Moscow's heavy shadow: the violent collapse of the USSR
Moscow's Heavy Shadow tells the story of the collapse of the USSR from the perspective of the many millions of Soviet citizens who experienced it as a period of abjection and violence. Mikhail Gorbachev and the leaders of the USSR saw the years of reform preceding the collapse as opportunities...
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Ithaca ; London
Cornell University Press
2023
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| Zusammenfassung: | Moscow's Heavy Shadow tells the story of the collapse of the USSR from the perspective of the many millions of Soviet citizens who experienced it as a period of abjection and violence. Mikhail Gorbachev and the leaders of the USSR saw the years of reform preceding the collapse as opportunities for rebuilding (perestroika), rejuvenation, and openness (glasnost). For those in provincial cities across the Soviet Union, however, these reforms led to rapid change, economic collapse, and violence.Focusing on Dushanbe, Tajikistan, Isaac McKean Scarborough describes how this city experienced skyrocketing unemployment, a depleted budget, and streets filled with angry young men unable to support their families. Tajikistan was left without financial or military resources, unable and unprepared to stand against the wave of populist politicians of all stripes who took advantage of the economic collapse and social discontent to try to gain power. By May 1992, political conflict became violent and bloody and engulfed the whole of Tajikistan in war. Moscow's Heavy Shadow tells the story of how this war came to be, and how it was grounded in the reform and collapse of the Soviet economy that came before |
| Beschreibung: | Literaturverzeichnis Seite 237-261 |
| Beschreibung: | xvi, 274 Seiten Karten |
| ISBN: | 9781501771026 1501771027 |
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Contents Preface ix Note on Spelling and Transliteration xiii Acronyms and Abbreviations xv Introduction: The Long Road to Violence 1 1. The Periphery before Perestroika 14 2. Moscow Promotes Perestroika 31 3. The Winds of Perestroika Drift South 46 4. 1989: The Center Cannot Hold 61 5. The Harsh Reckoning of February 1990 82 6. The "Calm” before the Storm: March 1990-July 1991 102 7. Slouching towards Independence 122 8. The Short Road to War 139 Conclusion: War Notes 175 Bibliography 237 Index 263 158
Bibliography Archives Russia Archive of the Gorbachev Foundation, Moscow (AGF) Russian State Archive of Contemporary History, Moscow (RGANI) Russian State Archive of the Economy, Moscow (RGAE) Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History, Moscow (RGASPI) State Archive of the Russian Federation, Moscow (GARF) Tajikistan Central State Archive of the Republic of Tajikistan, Dushanbe (TsGART). Party Archive of the Institute of Political Research of the Communist Party of Tajikistan (PA IPI KPT) State Archive of Movie and Photograph Documents of the Republic of Tajikistan, Dushanbe (GAKFD RT) United Kingdom Archive of the Second Russian Revolution BBC documentary series, London School of Economics, London (2RR) United States George H. W Bush Presidential Library, College Station, Texas The Netherlands International Institute of Social History, Amsterdam (IISH) Interviews Anonymous former member of the Communist Party of Tajikistan’s (CPT) Bureau, Dushanbe, July 2016. Anonymous former volunteer on Davlat Khudonazarov’s 1991 presidential cam paign, Moscow, December 2016. Ashgabat residents, Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, 2006-2008. Davlat, Nurali, journalist, Dushanbe, February 2015. 237
238 BIBLIOGRAPHY Doctors and nurses who lived through the Tajik Civil War in Kiubyshevsk, central Tajikistan. Kiubyshevsk (now Jomi), Tajikistan, August 2013. Dushanbe residents, Dushanbe, 2013-2017. Family members of Nizoramoh Zarifova, the former deputy chair of the Tajik Supreme Soviet, Dushanbe, 2012-2017. Foreign diplomat, Dushanbe, July 2017. Former and current employees of the Tajik Medical System, Dushanbe and London, 2015-2017. Former engineer and founder of a cooperative business, Dushanbe, September 2016. Former Head Surgeon of the Republic of Tajikistan and his family, Dushanbe and Moscow, 2013-2017. Former residents of the Ferghana Valley in Uzbekistan from the Meshketian Turk minority group, Louisville, Kentucky, 2011. Former Ru ba Ru participants, Dushanbe, February 2015. Former Soviet-era tour guide, Moscow, August 2015. Ingush residents, Shortandy, Kazakhstan, November 2010. Kadyrov, Shokhrat, former opposition figure in Turkmenistan, Moscow, February 2015. Karimov, Buri, former head of the Tajik SSR's Gosplan, Moscow, March 2015. Khakulov, Rahmat, former Tajik Gosplan employee, Dushanbe, February 2015. Khudonazarov, Davlat, former member of the Congress of People’s Deputies and Tajik presidential candidate, Moscow, December 2016. Koshlakov, Georgii, former deputy chairman of the Tajik Council of Ministers, Dushanbe, June and July 2016. Mirrasanova, Zaragul, former CPT activist and current CPT secretary, Dushanbe, September 2014. Mullojanov, Parviz, founder of the perestroika-era organization Sogdiana, Du shanbe, January 2017. Saifullozoda, Hikmatullo,
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I N D EX Page numbers appearing in italics refer to figures. 8th Motorized Infantry Division, 152 14th Army, Russian, 170 201st Motorized Division, 141, 149-152, 156-157, 159, 164-166, 173, 231n22, 233n41 500 Days Plan, 111, 215n41 Abalkin, Leonid, 111 Abashin, Sergei, 163, 180nl5 Abdujabbor, Tohir: as a candidate, 85, 96; at demonstrations, 85-86, 88, 128, 146, 154; opposition by, 130, 173, 221n47; Rastokhez and, 79, 81, 96; Ru ba Ru and, 65; in Supreme Soviet, 96, 106, 110; Tajik independence and, 126-127 Abdullajonov, Abdumalik, 158, 165 Abdulov, Karim, 58-59 Abdurahim, Rustami, 62, 148 Abdurakhmanov, Ruslan, 135 Abkhazia, 69, 169 Abkhazian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, 69 Adabiyot va San”at, 59-60, 198n83 Adamshin, Anatoly, 230n8, 235n80 Afghanistan, 19; border with Tajikistan of, 7, 137, 152, 159, 162, 173; Soviet-Afghan War, 11, 149; Tajik Civil War and, 159, 162, 167, 168; trade with, 118, 135 Aganbegyan, Abel, 35-36, 39, 43, 70-71, 111 agriculture: cotton (see cotton); lemons, 115-116, 216168 Akaev, Askar, 152 alcohol consumption, 39, 49, 52, 138, 195n31 Allen, Robert C., 187n9 All-Soviet Znanie Society, 56 All-Union Central Soviet of Trade Unions, 40 All-Union Communist Party, 172 .All-Union Party Conference, 76-77 aluminum, 117-118, 134, 223n76 Amirbek, Atobek, 112, 145, 146, 154 Andreeva, Nina, 54, 196n43 Andropov, Yuri, 31, 32, 36-37, 43, 44 anti-alcohol campaign, 49 archives, Soviet, 10-11, 30, 179n24 Armenia, 150; Azerbaijan conflict with, 62-63, 69, 85, 94-95, 105, 160, 168 Armenian refugees, 83, 85, 86, 95-96, 207nll Armenian residents of Tajikistan,
87 arms, non-nuclear, 4-5, 13, 176nl0, 227n69 Ashurov, Davron, 55, 120 Ashurov, Mukhriddin, 152 Aslonov, Qadriddin: about, 1-2, 175nl, 218n99; as acting president, 125-126, 127, 128-129, 149; CPT and, 128, 221n35; death of, 1-2, 3, 166 atheist propaganda campaign, 113 Avezova, B. S., 27 AvtoVAZ, 74 Ayubi, Safarmuhammad, 62 Azerbaijan, 20, 83, 99, 109, 150; conflict with Armenia, 62-63, 69, 85, 94-95, 105, 160, 168, 170 Baker,James, 137 Baklanov, Oleg, 122 "bamboozlement,” 103, 120 banking sector reform, 45 bartering, 134-135 bauxite, 28 Beissinger, Mark, 199n2 Beknazarov, Sohibnazar, 205П100 Belarus, 4, 132, 227n69 Belorussia, 124 Belousov, Rem, 38 Belov, Yuri, 55, 196n48 Belovezh Accords, 150 Belovezhskaya meeting, 132-133 263
264 INDEX birthrates, 21, 27-28 Bleuer, Christian, 195n31 blockade of Kulyab, 139-140, 161 Bobiev, Balajon, 146 Bobosadyqova, Guljakhon, 16, 17, 56, 180nl5 Boghparvar, 115-116 Bogomolov, Oleg, 39, 43, 193n79 Boldin, Valery, 122 Brezhnev, Leonid, 8, 31, 34 buses, 134,223176 Cabinet of Ministers, Tajik, 134, 150-151 capital goods, 39-40, 43, 103, 203n56 capital investment, 21 capitalism, 7, 34, 38, 171 cash conversion, 74-75, 103, 116, 204n71 casualties: of Soviet collapse, 5, 176nll, 176п14; of Tajik Civil War, 160, 163-164, 166, 197 ceasefires, 164, 166, 167 Central Asia: capital investment in, 21; Cen tral Asian Union and, 133; "freeing up” of workers in, 50-51; Gorbachev and, 48; military and, 150-152; post-Soviet col lapse violence in, 169-170; subsidies in, 29. See also specific countries of Central Asian Union, 133 Central Bank of Russia, 135 Central Committee of Tajik Komsomol, 64 Central Committee of the CPSU, 33, 38, 40, 66; All-Union Party Conference resolu tions and, 76-77; Gorbachev and, 31, 34; Islam and, 113; Moscow putsch and, 122; periphery republics and, 51-53, 100-101, 122; Politburo and (see Politburo of CPSU); recession of 1989 and, 72, 76 Central Committee of the CPT, 68, 106, 122; EKOMPT and, 102-103; Mirrahim article and, 58-59; plenums of, 52, 55-56, 99, 106, 109; political shake-up of, 51-53, 56-57; riots of 1990 and, 85-89, 90-92, 93-94 Central Economics and Mathematics Insti tute (TsEMI), 35-36 Central Statistical Agency (TsSU), 37 CFE (Conventional Forces in Europe) Treaty, 150, 176nl0,227n69, 228n80 Chairman of the Supreme Soviet, term of, 11
Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Tajik position, 106, 213nl6 Charoghi ruz, 121 Chechen Republic, 169 Chechnya, 5, 169, 172, 234n63 Chernenko, Konstantin, 31 Chernyaev, Anatoly, 48-49 China, 34, 118, 188nl6 Chubais, Anatoly, 235n75 CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) data, 33, 186—18718, 187nl3 CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States), 13, 132-133, 136-137, 150-151, 152, 156 citrus farms, 115-116, 216n68 civil unrest. See demonstrations; riots of February 1990 clans, 100, 180П15 collective farms, 23, 24-26, 163, 183n52, 183154 collective security, 141, 151-152 Committee for National Security (KNB), 148, 154-155, 161 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), 13, 132-133, 136-137, 150-151, 152, 156 Communist Party of Tajikistan (CPT), 15-16, 56, 81, 99; Aslonovand, 1-2,128,221n35; banning of, 127-129, 130, 221n35; Bobo sadyqova and, 16; Bureau of the Central Committee of, 91, 180nl3; Komsomol and, 64, 200nl2; nationalizing property of, 126; opposition to, 80, 85-87, 91, 93-94, 100, 127-128; perestroika and, 8, 57, 172; political shake-up of, 51-53; revolt of, 128-129. See also Central Committee of the CPT Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), 66, 180П13, 200nl2, 220n21; All-Union Party Conference and, 76-77; Congress of People’s Deputies and, 64, 67, 78; elections of 1989 and, 78; Party Congresses of, 76, 108; perestroika reform and, 31,36, 53-54, 76-77; power shift of, 108-109; reorganization of, 64, 76-77; resolutions of, 40, 113; Tajikistan and, 51-53, 57, 66, 69, 108, 125; Union Treaty and, 110. See also Central Committee of the CPSU; Politburo of CPSU concerns
(cooperatives), 116, 119 conflict between SSRs and ethnic groups, 66, 68-71, 130; Armenia and Azerbaijan, 62-63, 69, 85, 94—95, 105, 160, 168; Meskhetians and Uzbeks, 69-70 Congress of the People's Deputies, 109; creation of, 64, 76, 77-79, 205n94, 205п100; dissolution of, 126; Fourth, 111, 215n45; Third, 93, 105; Yeltsin and, 67
INDEX constitutional commission, Tajik, 147 consumer product standards, 39 consumption, 18-19, 37-38, 71, 181П18, 181П20, 202n47 Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty, 150, 176nl0, 227n69 conventional arms, 4-5, 13, 176П10, 227n69 conventional forces, 150-152,227n69,228n80 Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty, 150, 176nl0, 227n69, 228n80 cooperatives: agriculture and, 116; criminal and unethical activities of, 118-119; EKOMPT, 102-103; enterprise contracts with, 44, 73-75, 204n71; production de cline of, 71; Tajik growth of, 98 corruption, 74, 98, 103,116,119,138,143-144, 2061113 cotton: division of labor and, 28,29; economy and, 15, 22—26, 24, 29, 134, 183nn52-54, 185n81; harvesting of, 25-26, 184n66, 185172; under private control, 134; pro cessing raw seed of, 24,184n66; trade of, 118, 119-120, 146; Vakhsh Valley and, 162 Council for the Study of Productive Powers (SOPS), 33 Council of Ministers of Tajikistan, 68, 87-88, 89 Council of Ministers of the RSFSR, 44, 111 Council of Ministers of the USSR, 44, 50, 74, 76, 111 Council of Nationalities' Commission for the Social and Economic Development of Union and Autonomous Republics, Na tional Districts and Oblasts, 210n71 Council of the Federation, 108 CPSU (Communist Party of the Soviet Union). See Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) CPT (Communist Party of Tajikistan). See Communist Party of Tajikistan (CPT) credit emission, 142 crime: cooperatives and, 118-119; economy and, 120, 121, 137-138; pre-perestroika, 30, 32; in Russia, 170, 202n44; Soviet col lapse and, 5, 170; Tajik Civil War and,
161-162, 168; unemployment and, 99, 211П94 dams, hydroelectric, 21-22, 28, 59, 67-68, 137 Dedov, Ivan, 18 deficits, 190n37; budget, 120, 135,136; of consumer goods, 71, 73, 74-75, 80, 118, 265 187-188115; of food and beverages, 39, 71, 116, 133 Deluguian, Georgi, 170 Democratic Party of Tajikistan (DPT): civil war and, 161,162; founding of, 107-108; opposition of, 124, 125, 127, 130, 143, 145, 154 democratization, 57, 63-64, 76-78, 80, 84, 104 demonstrations: of 1989, 61-63, 65, 69, 70, 199nn2-3; of 1990, 82-83, 85-87, 92, 209-210n65 (see also riots of February 1990); of 1991, 124, 125-126, 127-128, 129-130, 143, 144; of 1992, 145-149, 153-155; standard of living and, 9-10, 178n21 Derluguian, Georgi M., 170, 172 deurbanization, 22-23, 27-28 de Waal, Thomas, 176nl4 direct contracts, 43, 44, 45, 117 Doucette, Courtney, 32 DPT (Democratic Party of Tajikistan). See Democratic Party of Tajikistan (DPT) drug use and trafficking, 120, 137-138 dry law, 39, 191п49 Dudayev Dzhokhar, 169 Dushanbe (Zohir), 19 Dushanbe, Tajikistan: about, 14-15, 17; Ar menian residents flight from, 87, 208n20; civil war in, 161-162, 165, 166-167; riots in (see riots of February 1990) Dustov, Nazrullo, 134, 136, 145, 154, 155 Eastern Bukhara, 15 econometrics, 35-39, 189n22, 189n28 economy: crime and, 120, 121, 137-138; goods and, 30, 33, 37-38, 183n51, 187П15, 190n37; "mechanisms" of, 34-35,41, 43, 75; pre-perestroika, 15, 18-19, 21-23, 31-34, 33, 35-39, 186—187nn8-9. See also economy of Tajikistan; economy of USSR economy of Tajikistan: background and overview of, 2; budget of, 120—121, 135, 136, 137,
218П106; civil war and, 156; exports and, 134-135; independence and, 127, 133; language and, 66; Moscow sub sidies and, 28-30; pre-perestroika, 15, 18-23; recession and downturn of, 73, 80-81, 114-118; riots of 1990 and, 84, 97-99, 100, 101; salaries post perestroika and, 97, 115, 119, 218n99; salaries preperestroika and, 18-19, 24-25, 181ПП17-18; state paralysis on, 119-121, 142
266 INDEX economy of USSR: All-Union Party Conference resolutions and, 77; back ground and overview of, 3-4, 9-10; pre-perestroika, 31-34, 33, 35-39, 186-187nn8-9; recession of 1989 and, 71-73, 81 education, 27-28, 185n71 Ekh'yoi Khujand, 65, 79 EKOMPT, 102-103 elections: of 1989, 77-78; of 1990, 79-80, 83-85, 93, 96-97, 98, 104, 114; of 1991, 121, 126, 130, 131-132 electricity production, 21-22, 67. See also hydroelectric dams elite: Soviet, 47-48; Tajik, 17, 49, 52 Emergency Committee, 122-123, 124-125, 219n2 employment guarantee, Soviet, 98-99 energy, 21-22, 67. See also hydroelectric dams enterprises, state: contracts and, 44, 73-75, 117, 204n71; reform of, 42-44, 71, 203n52; rule changes of 1991 for, 116-117, 217n78 entrepreneurship, 42, 45, 116, 134, 171, 172, 19216 equalization policy, Soviet, 26,29, 184n67 Estonia, 20, 63, 109, 111 ethnic conflict, 66, 85, 94-95, 130, 162-164, 168-170, 178719 ethnic consolidation, 182n35 exchange value, 189n24 exporting, 117-118, 134-135, 141, 142,217n90 facade of normalcy, 103-104 factory directors, 40, 43 family business, 42 Federenko, Nikolai, 34-36 Ferghana Valley, 7, 15, 69 Filtzer, Donald, 41, 203n52 Florenskii, Pavel, 68 food production, 42, 115-116, 135, 138, 142 foreign capital, 45 foreign trade, 117-118, 134-135, 141, 142, 217790 "For how long will water flow under the ice?" (Mirrahim), 58-59, 198n71, 198n78 "freeing up" of workers, 40-41, 50-51, 192n58 Fuzhenko, Ivan, 129-130 Gaidar, Yegor, 158-159, 161, 165, 173 Gaitsgori, Yurii, 117-118 Gamsakhurdia, Zviad, 69, 169 gangs, 70, 156, 161 gap between Soviet center and
periphery 47-49 Gazibekov, Arslanbek, 19 GBAO (Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast), 112, 144-145, 147 General Prosecutor’s Office of Tajikistan, 93,94, 121,219nll4 Georgia, 5, 63, 69, 93, 109, 150, 168-169, 170 Georgian Communist Party, 69 Ghaforov, Tukhtaboi, 112, 158-159, 161 Gharmis, 139, 140, 162-163, 232n28 Gharm region, 140, 145, 162 Ghoibov, Gholib, 96, 153 Gissar Valley, 46, 136, 160,166 glasnost: background and overview of, 54—55; destabilization of, 63, 84, 95, 98, 172; Ta jikistan and, 55-58, 59, 64-67, 80, 201n30 goods: capital, 39-40, 43, 79, 103, 203n56; cooperatives and, 44-45, 74-75, 103, 204179, 206П113; economy and, 3 0, 33, 37-38, 183n51,187nl5,190n37; finished goods in Tajikistan, 28-29, 115; pricing of, 35, 38, 44, 189n24, 190n37, 218П104; profit and, 9, 74; recession of 1989 and, 71-72, 73, 80,202n47, 203n56; reform and, 45, 47, 71, 75; salaries and, 18-19, 38, 181П18; trade of, 117-118, 142, 217n90 goods mafia, 80, 206П113 Gorbachev, Mikhail: 1989 demonstrations and violence and, 63-64, 69-70, 93; 1990 riots and, 93, 100-101; agriculture and, 115; background and overview of, 3-4; business reform and, 44-45; communist party and, 31, 34, 53-54, 76-78, 105, 186n4; Congress of People’s Deputies and, 64, 77-79, 105; glasnost and, 54-55; as a "hypnotizer," 109, 214n29; Moscow putsch and, 122-123, 219n2; nationalism and, 94-95; perestroika beginnings and, 31-34, 36-39, 186n5; periphery repub lics and, 8, 48-49, 51, 67, 100-101, 105, 108-110, 129-130; as President of the USSR, 93, 133; productivity increase and, 39-40, 191n49; reform overview and, 12, 76,
171, 173; Union Treaty and, 110-112, 215n45; USSR collapse responsibility of, 6-7; Yeltsin and, 107-108 Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast (GBAO), 112, 144-145, 147 Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Republic, 145
INDEX Gosagroprom (State Agricultural-Industrial Committee), 26, 115 Gosplan committee, 16, 40, 41, 72, 76, 117, 185n81, 187n9 goszakazy, 44, 71, 193n79, 203n53 Government of National Reconciliation, 139-140, 154-155, 159, 160-162, 163, 167 Gribov, V.G., 72 Grishin, Viktor, 186n4 Grossu, Semen, 70 Grozny, Chechen Republic, 169 Gulova, Z. S., 210n71 Habibullo, Hamidullo, 79 Haitov, Muhammad, 91 Hakim, Askar, 62, 205nl02 Hasanov, Salohiddin, 55, 57, 196n49, 197n63 Hayoev, Izatullo: about, 55, 78; criticism of, 65; economy and, 21, 28, 127; opposition of 1991 and, 128, 130; riots of 1990 and, 89-90, 91-92, 100, 209n60, 211n94 Himmatzoda, Muhammadsharif, 107-108, 130,154, 171 Hindustoni, Muhammadjon, 107 historical conflict, 170-171 Hojiev, Rif’at, 55, 57, 196n49 Homeland Salvation Front, 161-162, 164,165 House of Political Enlightenment, 64, 102 housing, 28, 83, 86, 97-98 Hungary, 134 hydroelectric dams, 21-22, 28, 59, 67-68, 137 Ideological Division of the Central Commit tee of CPSU, 54 lEiOPP (Institute of Economics and Organ ization of Industrial Production), 35 Ikromov, Maqsud, 85, 91, 128, 129, 130, 143, 221П47, 225П12 IMF, 137, 187n9, 224n92 Imomov, Sharofiddin, 79 importing, 117-118, 217n90 income, 18-19, 23, 29, 75, 181ПП16-18. See also salaries income that went unspent, 75 industrialization, 21-23, 26, 28, 37, 39—40, 49-51 inflation, 75, 120, 135, 142, 181n20, 190n37, 218П106 informal organizations, 62, 63, 65, 79. See also specific organizations Ingushetia, 169 Institute of Economics and Organization of Industrial Production (lEiOPP), 35 267 Institute of Ethnology
