Analysis of Sediment pH from Nara, Gunma, and Niigata Value Ranges of pH for Soil Profiles ofJapanese Soil Types xxvi 452 452 454 459 460 462 465 469 470 473 475 476 477 480 480 482 486 488 490 |
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| spelling | Barnes, Gina Lee 1947- (DE-588)143076493 edt Tectonic archaeology subduction zone geology in Japan and its archaeological implications Gina L. Barnes Oxford Archaeopress Access Archaeology 2022 xxvi, 521 Seiten Illustrationen, Karten (teilweise farbig) 27,6 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Access archaeology The effects of tectonic processes on archaeological sites are evidenced by earthquake damage, volcanic eruptions, and tsunami destruction. However, these processes affect a far broader sphere of landform structures, environment, and even climate that envelops an archaeological site and triggers human behavioural activities. Tectonic processes derive directly or indirectly from Plate Tectonics and associated magmatic activity of the Earth?s mantle. This volume thus provides a primer on crucial subduction- and suprasubduction-zone processes due to Plate Tectonics, where many earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are generated. After a general survey of how tectonic effects are dealt with in geoarchaeology, Part I details how these processes are applied to understand the Japanese landmass?s development, from continental accretion to volcanic archipelago, as a world-standard example. A full glossary of geological terms is included for easy reference.0This is followed by detailed examinations of Japan?s tectonic archaeologies in Part II: TephroArchaeology, Earthquake Archaeology, and Tsunami Archaeology. Part III summarizes and critiques the authors? own geoarchaeological fieldwork in Japan which was underwritten by a clear exposition of its geological and geomorphological background. Looking holistically at a locale and its development through geological time is fruitful in understanding the lay of the land, its resources, and its hazards that affect human occupation potential Plattentektonik (DE-588)4046317-5 gnd rswk-swf Geoarchäologie (DE-588)4521187-5 gnd rswk-swf Japan (DE-588)4028495-5 gnd rswk-swf Archaeological geology / Japan Archaeology / Japan Geology, Structural / Japan Archaeological geology Archaeology Geology, Structural Japan Japan (DE-588)4028495-5 g Geoarchäologie (DE-588)4521187-5 s Plattentektonik (DE-588)4046317-5 s DE-604 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, e-Pdf 978-1-80327-400-3 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034590580&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Tectonic archaeology subduction zone geology in Japan and its archaeological implications Plattentektonik (DE-588)4046317-5 gnd Geoarchäologie (DE-588)4521187-5 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4046317-5 (DE-588)4521187-5 (DE-588)4028495-5 |
| title | Tectonic archaeology subduction zone geology in Japan and its archaeological implications |
| title_auth | Tectonic archaeology subduction zone geology in Japan and its archaeological implications |
| title_exact_search | Tectonic archaeology subduction zone geology in Japan and its archaeological implications |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Tectonic archaeology subduction zone geology in Japan and its archaeological implications |
| title_full | Tectonic archaeology subduction zone geology in Japan and its archaeological implications Gina L. Barnes |
| title_fullStr | Tectonic archaeology subduction zone geology in Japan and its archaeological implications Gina L. Barnes |
| title_full_unstemmed | Tectonic archaeology subduction zone geology in Japan and its archaeological implications Gina L. Barnes |
| title_short | Tectonic archaeology |
| title_sort | tectonic archaeology subduction zone geology in japan and its archaeological implications |
| title_sub | subduction zone geology in Japan and its archaeological implications |
| topic | Plattentektonik (DE-588)4046317-5 gnd Geoarchäologie (DE-588)4521187-5 gnd |
| topic_facet | Plattentektonik Geoarchäologie Japan |
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