and Anthropology, 95 Institute of Political Studies, Tajik, 102 internal force troops, 87-88, 89, 90, 91-92, 208п21 Internal Ministry forces, 88, 92 internationalism, 58 Iqbal, Muhammad, 85, 86 Iran, 137,168 IRPT (Islamic Revival Party of Tajikistan). See Islamic Revival Party of Tajikistan (IRPT) Isfara, Tajikistan, 70, 145 Iskandarov, Akbarsho, 130, 136, 145, 155, 157, 165 Islam, 11,48, 107, 112-114, 148 Islamic clergy, 94 Islamic Revival Party of Tajikistan (IRPT): civil war and, 161, 162; formation of, 107-108, 113, 213121, 213n26; opposition of 1991 of, 125-126, 127, 130, 131, 143, 171; opposition of 1992 of, 145, 146, 148, 154; Russia support of, 172 Ismaili Shia, 8 Isoev, Jumakhon, 65 Izvestiia, 57 Jabirov, Burkhon, 153 job creation, 26-27 job tenure, 17 Joint Soviet-Dutch Enterprise RamaksNigina, 135 Juraev, Solijon, 94 Kanoat, Mumin, 62 Kantorovich, Leonid, 35 Kapur, Ishan, 224n92 Karimov; Buri, 19, 82, 230nl0; riots of 1990 and, 87, 88-92, 93-94, 99-100, 101, 20965 Karimov, Islam, 151 Karimoy Jamshed, 65, 78, 91 Kasimov, A. K., 55, 57, 196n49 Kazakhstan, 4, 116, 133, 150 Kenjaev, Kh., 19 Kenjaev, Safarali: about, 94, 121, 125, 136; civil war and, 166, 167, 171,173, 230nl0; demonstrations and, 128-129, 130,145, 226153; as head of KNB, 148, 226n53; as a "law-bringer,” 142-145, 225П13, 225n23; resignation of, 145, 147; as Supreme So viet chairman, 152, 153, 155; unemploy ment and, 99 KGB, 83, 87, 92, 95, 97, 148, 199n2, 211194
268 INDEX Khabibov, A., 91, 156, 162 Khabibuloev, Kh., 88 Khakimov, Mirzo, 146, 173 Khakulov, Rahmat, 20 Khalimov, Izatullo, 205nl00 Khatlon Oblast, 57 Khatlon region, 15, 139-140 Khojaev, Ato, 59 Kholik, A., 88 Khorog, Tajikistan, 144, 164 Khrushchev, Nikita, 8 Khudoiberdiev, Mahmud, 165, 233n41 Khudonazarov, Davlat: as a candidate, 56, 131-132, 146; demonstrations and, 92, 129, 146, 154, 155, 221n47; Moscow putsch and, 124-125; opposition of, 56, 78; riots of 1990 and, 93, 210n71 Khujand, 65, 140, 145, 167 Khuvaidulloev, Nurullo, 90-91, 93, 121, 128 Kishinev, Moldova, 70 KNB (Committee for National Security), 148, 154-155, 161 Kolkhozabad, Tajikistan, 115, 165 kolkhozes, 23, 24-26, 163, 183n52, 183n54 Komilzoda, Ahmadshoh, 205nl02 Kommunist Tadzhikistana, 57, 58 Komsomol, 58-59, 64, 65, 200nl2 Komsomoli Tajikistan, 58-59 Komai, Janos, 35 Korotich, Vitaly, 47 Koshlakov, Georgii, 92, 135-136, 205nl00, 214n29 Kosygin reforms, 43-44, 193n71, 193n76 Kozyrev, Andrei, 166-167 Kravchuk, Leonid, 111, 132, 227n64 Kriuchkov, Vladimir, 122 Kulyab Oblast, 55, 57, 62, 155, 167 Kulyab region, 1, 22, 140, 155, 157, 160-161, 162—163,231122 Kumsangir District, 74, 143, 145 Kunaev, Dinmukhamed, 186n4 Kurbanov, E., 121 Kurgan-Tyube Oblast, 57, 143, 155, 197n61 Kurgan-Tyube region, 1, 22, 140, 145, 149, 155, 162, 164—165 Kyrgyzstan, 7, 70, 99, 150, 152, 168, 169 Kyrgyz-Tajik border, 63, 70 labor productivity, 32, 187nl0 labor theory of value, 36, 189n24 Lafizov, Jonobiddin, 17, 117, 120, 180nl5 La"]i Badakhshon, 112, 145, 154, 161 Langariev, Langari, 165, 166 language, Russian, 27, 66, 80
language in Tajikistan, 27, 58, 61, 80, 103, 198171, 201126; Law on Language and, 62, 65-67, 68, 199n4, 201П30 Latifi, Otakhon, 89, 125 Latvia, 66, 109 Law on Cooperatives, 44-45 Law On Distributing Authority between the Soviet Union and Federative Subjects, USSR, 217178 Law on Individual Labor Activity, 41-42 Law on Language of the Tajik SSR, 62, 65-67, 68, 199n4, 201П30 Law on State Enterprises, 42-44, 71 legalization of private business, 9, 44—45, 71, 98, 171. See also cooperatives lemons, 115-116, 216n68 Leninabad Oblast, 167, 196n49 Leninabad region, 65, 159-160, 162 Lenin Square, 61, 86, 92, 127-128, 147 Lenin’s statue, 128, 129 Ligachev, Yegor, 52, 191n49 Lithuania, 63, 105, 109, lll,211n90 living conditions, 19-20 loyalty, 8, 17, 18, 57, 100, 108, 180П15 Luchinskii, Petr, 22, 55, 56, 78, 196n48 machine industry, 39-40, 49-50 Maddison, Angus, 187n8 Mahkamov, Kahhor; about, 2, 16, 55, 68, 196n50; Congress of People’s Deputies and, 78, 93; CPSU and, 68-69,125; CPT and, 105, 126; economy and, 81, 116, 120-121; informal organizations and, 62, 65; Moscow disengagement and, 105, 112; Moscow putsch and, 123-124, 125, 220nl0; political parties and, 106-109; political positionings of, 100, 105-106, 114; religion and, 113-114; resignation of, 125; riots of 1990 and, 86-87, 89-93, 100, 209n60, 210n81; sovereignty and, 109-110, 112; state language and, 65-67 Makhsudov, B., 65 Maksum, Fuzail, 232n28 Maksumov, A., 26 marketization: effectiveness of, 171, 235n75; market relations and, 39, 43, 117, 137, 188nl6; perestroika beginnings and, 32, 34, 36, 41, 49; recession of 1989 and,
80; transition programs of, 111, 215n41. See also cooperatives; enterprises, state Martyrs' Square, 127-128, 147-148, 153-155, 221132
INDEX Masov, Rahim, 59 mechanization, 25-26, 27, 184n66, 185n72 Medvedev, Vadim, 37, 189n28 memoirs, 10, 160, 230nl0 Merrem, Gerd, 168 Meskhetian Turks, 69-70 Mikhailin, Genadii, 219П114 Mikhtojev, Siroj, 94 military: Tajikistan and, 126-127, 141, 148-152, 156; of USSR, 3-5, 87-88, 126, 149-152, 208n21 militias, 140, 158-159, 161-168, 232n34 Miniari-i Islam, 113 Ministry of Communications, Tajik, 50 Ministry of Defense, Russian, 13, 151, 152 Ministry of Defense, Tajik, 149-150 Ministry of Defense, USSR, 129-130 Ministry of Internal Affairs (MIA), Tajik, 91, 104, 143-144, 153 Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) of Mol dova, 70 Ministry of the Interior, Tajik, 119 Mirkhalikov, Temurbai, 205П100 Mirrahim, Mirbobo, 46; about, 155, 161; article of, 58-59, 198n71,198n78; demon strations and riots and, 61, 88, 128, 130; Government of National Reconciliation and, 155; Kenjaevand, 142-143; Rastokhez and, 79, 211n90; Ru ba Ru and, 65 Mirzoaliev, Qurbonali, 161, 233n48 Mirzoev, Akbar, 136, 142,165 Mirzoev, Hikmatullo, 161 Mitchell, Jennifer, 160 modernization, 15, 19, 20-22, 26 Moldova, 70, 150, 168, 169-170, 227n69 monetary supply, 135, 142 Moscow putsch, 122-125, 219n2, 219n6 Moscow’s shadow, 2, 8-9, 131, 151-152, 159, 172-173 mosques, 85,113-114, 216n60 Mozhin, Vladimir, 33 Muhabbatshoev, Mazhabsho, 90, 93 Mukomel, Vladimir, 26, 27 Muscovites, 37, 38 Muslim republics, 48 Muslims. Sec Islam Nabiev, Rahmon: about, 16,18,53,55,195n31; CPT and, 51-53; demonstrations of 1992 and, 145, 146-148, 153-155; military and, 129, 151, 153; paralysis of, 142,156-157; as a political candidate,
114, 129,131-132; as president, 136-137, 138, 165, 172; 269 resignations of, 130, 158, 165; Safarov and, 160; Soviet collapse and, 133 Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO), 62-63, 168 Nagorno-Karabakh region, 5, 69, 94-95 Najibullah, Ahmadzai, 152 narcotics, 137-138 Nasreddinov, Hikmatullo, 17-18, 109-110, 126, 230П10 "national guard," 151, 153-154, 155, 157, 160, 163, 232n34 national income produced (NIP), 23, 29, 183n51 national income utilized (NIU), 29, 183n51 nationalism, 84, 94-96, 97, 109, 144, 211186 nationalization: of military, 149, 150-152; of property, 126, 220n21 National Salvation Front, 154 NATO, 150, 176т Navjuvanov, Mamadaoz, 91, 143-145 Nazarbayev, Nursultan, 133, 151 Nazarov, Talbak, 205nl00 Nazarshoev, Moyonsho, 156, 171 Nekushoev, Akbarsho, 18 Nemchinov, Vasily, 35 Nestorovich, Nikolai, 72 net material product, 187n9 NIP (national income produced), 23, 29, 183n51 NIU (national income utilized), 29, 183n51 Niyazov, Farrukh, 151, 154, 155 Niyazov, Saparmurat, 151 Niyozmamadov, Alimamad, 80-81 NKAO (Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast), 62-63, 168 noncash funds, 74, 204n71 North Ossetia, 169 Nourzhanov, Kirill, 195n31 NPOs, 115-116 nuclear arms, 4, 5, 150, 151 nuclear non-proliferation, 4 Nurek, Tajikistan, 65, 152, 166, 231 Nuri, Abdullo Said, 107, 168, 213n21 Nuri Nav, 134-135 Object Zaria, 122 Ochered’ (Sorokin), 37 Ochilov, A., 92 October Hotel, 102-103 Ogonyok, 47 Okno (Window Optical-Electronic Com mand and Control Center), 152, 159, 173, 228n82,231n22
270 INDEX "On Additional Measures Connected with the Activation in Asia and Africa of So-Called ‘Militant Islam”' resolution, 113 "On Freedom of Religion and Religious Organizations” law, 113 “On the General Conception of the New Union Treaty and the Order of Its Sign ing" resolution, 111 “On the State Sovereignty of the Tajik So viet Socialist Republic” declaration, 110, 214134 organized crime, 5, 99, 120, 170, 211n94 Osh, Kyrgyzstan, 169 Oshkoro, 62, 79-80, 81 Ossetia, 5, 169 Ozody Square demonstrations, 147-149, 153-155,22653 Pakistan, 118, 137 Pallaev, Ghoibnazar: about, 16, 78, 195n31; language and, 62, 66; oblasts and, 57; resignation and, 89-90, 106; riots of 1990 and, 89-90, 91-92, 100, 209n60 Pamir-brand, 29 Pamiri peoples, 112, 140, 144-145, 161-164, 168, 232028 Pamirs mountains, 7 paper money, 135, 142 parliamentary dissolution, 146-147 passive inflation, 181n20, 190n37 patronage, 17-18, 180nl5 Pavlov, Valentin, 122 Penguin restaurant, 211n94 People’s Committee, 88-89 , 90-92, 208132, 209160 People’s Front, Kenjaev’s, 166 People’s Front, Moldovan, 70 People's Front, Tajik, 164, 165-166, 232n34 perestroika reforms: background and over view of, 3, 5-6, 8-10, 31-34, 41, 49, 186n5; Communist Party and, 8, 31, 36, 53-54, 57, 76-77, 172; cooperatives and, 44-45; economic downturn and, 71-76, 115; "freeing up" of workers and, 40-41, 50-51, 192158; private businesses and, 41-42; productivity and, 39-41; Rastokhez and, 79; roots of, 34-39; skepti cism of, 46-47; state enterprises and, 42-44; Tajikistan and, 46-49, 56-57, 59-60; violence and, 70-71, 98-99 periphery of
USSR gap with Soviet center, 47-49 Pochomulloev, Tukhta, 219П114 Poliakov, Sergei, 25 Politburo of CPSU: about, 180nl3; economic reform and, 34, 39-40, 41, 45, 54, 193n43; Gorbachev and, 31, 34, 36-37, 45, 54, 186n4; reform of, 108-109; Ryzhkov and, 51 Political Consultative Council, 130 political parties in Tajikistan, new, 104, 107-108, 112. See also specific parties population unengaged in social production, term of, 11, 25-26 populism, 4, 101, 141, 143-147, 156,168-169 Pravda, 57, 131, 196n43 Presidential Council, 109 Presidential Defense Committee, 151 president of Tajikistan position, 114 president of the USSR position, 93, 105 pricing: agriculture and, 29; cooperative businesses and, 44-45, 75, 118; increases in, 120, 218П104; inflation and, 75, 120, 135, 142, 181П20, 190n37, 218П106; liberaliza tion of food, 116; production and, 72, 74, 75, 116; shadow, 35,188n20; systems of, 35-36, 189722, 189724 privatization: cooperatives and, 44-45; econ omy and, 127, 135, 172; individuals and, 41—42; legalization of, 9,44-45, 71, 98, 171; production and, 71, 116-117; Yeltsin on, 235175 production: cooperatives and, 118; of cotton, 22—26, 24, 29, 134, 183nn53; decline of, 71-73, 97, 115, 135, 202n47, 203nn52-53, 203n56; economy and, 97, 115,119, 134, 171; enterprises and, 116-117, 2I7n75; of food, 42, 115-116, 135, 138, 142; market structures and, 43; pricing and, 72, 74, 75, 116; privatization and, 71, 116-117; profits and, 71-73 productivity: agricultural, 25-26, 28, 115; cooperatives and, 74; labor, 32, 187nl0; reform and, 39-41 profits: agriculture and, 115-116; coopera
tives and, 45, 73-75; enterprises and, 9, 43, 44, 71-73, 75, 117, 193n71; exporting and, 135; production and, 71-73 property, 25, 43, 117, 120, 126, 220n21; gov ernment buying/selling of, 120; privatiza tion of, 117 propiska, 27 protests. See demonstrations; riots of February 1990 public speech laws, 142-143 Pugo, Boris, 89-92, 100, 219n2
INDEX Putin, Vladimir, 6, 169 putsch in Moscow, 122-125, 219n2, 219n6 Qoziyot, 113 Rahmon, Emomali, 168, 233n49 Rahmonov, Emomali, 166, 167-168, 233n49, 235n80 railroads, 22, 50, 183n43 Rakhmonov, Bahrom, 153-154 Rastokhez: about, 79-81, 112, 205П102; civil war and, 161, 162; foreign support of, 172, 211190; Kenjaev and, 142-143; op position of 1991 of, 125, 127, 128, 131, 143; opposition of 1992 of, 145, 154-155; riots of 1990 and, 83-84, 88, 94, 95-97, 98, 210n81,211n90 Rasulov, Jabbor, 16-17 Razumovsky, Georgy, 51-53 real capitalism, 171 recessions, 32, 71-73, 80 referendum on status of the USSR, 111-112, 215145 reforms: of 1965, 43-44, 193n71, 193n76; of 1983, 43, 44; desire for, 7; perestroika (see perestroika reforms) reforms of perestroika. See perestroika reforms refugees: Armenian, 83, 85, 86-87, 95-96, 207nll; from conflict in Abkhazia, 3, 161, 167; from Tajik Civil War, 3, 161, 167, 234154 regionalism, 140-141, 148, 162-164, 224n4, 232n30 religion, 112-114. See also Islam Religious Administration of Muslims in Central Asia and Kazakhstan (SADUM), 113 relocation of Tajik residents, 67-68, 162-163, 201138 revenue from taxes, 26, 29, 73, 119-120, 135, 185n81 riots of February 1990, 82-101; background and overview of, 82-87; conclusions on, 97-101; events of, 87-92, 221n32; expla nations for, 83-84, 92, 95-101, 211n90, 211194; investigations of, 93-95, 210n71 Rizoev, Jahonkhon, 1, 166, 233n48 roadblocks, 155 roads, 22 Roghun Dam, 21-22, 59, 67-68, 137, 201n33, 201138 Romanov, Grigory, 186n4 271 Roy, Oliver, 162-163 Ruba Ru, 64-67, 79-80, 216П108 rural population,
22-28, 30 Russian Federation: crime and violence in, 168, 170, 202n44; military of, 149-150, 152, 170, 173; Ministry of Defense of, 151, 152; nuclear arms and, 4, 150, 151; Parliament of, 170; sovereignty of, 108, 110; Soviet periphery countries and, 169-170; Supreme Soviet of, 215n41; Tajik Civil War and, 158-159, 160, 165-167, 168, 230n8 Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), 74, 111, 207nll, 220n21 Ryzhkov, Nikolai: economy and, 33, 36, 38, 187113; "freeing up" of workers and, 51; Meskhetian-Uzbek conflict and, 69-70; productivity and, 39; riots of 1990 and, 100; state enterprise reform and, 42-43 SADUM (Religious Administration of Muslims in Central Asia and Kazakh stan), 113 Safarov, Sangak: about, 1, 160, 230nll; civil war and, 160-161, 163-168, 171, 232n28; demonstrations and, 148, 153; elections and, 132; "national guard" and, 155, 157 Safieva, Gulrukhsor: about, 56, 67, 78; dem onstrations and, 129, 221П47; riots of February 1990 and, 82, 92, 93, 209n65; Roghun Dam and, 67-68 Saidov, Faizali, 1, 168, 232n28 Saidov, Zafar, 58 Sajüdis, the, 63, 211n90 salaries: concerns and, 119; cooperative business and, 44-45, 119; "freeing up” workers and, 50-51; in large urban areas, 38, 190-191П40; standardized, 24, 38, 40-41; in Tajikistan post perestroika, 97, 115, 119, 218n99; in Tajikistan pre perestroika, 18-19, 24-25, 181ПП17-18 Salimov, Yakub, 167 Sattorov, Abdunaby, 81, 205102 savings, citizens’, 38 Scientific-Production Associations (NPOs), 115-116 Secretariat of Central Committee of CPSV, 77, 108 self-financing, 43, 44, 71, 72, 119-120, 203n52
Seliunin, Vasily, 117 Shabdolov, Shody, 103, 127 shadow prices, 35, 188n20
272 INDEX Shahidon Square demonstrations, 127-128, 145-148, 153-155, 221n32 Shakhnazarov, Georgy, 48, 130 Shaposhnikov, Evgenii, 150, 151 Shashina, V I., 137 Shatalin, Stanislav, 36, 111, 215n41 Shcherbytsky, Volodymyr, 186n4 Sherali, Loik, 62 Shevardnadze, Eduard, 31, 215n45 Shmelov, Gelii, 42 shortages of consumer goods, 19, 33, 38, 75, 97, 187-188П15 shu'badabozi, 103,120 Shushkevich, Stanislav, 132 Silaev, Ivan, 123 small arms, 4-5, 176nll Sobchak, Anatoly, 130-131, 133, 172 Sobir, Bozor, 61, 62, 79, 88, 90, 96, 128, 221П47 Socialist Party of Tajikistan, 127-128 social order, 137-138. See also demonstra tions; riots of February 1990 social satisfaction, 19-20 Sodiqov, Alexander, 201n33 Sogdiana, 67-68, 211n90 Sohibnazar, Asliddin, 105-106, 113-114, 127, 132, 148, 205П100, 221n47, 230П10 SOPS (Council for the Study of Productive Powers), 33 Sorbon, 135 Sorokin, Vladimir, 37 sources for this work, 10-11 South Ossetia, 169 sovereignty, 63, 79,108, 109-112, 130-131, 169 Sovetskaia Rossiia, 196n43 Soviet Academy of Sciences, 95 Soviet-Afghan War, 11, 149 Soviet archives, 10-11, 30, 179n24 Soviet Autonomous Republic of ChechnyaIngushetia, 169, 234n63 Soviet Constitution, 42, 77, 105, 107 Soviet Union. See USSR sovkhozes, 23, 24-25, 183n52, 183n54 special forces brigade, Tajik, 153 speeding up development, 40, 49-50 stabilization fund, 120 standards for consumer products, 39 standards of living: in Tajikistan, 8, 9-10, 18-19, 26, 28, 98, 178n21; in USSR, 2, 33, 171 Starodubtsev, Vasily, 219n2 State Agricultural-Industrial Committee (Gosagroprom), 26, 115 State Citrus Farm
named for N. Quarabaev, 115,116 State Committee for the State of Emer gency, 122-123 state farms, 23, 24-25, 183n52, 183n54 state languages, 61-63, 65-67, 68, 201n26, 201n30 state orders (goszakazy), 44, 71, 193n79, 203153 State Planning Committee (Gosplan), 16, 40, 41, 72, 76, 117, 185n81,187n9 State Security Committee (KNB), 148, 154-155, 161 State Statistics Committee, Soviet Union, 29 Strumlin, Stanislave, 35 subsidies: from Tajik government, 116, 119, 120; from USSR, 28-30, 120, 127, 185n81 Sultonov, Shukur, 49 Supreme Soviet, Russian, 215n41 Supreme Soviet, Tajik: chairmanship of, 2, 16, 17, 89, 106, 136, 213nl6, 218199; CIS and, 136-137; civil war and, 165, 167; CPT ban and, 128-129; demonstrations of 1989 and, 61-62, 199n3; demonstra tions of 1990 and, 86, 92; demonstrations of 1991 and, 125-126, 130, 143; demon strations of 1992 and, 146-148, 153, 154-155, 156; economy and, 99, 114, 117, 120-121, 142, 223n76; elections and, 78, 83, 84-85, 96-97, 98, 104, 106, 114; Ikromov and, 143; language and, 66-67, 199n4, 201n26, 201130; military and, 126-127,149-150, 153; Navjavanov and, 143-144; Pamiris and, 144-145; political parties and, 80-81, 104-105, 106-107; religion and, 113; riots of 1990 and, 93, 94, 100, 101; sovereignty and, 109-110, 112, 126, 214n34 Supreme Soviet of the USSR: about, 76-78; Congress of People's Deputies and, 67, 77, 105; elections and, 219nll4; enter prises and, 217n78; market transition programs and, 111; Moscow putsch and, 125; Tajik riots and, 82 surveys, sociological, 19-20, 66, 75, 80, 95, 137 "System of Optimally Functioning Socialist
Economy” (SOFE), 35 Tabarov, Nur, 90-91, 93 Tadzhikvneshtorg, 117-118, 217n90
INDEX Tajic-Kyrgyz border, 63, 70 Tajik Academy of Sciences, 20, 56 Tajik-Afghan border, 7, 137-138, 152, 159, 162, 173 Tajik Aluminum Factory, 21, 134 Tajikatlas, 72-73 Tajik Civil War: background and overview of, 1, 2-3, 13, 139-141, 224n5; perestroika and, 9, 178119; politicians as cause of, 141, 156; resolution of, 165-168, 235n80; Russia and, 158-159, 160, 165-167, 168, 230n8; stalemate of, 159-165 Tajikistan: background and overview of, 1, 3, 5-9, 12-15, 18-21; budget of, 120-121, 135,136, 137, 218nl06; civil war in (see Tajik Civil War); collapse of {see Tajiki stan collapse); Communist Party of (see Communist Party of Tajikistan (CPT)); CPSU and, 51-53, 57, 66, 69, 108, 125; demonstrations in (see demonstrations); economy of (see economy of Tajikistan); elections in, 78, 79-80, 83, 84-85, 104; foreign policy of, 136-137, 141; glasnost and, 55-58, 59, 64-67, 80, 201n30; govern ment paralysis of, 119-121, 140, 142, 143; language in (see language in Tajikistan); loyalty to Soviet leadership of, 108-109; military and, 126-127, 141, 148-152, 156; Mirrahim on, 58-59, 198n71,198n78; perestroika and, 46-49, 56-57, 59-60, 72-74; population of, 21,27-28,185n74; pre-perestroika leaders of, 15-18, 55-56, 57, 180n9 (see also specific leaders); press in, 55, 58-60, 121, 197П51; riots of Febru ary 1990 in (see riots of February 1990); Russia’s influence on, 173, 235n80; sov ereignty and, 109-110, 124, 126-127, 13 0—131, 133, 213034; standards of living in, 8, 9-10, 18-19, 26, 28, 98, 178n21; state of emergency and curfew in, 100, 104, 107, 121; Supreme Soviet of (see Supreme
Soviet, Tajik); unemployment in, 71, 80-81, 97-99, 115, 120-121, 206П114; Union Treaty and, 112. See also specific cities and regions of Tajikistan collapse: background and over view of, 140-141; demonstrations and, 145-149; scapegoating and, 142-146 Tajik Komsomol, 58-59, 64-65, 200nl2 Tajik SSR. See Tajikistan Tajik Union of Writers, 60 taxes: on business income, 119; on coopera tive businesses, 45, 75; on enterprises, 273 117; personal business, 42, 192n66; rev enue from, 26, 29, 73, 119-120, 135, 185n81; turnover, 29, 72-73 , 80, 185n81, 203158 Tax Service of Tajikistan, 137 Tbilisi, Georgia, 69, 169 Tett, Gillian, 114, 224-225n5 Tikhonov, Nikolai, 186n4 Tishkov, Valery, 172 Tiziakov, Aleksandr, 219n2 Tojikistoni sovety, 90, 91 tourists, Western, 38, 191n45 trade, 117-118, 134-135, 141, 142, 217n90 Transnistria, 5, 170 transport, public, 134, 223n76 Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE), 150, 176nl0, 227n69 TsEMI (Central Economics and Mathe matics Institute), 35-36 TsSU (Central Statistical Agency), 37 Tsulaia, Vladimir, 216n68 Turajonzoda, Hoji Akbar, 86-87, 113, 148, 216158,221147 Turkmenistan, 150, 151, 169 turnover taxes, 29, 72-73, 80,185n81, 203n58 Tursun, Akbar, 56, 62 Ukraine, 4, 24, 111, 124, 132, 150, 227n64 Umalatova, Sazhi, 215n45 Umarov, Hojimuhammad, 65 uncaptured income, 75 unemployment: in Chechnya, 234n63; "free ing up” of workers and, 40-41, 50-51, 192n58; in Tajikistan, 25-28, 71, 80-81, 97-99, 115, 120-121, 2061114 Union-level investigation of 1990 riots, 93 Union of Sovereign Socialist Republics, 110 Union Treaty, 110-112, 120,
122, 124, 215145, 220nl0 Union-wide Party of Islamic Revival, 213n21 "unitary” Soviet army, 149-150, 156 United Nations, 137, 168 United States, 4, 32,137, 150, 176nl0 United Tajik Opposition (UTO), 167, 168 unneeded workers, 40-41 urban area economy, 37-39 urbanization, 22-23, 26-27, 185n74 Usmanov, Usman, 91 Usmon, Davlat, 107, 130, 146,155,161, 213n21 Usmon, Ibrohim, 132, 142, 144
274 INDEX USSR: about, 10-11, 48; collapse of (see USSR collapse); Council of Ministers of, 44, 50, 74, 76, 111; development promise of, 20-22; economy of (see economy of USSR); military of, 3-5, 87-88, 126, 149-152, 208n21; Ministry of Defense of, 129-130; nuclear arsenal of, 4, 5, 150, 151; periphery SSRs gap with, 47-49; standard of living in, 2, 33, 171; subsidies from, 28-30, 120, 127, 185n81; Supreme Soviet of (see Supreme Soviet of the USSR) USSR collapse: background and overview of, 3-6, 176n4; causes of, 95; conclusions on, 170-173; Gorbachev and, 133; periph ery SSRs and, 127, 132-133; responsibility for, 6-7; Yeltsin and, 124 Uzbekistan: Georgia and, 63; Meskhetian Turks and, 69-70; military of, 150; "Red Invasion" of, 196—197150; social satisfac tion in, 20; Tajikistan and, 7, 58, 59, 159, 166, 198n78; violence in, 99, 168 Uzbek Party, 197n50 Uzbeks in Tajikistan, 14, 162,163 Vakhidov, Vakhob, 78, 128-129 Vakhsh River, 21-22, 67 Vakhsh River Valley, 116, 162-164, 216n68, 232n30 Vakhshstroi, 15 Velikhov; Evgenii, 130-131, 172 Veselkov, Genady, 86, 99, 137 violence and disorder: of 1989, 63-64, 69-70, 76, 202n44; of 1990 (see riots of Febru ary 1990); endemic, 168-170; reform and, 9-10, 70-71,98-99; Tajik Civil War and, 160—168, 171, 232n30; Tajik Civil War beginnings and, 154-157, 229n97; Tajiki stan collapse and (see Tajikistan collapse) Volkov, Vadim, 171-172 voucher system, 133 wages. See salaries Warsaw Treaty Organization, 176nl0 “wild 1990s," 5 Window Optical-Electronic Command and Control Center (Okno), 152, 159, 173, 228n82, 231n22 working without
pay, 137, 224n96 World Bank, 137 “Wounds of History, The" (Yusuf), 107 Yakovlev, Aleksandr, 31, 54-57, 66, 131, 196738, 196n43 Yanaev, Genady, 122 Yazov, Dmitry, 122 Yetlsin, Boris: Gorbachev and, 107-108; military and, 4, 151; Moscow putsch and, 123; parliament and, 5, 170; sovereignty and, 110, 112; Tajikistan and, 67-68, 129-130, 131, 152, 158, 160, 172; USSR collapse and, 124, 132, 220n21 Yovoroni Bossozi, 62, 199n5 Yugoslavia, 160 Yusuf, Shodmon, 107-108, 124, 130, 154 Yusupov, A., 146 Yusupov, Khul’kar, 58 Zabolotnii, Viacheslav, 152, 154, 157 Zafarbekov, Olim, 91 Zairov, Mukhitdin, 57, 196n49 Zardakov, Qurbon, 81 Zarifova, Nizoramoh, 15-16, 17, 129 Zaslavskaya, Tatyana, 34-36 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek München |
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Contents Preface ix Note on Spelling and Transliteration xiii Acronyms and Abbreviations xv Introduction: The Long Road to Violence 1 1. The Periphery before Perestroika 14 2. Moscow Promotes Perestroika 31 3. The Winds of Perestroika Drift South 46 4. 1989: The Center Cannot Hold 61 5. The Harsh Reckoning of February 1990 82 6. The "Calm” before the Storm: March 1990-July 1991 102 7. Slouching towards Independence 122 8. The Short Road to War 139 Conclusion: War Notes 175 Bibliography 237 Index 263 158
Bibliography Archives Russia Archive of the Gorbachev Foundation, Moscow (AGF) Russian State Archive of Contemporary History, Moscow (RGANI) Russian State Archive of the Economy, Moscow (RGAE) Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History, Moscow (RGASPI) State Archive of the Russian Federation, Moscow (GARF) Tajikistan Central State Archive of the Republic of Tajikistan, Dushanbe (TsGART). Party Archive of the Institute of Political Research of the Communist Party of Tajikistan (PA IPI KPT) State Archive of Movie and Photograph Documents of the Republic of Tajikistan, Dushanbe (GAKFD RT) United Kingdom Archive of the Second Russian Revolution BBC documentary series, London School of Economics, London (2RR) United States George H. W Bush Presidential Library, College Station, Texas The Netherlands International Institute of Social History, Amsterdam (IISH) Interviews Anonymous former member of the Communist Party of Tajikistan’s (CPT) Bureau, Dushanbe, July 2016. Anonymous former volunteer on Davlat Khudonazarov’s 1991 presidential cam paign, Moscow, December 2016. Ashgabat residents, Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, 2006-2008. Davlat, Nurali, journalist, Dushanbe, February 2015. 237
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I N D EX Page numbers appearing in italics refer to figures. 8th Motorized Infantry Division, 152 14th Army, Russian, 170 201st Motorized Division, 141, 149-152, 156-157, 159, 164-166, 173, 231n22, 233n41 500 Days Plan, 111, 215n41 Abalkin, Leonid, 111 Abashin, Sergei, 163, 180nl5 Abdujabbor, Tohir: as a candidate, 85, 96; at demonstrations, 85-86, 88, 128, 146, 154; opposition by, 130, 173, 221n47; Rastokhez and, 79, 81, 96; Ru ba Ru and, 65; in Supreme Soviet, 96, 106, 110; Tajik independence and, 126-127 Abdullajonov, Abdumalik, 158, 165 Abdulov, Karim, 58-59 Abdurahim, Rustami, 62, 148 Abdurakhmanov, Ruslan, 135 Abkhazia, 69, 169 Abkhazian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, 69 Adabiyot va San”at, 59-60, 198n83 Adamshin, Anatoly, 230n8, 235n80 Afghanistan, 19; border with Tajikistan of, 7, 137, 152, 159, 162, 173; Soviet-Afghan War, 11, 149; Tajik Civil War and, 159, 162, 167, 168; trade with, 118, 135 Aganbegyan, Abel, 35-36, 39, 43, 70-71, 111 agriculture: cotton (see cotton); lemons, 115-116, 216168 Akaev, Askar, 152 alcohol consumption, 39, 49, 52, 138, 195n31 Allen, Robert C., 187n9 All-Soviet Znanie Society, 56 All-Union Central Soviet of Trade Unions, 40 All-Union Communist Party, 172 .All-Union Party Conference, 76-77 aluminum, 117-118, 134, 223n76 Amirbek, Atobek, 112, 145, 146, 154 Andreeva, Nina, 54, 196n43 Andropov, Yuri, 31, 32, 36-37, 43, 44 anti-alcohol campaign, 49 archives, Soviet, 10-11, 30, 179n24 Armenia, 150; Azerbaijan conflict with, 62-63, 69, 85, 94-95, 105, 160, 168 Armenian refugees, 83, 85, 86, 95-96, 207nll Armenian residents of Tajikistan,
87 arms, non-nuclear, 4-5, 13, 176nl0, 227n69 Ashurov, Davron, 55, 120 Ashurov, Mukhriddin, 152 Aslonov, Qadriddin: about, 1-2, 175nl, 218n99; as acting president, 125-126, 127, 128-129, 149; CPT and, 128, 221n35; death of, 1-2, 3, 166 atheist propaganda campaign, 113 Avezova, B. S., 27 AvtoVAZ, 74 Ayubi, Safarmuhammad, 62 Azerbaijan, 20, 83, 99, 109, 150; conflict with Armenia, 62-63, 69, 85, 94-95, 105, 160, 168, 170 Baker,James, 137 Baklanov, Oleg, 122 "bamboozlement,” 103, 120 banking sector reform, 45 bartering, 134-135 bauxite, 28 Beissinger, Mark, 199n2 Beknazarov, Sohibnazar, 205П100 Belarus, 4, 132, 227n69 Belorussia, 124 Belousov, Rem, 38 Belov, Yuri, 55, 196n48 Belovezh Accords, 150 Belovezhskaya meeting, 132-133 263
264 INDEX birthrates, 21, 27-28 Bleuer, Christian, 195n31 blockade of Kulyab, 139-140, 161 Bobiev, Balajon, 146 Bobosadyqova, Guljakhon, 16, 17, 56, 180nl5 Boghparvar, 115-116 Bogomolov, Oleg, 39, 43, 193n79 Boldin, Valery, 122 Brezhnev, Leonid, 8, 31, 34 buses, 134,223176 Cabinet of Ministers, Tajik, 134, 150-151 capital goods, 39-40, 43, 103, 203n56 capital investment, 21 capitalism, 7, 34, 38, 171 cash conversion, 74-75, 103, 116, 204n71 casualties: of Soviet collapse, 5, 176nll, 176п14; of Tajik Civil War, 160, 163-164, 166, 197 ceasefires, 164, 166, 167 Central Asia: capital investment in, 21; Cen tral Asian Union and, 133; "freeing up” of workers in, 50-51; Gorbachev and, 48; military and, 150-152; post-Soviet col lapse violence in, 169-170; subsidies in, 29. See also specific countries of Central Asian Union, 133 Central Bank of Russia, 135 Central Committee of Tajik Komsomol, 64 Central Committee of the CPSU, 33, 38, 40, 66; All-Union Party Conference resolu tions and, 76-77; Gorbachev and, 31, 34; Islam and, 113; Moscow putsch and, 122; periphery republics and, 51-53, 100-101, 122; Politburo and (see Politburo of CPSU); recession of 1989 and, 72, 76 Central Committee of the CPT, 68, 106, 122; EKOMPT and, 102-103; Mirrahim article and, 58-59; plenums of, 52, 55-56, 99, 106, 109; political shake-up of, 51-53, 56-57; riots of 1990 and, 85-89, 90-92, 93-94 Central Economics and Mathematics Insti tute (TsEMI), 35-36 Central Statistical Agency (TsSU), 37 CFE (Conventional Forces in Europe) Treaty, 150, 176nl0,227n69, 228n80 Chairman of the Supreme Soviet, term of, 11
Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Tajik position, 106, 213nl6 Charoghi ruz, 121 Chechen Republic, 169 Chechnya, 5, 169, 172, 234n63 Chernenko, Konstantin, 31 Chernyaev, Anatoly, 48-49 China, 34, 118, 188nl6 Chubais, Anatoly, 235n75 CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) data, 33, 186—18718, 187nl3 CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States), 13, 132-133, 136-137, 150-151, 152, 156 citrus farms, 115-116, 216n68 civil unrest. See demonstrations; riots of February 1990 clans, 100, 180П15 collective farms, 23, 24-26, 163, 183n52, 183154 collective security, 141, 151-152 Committee for National Security (KNB), 148, 154-155, 161 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), 13, 132-133, 136-137, 150-151, 152, 156 Communist Party of Tajikistan (CPT), 15-16, 56, 81, 99; Aslonovand, 1-2,128,221n35; banning of, 127-129, 130, 221n35; Bobo sadyqova and, 16; Bureau of the Central Committee of, 91, 180nl3; Komsomol and, 64, 200nl2; nationalizing property of, 126; opposition to, 80, 85-87, 91, 93-94, 100, 127-128; perestroika and, 8, 57, 172; political shake-up of, 51-53; revolt of, 128-129. See also Central Committee of the CPT Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), 66, 180П13, 200nl2, 220n21; All-Union Party Conference and, 76-77; Congress of People’s Deputies and, 64, 67, 78; elections of 1989 and, 78; Party Congresses of, 76, 108; perestroika reform and, 31,36, 53-54, 76-77; power shift of, 108-109; reorganization of, 64, 76-77; resolutions of, 40, 113; Tajikistan and, 51-53, 57, 66, 69, 108, 125; Union Treaty and, 110. See also Central Committee of the CPSU; Politburo of CPSU concerns
(cooperatives), 116, 119 conflict between SSRs and ethnic groups, 66, 68-71, 130; Armenia and Azerbaijan, 62-63, 69, 85, 94—95, 105, 160, 168; Meskhetians and Uzbeks, 69-70 Congress of the People's Deputies, 109; creation of, 64, 76, 77-79, 205n94, 205п100; dissolution of, 126; Fourth, 111, 215n45; Third, 93, 105; Yeltsin and, 67
INDEX constitutional commission, Tajik, 147 consumer product standards, 39 consumption, 18-19, 37-38, 71, 181П18, 181П20, 202n47 Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty, 150, 176nl0, 227n69 conventional arms, 4-5, 13, 176П10, 227n69 conventional forces, 150-152,227n69,228n80 Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty, 150, 176nl0, 227n69, 228n80 cooperatives: agriculture and, 116; criminal and unethical activities of, 118-119; EKOMPT, 102-103; enterprise contracts with, 44, 73-75, 204n71; production de cline of, 71; Tajik growth of, 98 corruption, 74, 98, 103,116,119,138,143-144, 2061113 cotton: division of labor and, 28,29; economy and, 15, 22—26, 24, 29, 134, 183nn52-54, 185n81; harvesting of, 25-26, 184n66, 185172; under private control, 134; pro cessing raw seed of, 24,184n66; trade of, 118, 119-120, 146; Vakhsh Valley and, 162 Council for the Study of Productive Powers (SOPS), 33 Council of Ministers of Tajikistan, 68, 87-88, 89 Council of Ministers of the RSFSR, 44, 111 Council of Ministers of the USSR, 44, 50, 74, 76, 111 Council of Nationalities' Commission for the Social and Economic Development of Union and Autonomous Republics, Na tional Districts and Oblasts, 210n71 Council of the Federation, 108 CPSU (Communist Party of the Soviet Union). See Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) CPT (Communist Party of Tajikistan). See Communist Party of Tajikistan (CPT) credit emission, 142 crime: cooperatives and, 118-119; economy and, 120, 121, 137-138; pre-perestroika, 30, 32; in Russia, 170, 202n44; Soviet col lapse and, 5, 170; Tajik Civil War and,
161-162, 168; unemployment and, 99, 211П94 dams, hydroelectric, 21-22, 28, 59, 67-68, 137 Dedov, Ivan, 18 deficits, 190n37; budget, 120, 135,136; of consumer goods, 71, 73, 74-75, 80, 118, 265 187-188115; of food and beverages, 39, 71, 116, 133 Deluguian, Georgi, 170 Democratic Party of Tajikistan (DPT): civil war and, 161,162; founding of, 107-108; opposition of, 124, 125, 127, 130, 143, 145, 154 democratization, 57, 63-64, 76-78, 80, 84, 104 demonstrations: of 1989, 61-63, 65, 69, 70, 199nn2-3; of 1990, 82-83, 85-87, 92, 209-210n65 (see also riots of February 1990); of 1991, 124, 125-126, 127-128, 129-130, 143, 144; of 1992, 145-149, 153-155; standard of living and, 9-10, 178n21 Derluguian, Georgi M., 170, 172 deurbanization, 22-23, 27-28 de Waal, Thomas, 176nl4 direct contracts, 43, 44, 45, 117 Doucette, Courtney, 32 DPT (Democratic Party of Tajikistan). See Democratic Party of Tajikistan (DPT) drug use and trafficking, 120, 137-138 dry law, 39, 191п49 Dudayev Dzhokhar, 169 Dushanbe (Zohir), 19 Dushanbe, Tajikistan: about, 14-15, 17; Ar menian residents flight from, 87, 208n20; civil war in, 161-162, 165, 166-167; riots in (see riots of February 1990) Dustov, Nazrullo, 134, 136, 145, 154, 155 Eastern Bukhara, 15 econometrics, 35-39, 189n22, 189n28 economy: crime and, 120, 121, 137-138; goods and, 30, 33, 37-38, 183n51, 187П15, 190n37; "mechanisms" of, 34-35,41, 43, 75; pre-perestroika, 15, 18-19, 21-23, 31-34, 33, 35-39, 186—187nn8-9. See also economy of Tajikistan; economy of USSR economy of Tajikistan: background and overview of, 2; budget of, 120—121, 135, 136, 137,
218П106; civil war and, 156; exports and, 134-135; independence and, 127, 133; language and, 66; Moscow sub sidies and, 28-30; pre-perestroika, 15, 18-23; recession and downturn of, 73, 80-81, 114-118; riots of 1990 and, 84, 97-99, 100, 101; salaries post perestroika and, 97, 115, 119, 218n99; salaries preperestroika and, 18-19, 24-25, 181ПП17-18; state paralysis on, 119-121, 142
266 INDEX economy of USSR: All-Union Party Conference resolutions and, 77; back ground and overview of, 3-4, 9-10; pre-perestroika, 31-34, 33, 35-39, 186-187nn8-9; recession of 1989 and, 71-73, 81 education, 27-28, 185n71 Ekh'yoi Khujand, 65, 79 EKOMPT, 102-103 elections: of 1989, 77-78; of 1990, 79-80, 83-85, 93, 96-97, 98, 104, 114; of 1991, 121, 126, 130, 131-132 electricity production, 21-22, 67. See also hydroelectric dams elite: Soviet, 47-48; Tajik, 17, 49, 52 Emergency Committee, 122-123, 124-125, 219n2 employment guarantee, Soviet, 98-99 energy, 21-22, 67. See also hydroelectric dams enterprises, state: contracts and, 44, 73-75, 117, 204n71; reform of, 42-44, 71, 203n52; rule changes of 1991 for, 116-117, 217n78 entrepreneurship, 42, 45, 116, 134, 171, 172, 19216 equalization policy, Soviet, 26,29, 184n67 Estonia, 20, 63, 109, 111 ethnic conflict, 66, 85, 94-95, 130, 162-164, 168-170, 178719 ethnic consolidation, 182n35 exchange value, 189n24 exporting, 117-118, 134-135, 141, 142,217n90 facade of normalcy, 103-104 factory directors, 40, 43 family business, 42 Federenko, Nikolai, 34-36 Ferghana Valley, 7, 15, 69 Filtzer, Donald, 41, 203n52 Florenskii, Pavel, 68 food production, 42, 115-116, 135, 138, 142 foreign capital, 45 foreign trade, 117-118, 134-135, 141, 142, 217790 "For how long will water flow under the ice?" (Mirrahim), 58-59, 198n71, 198n78 "freeing up" of workers, 40-41, 50-51, 192n58 Fuzhenko, Ivan, 129-130 Gaidar, Yegor, 158-159, 161, 165, 173 Gaitsgori, Yurii, 117-118 Gamsakhurdia, Zviad, 69, 169 gangs, 70, 156, 161 gap between Soviet center and
periphery 47-49 Gazibekov, Arslanbek, 19 GBAO (Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast), 112, 144-145, 147 General Prosecutor’s Office of Tajikistan, 93,94, 121,219nll4 Georgia, 5, 63, 69, 93, 109, 150, 168-169, 170 Georgian Communist Party, 69 Ghaforov, Tukhtaboi, 112, 158-159, 161 Gharmis, 139, 140, 162-163, 232n28 Gharm region, 140, 145, 162 Ghoibov, Gholib, 96, 153 Gissar Valley, 46, 136, 160,166 glasnost: background and overview of, 54—55; destabilization of, 63, 84, 95, 98, 172; Ta jikistan and, 55-58, 59, 64-67, 80, 201n30 goods: capital, 39-40, 43, 79, 103, 203n56; cooperatives and, 44-45, 74-75, 103, 204179, 206П113; economy and, 3 0, 33, 37-38, 183n51,187nl5,190n37; finished goods in Tajikistan, 28-29, 115; pricing of, 35, 38, 44, 189n24, 190n37, 218П104; profit and, 9, 74; recession of 1989 and, 71-72, 73, 80,202n47, 203n56; reform and, 45, 47, 71, 75; salaries and, 18-19, 38, 181П18; trade of, 117-118, 142, 217n90 goods mafia, 80, 206П113 Gorbachev, Mikhail: 1989 demonstrations and violence and, 63-64, 69-70, 93; 1990 riots and, 93, 100-101; agriculture and, 115; background and overview of, 3-4; business reform and, 44-45; communist party and, 31, 34, 53-54, 76-78, 105, 186n4; Congress of People’s Deputies and, 64, 77-79, 105; glasnost and, 54-55; as a "hypnotizer," 109, 214n29; Moscow putsch and, 122-123, 219n2; nationalism and, 94-95; perestroika beginnings and, 31-34, 36-39, 186n5; periphery repub lics and, 8, 48-49, 51, 67, 100-101, 105, 108-110, 129-130; as President of the USSR, 93, 133; productivity increase and, 39-40, 191n49; reform overview and, 12, 76,
171, 173; Union Treaty and, 110-112, 215n45; USSR collapse responsibility of, 6-7; Yeltsin and, 107-108 Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast (GBAO), 112, 144-145, 147 Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Republic, 145
INDEX Gosagroprom (State Agricultural-Industrial Committee), 26, 115 Gosplan committee, 16, 40, 41, 72, 76, 117, 185n81, 187n9 goszakazy, 44, 71, 193n79, 203n53 Government of National Reconciliation, 139-140, 154-155, 159, 160-162, 163, 167 Gribov, V.G., 72 Grishin, Viktor, 186n4 Grossu, Semen, 70 Grozny, Chechen Republic, 169 Gulova, Z. S., 210n71 Habibullo, Hamidullo, 79 Haitov, Muhammad, 91 Hakim, Askar, 62, 205nl02 Hasanov, Salohiddin, 55, 57, 196n49, 197n63 Hayoev, Izatullo: about, 55, 78; criticism of, 65; economy and, 21, 28, 127; opposition of 1991 and, 128, 130; riots of 1990 and, 89-90, 91-92, 100, 209n60, 211n94 Himmatzoda, Muhammadsharif, 107-108, 130,154, 171 Hindustoni, Muhammadjon, 107 historical conflict, 170-171 Hojiev, Rif’at, 55, 57, 196n49 Homeland Salvation Front, 161-162, 164,165 House of Political Enlightenment, 64, 102 housing, 28, 83, 86, 97-98 Hungary, 134 hydroelectric dams, 21-22, 28, 59, 67-68, 137 Ideological Division of the Central Commit tee of CPSU, 54 lEiOPP (Institute of Economics and Organ ization of Industrial Production), 35 Ikromov, Maqsud, 85, 91, 128, 129, 130, 143, 221П47, 225П12 IMF, 137, 187n9, 224n92 Imomov, Sharofiddin, 79 importing, 117-118, 217n90 income, 18-19, 23, 29, 75, 181ПП16-18. See also salaries income that went unspent, 75 industrialization, 21-23, 26, 28, 37, 39—40, 49-51 inflation, 75, 120, 135, 142, 181n20, 190n37, 218П106 informal organizations, 62, 63, 65, 79. See also specific organizations Ingushetia, 169 Institute of Economics and Organization of Industrial Production (lEiOPP), 35 267 Institute of Ethnology
and Anthropology, 95 Institute of Political Studies, Tajik, 102 internal force troops, 87-88, 89, 90, 91-92, 208п21 Internal Ministry forces, 88, 92 internationalism, 58 Iqbal, Muhammad, 85, 86 Iran, 137,168 IRPT (Islamic Revival Party of Tajikistan). See Islamic Revival Party of Tajikistan (IRPT) Isfara, Tajikistan, 70, 145 Iskandarov, Akbarsho, 130, 136, 145, 155, 157, 165 Islam, 11,48, 107, 112-114, 148 Islamic clergy, 94 Islamic Revival Party of Tajikistan (IRPT): civil war and, 161, 162; formation of, 107-108, 113, 213121, 213n26; opposition of 1991 of, 125-126, 127, 130, 131, 143, 171; opposition of 1992 of, 145, 146, 148, 154; Russia support of, 172 Ismaili Shia, 8 Isoev, Jumakhon, 65 Izvestiia, 57 Jabirov, Burkhon, 153 job creation, 26-27 job tenure, 17 Joint Soviet-Dutch Enterprise RamaksNigina, 135 Juraev, Solijon, 94 Kanoat, Mumin, 62 Kantorovich, Leonid, 35 Kapur, Ishan, 224n92 Karimov; Buri, 19, 82, 230nl0; riots of 1990 and, 87, 88-92, 93-94, 99-100, 101, 20965 Karimov, Islam, 151 Karimoy Jamshed, 65, 78, 91 Kasimov, A. K., 55, 57, 196n49 Kazakhstan, 4, 116, 133, 150 Kenjaev, Kh., 19 Kenjaev, Safarali: about, 94, 121, 125, 136; civil war and, 166, 167, 171,173, 230nl0; demonstrations and, 128-129, 130,145, 226153; as head of KNB, 148, 226n53; as a "law-bringer,” 142-145, 225П13, 225n23; resignation of, 145, 147; as Supreme So viet chairman, 152, 153, 155; unemploy ment and, 99 KGB, 83, 87, 92, 95, 97, 148, 199n2, 211194
268 INDEX Khabibov, A., 91, 156, 162 Khabibuloev, Kh., 88 Khakimov, Mirzo, 146, 173 Khakulov, Rahmat, 20 Khalimov, Izatullo, 205nl00 Khatlon Oblast, 57 Khatlon region, 15, 139-140 Khojaev, Ato, 59 Kholik, A., 88 Khorog, Tajikistan, 144, 164 Khrushchev, Nikita, 8 Khudoiberdiev, Mahmud, 165, 233n41 Khudonazarov, Davlat: as a candidate, 56, 131-132, 146; demonstrations and, 92, 129, 146, 154, 155, 221n47; Moscow putsch and, 124-125; opposition of, 56, 78; riots of 1990 and, 93, 210n71 Khujand, 65, 140, 145, 167 Khuvaidulloev, Nurullo, 90-91, 93, 121, 128 Kishinev, Moldova, 70 KNB (Committee for National Security), 148, 154-155, 161 Kolkhozabad, Tajikistan, 115, 165 kolkhozes, 23, 24-26, 163, 183n52, 183n54 Komilzoda, Ahmadshoh, 205nl02 Kommunist Tadzhikistana, 57, 58 Komsomol, 58-59, 64, 65, 200nl2 Komsomoli Tajikistan, 58-59 Komai, Janos, 35 Korotich, Vitaly, 47 Koshlakov, Georgii, 92, 135-136, 205nl00, 214n29 Kosygin reforms, 43-44, 193n71, 193n76 Kozyrev, Andrei, 166-167 Kravchuk, Leonid, 111, 132, 227n64 Kriuchkov, Vladimir, 122 Kulyab Oblast, 55, 57, 62, 155, 167 Kulyab region, 1, 22, 140, 155, 157, 160-161, 162—163,231122 Kumsangir District, 74, 143, 145 Kunaev, Dinmukhamed, 186n4 Kurbanov, E., 121 Kurgan-Tyube Oblast, 57, 143, 155, 197n61 Kurgan-Tyube region, 1, 22, 140, 145, 149, 155, 162, 164—165 Kyrgyzstan, 7, 70, 99, 150, 152, 168, 169 Kyrgyz-Tajik border, 63, 70 labor productivity, 32, 187nl0 labor theory of value, 36, 189n24 Lafizov, Jonobiddin, 17, 117, 120, 180nl5 La"]i Badakhshon, 112, 145, 154, 161 Langariev, Langari, 165, 166 language, Russian, 27, 66, 80
language in Tajikistan, 27, 58, 61, 80, 103, 198171, 201126; Law on Language and, 62, 65-67, 68, 199n4, 201П30 Latifi, Otakhon, 89, 125 Latvia, 66, 109 Law on Cooperatives, 44-45 Law On Distributing Authority between the Soviet Union and Federative Subjects, USSR, 217178 Law on Individual Labor Activity, 41-42 Law on Language of the Tajik SSR, 62, 65-67, 68, 199n4, 201П30 Law on State Enterprises, 42-44, 71 legalization of private business, 9, 44—45, 71, 98, 171. See also cooperatives lemons, 115-116, 216n68 Leninabad Oblast, 167, 196n49 Leninabad region, 65, 159-160, 162 Lenin Square, 61, 86, 92, 127-128, 147 Lenin’s statue, 128, 129 Ligachev, Yegor, 52, 191n49 Lithuania, 63, 105, 109, lll,211n90 living conditions, 19-20 loyalty, 8, 17, 18, 57, 100, 108, 180П15 Luchinskii, Petr, 22, 55, 56, 78, 196n48 machine industry, 39-40, 49-50 Maddison, Angus, 187n8 Mahkamov, Kahhor; about, 2, 16, 55, 68, 196n50; Congress of People’s Deputies and, 78, 93; CPSU and, 68-69,125; CPT and, 105, 126; economy and, 81, 116, 120-121; informal organizations and, 62, 65; Moscow disengagement and, 105, 112; Moscow putsch and, 123-124, 125, 220nl0; political parties and, 106-109; political positionings of, 100, 105-106, 114; religion and, 113-114; resignation of, 125; riots of 1990 and, 86-87, 89-93, 100, 209n60, 210n81; sovereignty and, 109-110, 112; state language and, 65-67 Makhsudov, B., 65 Maksum, Fuzail, 232n28 Maksumov, A., 26 marketization: effectiveness of, 171, 235n75; market relations and, 39, 43, 117, 137, 188nl6; perestroika beginnings and, 32, 34, 36, 41, 49; recession of 1989 and,
80; transition programs of, 111, 215n41. See also cooperatives; enterprises, state Martyrs' Square, 127-128, 147-148, 153-155, 221132
INDEX Masov, Rahim, 59 mechanization, 25-26, 27, 184n66, 185n72 Medvedev, Vadim, 37, 189n28 memoirs, 10, 160, 230nl0 Merrem, Gerd, 168 Meskhetian Turks, 69-70 Mikhailin, Genadii, 219П114 Mikhtojev, Siroj, 94 military: Tajikistan and, 126-127, 141, 148-152, 156; of USSR, 3-5, 87-88, 126, 149-152, 208n21 militias, 140, 158-159, 161-168, 232n34 Miniari-i Islam, 113 Ministry of Communications, Tajik, 50 Ministry of Defense, Russian, 13, 151, 152 Ministry of Defense, Tajik, 149-150 Ministry of Defense, USSR, 129-130 Ministry of Internal Affairs (MIA), Tajik, 91, 104, 143-144, 153 Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) of Mol dova, 70 Ministry of the Interior, Tajik, 119 Mirkhalikov, Temurbai, 205П100 Mirrahim, Mirbobo, 46; about, 155, 161; article of, 58-59, 198n71,198n78; demon strations and riots and, 61, 88, 128, 130; Government of National Reconciliation and, 155; Kenjaevand, 142-143; Rastokhez and, 79, 211n90; Ru ba Ru and, 65 Mirzoaliev, Qurbonali, 161, 233n48 Mirzoev, Akbar, 136, 142,165 Mirzoev, Hikmatullo, 161 Mitchell, Jennifer, 160 modernization, 15, 19, 20-22, 26 Moldova, 70, 150, 168, 169-170, 227n69 monetary supply, 135, 142 Moscow putsch, 122-125, 219n2, 219n6 Moscow’s shadow, 2, 8-9, 131, 151-152, 159, 172-173 mosques, 85,113-114, 216n60 Mozhin, Vladimir, 33 Muhabbatshoev, Mazhabsho, 90, 93 Mukomel, Vladimir, 26, 27 Muscovites, 37, 38 Muslim republics, 48 Muslims. Sec Islam Nabiev, Rahmon: about, 16,18,53,55,195n31; CPT and, 51-53; demonstrations of 1992 and, 145, 146-148, 153-155; military and, 129, 151, 153; paralysis of, 142,156-157; as a political candidate,
114, 129,131-132; as president, 136-137, 138, 165, 172; 269 resignations of, 130, 158, 165; Safarov and, 160; Soviet collapse and, 133 Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO), 62-63, 168 Nagorno-Karabakh region, 5, 69, 94-95 Najibullah, Ahmadzai, 152 narcotics, 137-138 Nasreddinov, Hikmatullo, 17-18, 109-110, 126, 230П10 "national guard," 151, 153-154, 155, 157, 160, 163, 232n34 national income produced (NIP), 23, 29, 183n51 national income utilized (NIU), 29, 183n51 nationalism, 84, 94-96, 97, 109, 144, 211186 nationalization: of military, 149, 150-152; of property, 126, 220n21 National Salvation Front, 154 NATO, 150, 176т Navjuvanov, Mamadaoz, 91, 143-145 Nazarbayev, Nursultan, 133, 151 Nazarov, Talbak, 205nl00 Nazarshoev, Moyonsho, 156, 171 Nekushoev, Akbarsho, 18 Nemchinov, Vasily, 35 Nestorovich, Nikolai, 72 net material product, 187n9 NIP (national income produced), 23, 29, 183n51 NIU (national income utilized), 29, 183n51 Niyazov, Farrukh, 151, 154, 155 Niyazov, Saparmurat, 151 Niyozmamadov, Alimamad, 80-81 NKAO (Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast), 62-63, 168 noncash funds, 74, 204n71 North Ossetia, 169 Nourzhanov, Kirill, 195n31 NPOs, 115-116 nuclear arms, 4, 5, 150, 151 nuclear non-proliferation, 4 Nurek, Tajikistan, 65, 152, 166, 231 Nuri, Abdullo Said, 107, 168, 213n21 Nuri Nav, 134-135 Object Zaria, 122 Ochered’ (Sorokin), 37 Ochilov, A., 92 October Hotel, 102-103 Ogonyok, 47 Okno (Window Optical-Electronic Com mand and Control Center), 152, 159, 173, 228n82,231n22
270 INDEX "On Additional Measures Connected with the Activation in Asia and Africa of So-Called ‘Militant Islam”' resolution, 113 "On Freedom of Religion and Religious Organizations” law, 113 “On the General Conception of the New Union Treaty and the Order of Its Sign ing" resolution, 111 “On the State Sovereignty of the Tajik So viet Socialist Republic” declaration, 110, 214134 organized crime, 5, 99, 120, 170, 211n94 Osh, Kyrgyzstan, 169 Oshkoro, 62, 79-80, 81 Ossetia, 5, 169 Ozody Square demonstrations, 147-149, 153-155,22653 Pakistan, 118, 137 Pallaev, Ghoibnazar: about, 16, 78, 195n31; language and, 62, 66; oblasts and, 57; resignation and, 89-90, 106; riots of 1990 and, 89-90, 91-92, 100, 209n60 Pamir-brand, 29 Pamiri peoples, 112, 140, 144-145, 161-164, 168, 232028 Pamirs mountains, 7 paper money, 135, 142 parliamentary dissolution, 146-147 passive inflation, 181n20, 190n37 patronage, 17-18, 180nl5 Pavlov, Valentin, 122 Penguin restaurant, 211n94 People’s Committee, 88-89 , 90-92, 208132, 209160 People’s Front, Kenjaev’s, 166 People’s Front, Moldovan, 70 People's Front, Tajik, 164, 165-166, 232n34 perestroika reforms: background and over view of, 3, 5-6, 8-10, 31-34, 41, 49, 186n5; Communist Party and, 8, 31, 36, 53-54, 57, 76-77, 172; cooperatives and, 44-45; economic downturn and, 71-76, 115; "freeing up" of workers and, 40-41, 50-51, 192158; private businesses and, 41-42; productivity and, 39-41; Rastokhez and, 79; roots of, 34-39; skepti cism of, 46-47; state enterprises and, 42-44; Tajikistan and, 46-49, 56-57, 59-60; violence and, 70-71, 98-99 periphery of
USSR gap with Soviet center, 47-49 Pochomulloev, Tukhta, 219П114 Poliakov, Sergei, 25 Politburo of CPSU: about, 180nl3; economic reform and, 34, 39-40, 41, 45, 54, 193n43; Gorbachev and, 31, 34, 36-37, 45, 54, 186n4; reform of, 108-109; Ryzhkov and, 51 Political Consultative Council, 130 political parties in Tajikistan, new, 104, 107-108, 112. See also specific parties population unengaged in social production, term of, 11, 25-26 populism, 4, 101, 141, 143-147, 156,168-169 Pravda, 57, 131, 196n43 Presidential Council, 109 Presidential Defense Committee, 151 president of Tajikistan position, 114 president of the USSR position, 93, 105 pricing: agriculture and, 29; cooperative businesses and, 44-45, 75, 118; increases in, 120, 218П104; inflation and, 75, 120, 135, 142, 181П20, 190n37, 218П106; liberaliza tion of food, 116; production and, 72, 74, 75, 116; shadow, 35,188n20; systems of, 35-36, 189722, 189724 privatization: cooperatives and, 44-45; econ omy and, 127, 135, 172; individuals and, 41—42; legalization of, 9,44-45, 71, 98, 171; production and, 71, 116-117; Yeltsin on, 235175 production: cooperatives and, 118; of cotton, 22—26, 24, 29, 134, 183nn53; decline of, 71-73, 97, 115, 135, 202n47, 203nn52-53, 203n56; economy and, 97, 115,119, 134, 171; enterprises and, 116-117, 2I7n75; of food, 42, 115-116, 135, 138, 142; market structures and, 43; pricing and, 72, 74, 75, 116; privatization and, 71, 116-117; profits and, 71-73 productivity: agricultural, 25-26, 28, 115; cooperatives and, 74; labor, 32, 187nl0; reform and, 39-41 profits: agriculture and, 115-116; coopera
tives and, 45, 73-75; enterprises and, 9, 43, 44, 71-73, 75, 117, 193n71; exporting and, 135; production and, 71-73 property, 25, 43, 117, 120, 126, 220n21; gov ernment buying/selling of, 120; privatiza tion of, 117 propiska, 27 protests. See demonstrations; riots of February 1990 public speech laws, 142-143 Pugo, Boris, 89-92, 100, 219n2
INDEX Putin, Vladimir, 6, 169 putsch in Moscow, 122-125, 219n2, 219n6 Qoziyot, 113 Rahmon, Emomali, 168, 233n49 Rahmonov, Emomali, 166, 167-168, 233n49, 235n80 railroads, 22, 50, 183n43 Rakhmonov, Bahrom, 153-154 Rastokhez: about, 79-81, 112, 205П102; civil war and, 161, 162; foreign support of, 172, 211190; Kenjaev and, 142-143; op position of 1991 of, 125, 127, 128, 131, 143; opposition of 1992 of, 145, 154-155; riots of 1990 and, 83-84, 88, 94, 95-97, 98, 210n81,211n90 Rasulov, Jabbor, 16-17 Razumovsky, Georgy, 51-53 real capitalism, 171 recessions, 32, 71-73, 80 referendum on status of the USSR, 111-112, 215145 reforms: of 1965, 43-44, 193n71, 193n76; of 1983, 43, 44; desire for, 7; perestroika (see perestroika reforms) reforms of perestroika. See perestroika reforms refugees: Armenian, 83, 85, 86-87, 95-96, 207nll; from conflict in Abkhazia, 3, 161, 167; from Tajik Civil War, 3, 161, 167, 234154 regionalism, 140-141, 148, 162-164, 224n4, 232n30 religion, 112-114. See also Islam Religious Administration of Muslims in Central Asia and Kazakhstan (SADUM), 113 relocation of Tajik residents, 67-68, 162-163, 201138 revenue from taxes, 26, 29, 73, 119-120, 135, 185n81 riots of February 1990, 82-101; background and overview of, 82-87; conclusions on, 97-101; events of, 87-92, 221n32; expla nations for, 83-84, 92, 95-101, 211n90, 211194; investigations of, 93-95, 210n71 Rizoev, Jahonkhon, 1, 166, 233n48 roadblocks, 155 roads, 22 Roghun Dam, 21-22, 59, 67-68, 137, 201n33, 201138 Romanov, Grigory, 186n4 271 Roy, Oliver, 162-163 Ruba Ru, 64-67, 79-80, 216П108 rural population,
22-28, 30 Russian Federation: crime and violence in, 168, 170, 202n44; military of, 149-150, 152, 170, 173; Ministry of Defense of, 151, 152; nuclear arms and, 4, 150, 151; Parliament of, 170; sovereignty of, 108, 110; Soviet periphery countries and, 169-170; Supreme Soviet of, 215n41; Tajik Civil War and, 158-159, 160, 165-167, 168, 230n8 Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), 74, 111, 207nll, 220n21 Ryzhkov, Nikolai: economy and, 33, 36, 38, 187113; "freeing up" of workers and, 51; Meskhetian-Uzbek conflict and, 69-70; productivity and, 39; riots of 1990 and, 100; state enterprise reform and, 42-43 SADUM (Religious Administration of Muslims in Central Asia and Kazakh stan), 113 Safarov, Sangak: about, 1, 160, 230nll; civil war and, 160-161, 163-168, 171, 232n28; demonstrations and, 148, 153; elections and, 132; "national guard" and, 155, 157 Safieva, Gulrukhsor: about, 56, 67, 78; dem onstrations and, 129, 221П47; riots of February 1990 and, 82, 92, 93, 209n65; Roghun Dam and, 67-68 Saidov, Faizali, 1, 168, 232n28 Saidov, Zafar, 58 Sajüdis, the, 63, 211n90 salaries: concerns and, 119; cooperative business and, 44-45, 119; "freeing up” workers and, 50-51; in large urban areas, 38, 190-191П40; standardized, 24, 38, 40-41; in Tajikistan post perestroika, 97, 115, 119, 218n99; in Tajikistan pre perestroika, 18-19, 24-25, 181ПП17-18 Salimov, Yakub, 167 Sattorov, Abdunaby, 81, 205102 savings, citizens’, 38 Scientific-Production Associations (NPOs), 115-116 Secretariat of Central Committee of CPSV, 77, 108 self-financing, 43, 44, 71, 72, 119-120, 203n52
Seliunin, Vasily, 117 Shabdolov, Shody, 103, 127 shadow prices, 35, 188n20
272 INDEX Shahidon Square demonstrations, 127-128, 145-148, 153-155, 221n32 Shakhnazarov, Georgy, 48, 130 Shaposhnikov, Evgenii, 150, 151 Shashina, V I., 137 Shatalin, Stanislav, 36, 111, 215n41 Shcherbytsky, Volodymyr, 186n4 Sherali, Loik, 62 Shevardnadze, Eduard, 31, 215n45 Shmelov, Gelii, 42 shortages of consumer goods, 19, 33, 38, 75, 97, 187-188П15 shu'badabozi, 103,120 Shushkevich, Stanislav, 132 Silaev, Ivan, 123 small arms, 4-5, 176nll Sobchak, Anatoly, 130-131, 133, 172 Sobir, Bozor, 61, 62, 79, 88, 90, 96, 128, 221П47 Socialist Party of Tajikistan, 127-128 social order, 137-138. See also demonstra tions; riots of February 1990 social satisfaction, 19-20 Sodiqov, Alexander, 201n33 Sogdiana, 67-68, 211n90 Sohibnazar, Asliddin, 105-106, 113-114, 127, 132, 148, 205П100, 221n47, 230П10 SOPS (Council for the Study of Productive Powers), 33 Sorbon, 135 Sorokin, Vladimir, 37 sources for this work, 10-11 South Ossetia, 169 sovereignty, 63, 79,108, 109-112, 130-131, 169 Sovetskaia Rossiia, 196n43 Soviet Academy of Sciences, 95 Soviet-Afghan War, 11, 149 Soviet archives, 10-11, 30, 179n24 Soviet Autonomous Republic of ChechnyaIngushetia, 169, 234n63 Soviet Constitution, 42, 77, 105, 107 Soviet Union. See USSR sovkhozes, 23, 24-25, 183n52, 183n54 special forces brigade, Tajik, 153 speeding up development, 40, 49-50 stabilization fund, 120 standards for consumer products, 39 standards of living: in Tajikistan, 8, 9-10, 18-19, 26, 28, 98, 178n21; in USSR, 2, 33, 171 Starodubtsev, Vasily, 219n2 State Agricultural-Industrial Committee (Gosagroprom), 26, 115 State Citrus Farm
named for N. Quarabaev, 115,116 State Committee for the State of Emer gency, 122-123 state farms, 23, 24-25, 183n52, 183n54 state languages, 61-63, 65-67, 68, 201n26, 201n30 state orders (goszakazy), 44, 71, 193n79, 203153 State Planning Committee (Gosplan), 16, 40, 41, 72, 76, 117, 185n81,187n9 State Security Committee (KNB), 148, 154-155, 161 State Statistics Committee, Soviet Union, 29 Strumlin, Stanislave, 35 subsidies: from Tajik government, 116, 119, 120; from USSR, 28-30, 120, 127, 185n81 Sultonov, Shukur, 49 Supreme Soviet, Russian, 215n41 Supreme Soviet, Tajik: chairmanship of, 2, 16, 17, 89, 106, 136, 213nl6, 218199; CIS and, 136-137; civil war and, 165, 167; CPT ban and, 128-129; demonstrations of 1989 and, 61-62, 199n3; demonstra tions of 1990 and, 86, 92; demonstrations of 1991 and, 125-126, 130, 143; demon strations of 1992 and, 146-148, 153, 154-155, 156; economy and, 99, 114, 117, 120-121, 142, 223n76; elections and, 78, 83, 84-85, 96-97, 98, 104, 106, 114; Ikromov and, 143; language and, 66-67, 199n4, 201n26, 201130; military and, 126-127,149-150, 153; Navjavanov and, 143-144; Pamiris and, 144-145; political parties and, 80-81, 104-105, 106-107; religion and, 113; riots of 1990 and, 93, 94, 100, 101; sovereignty and, 109-110, 112, 126, 214n34 Supreme Soviet of the USSR: about, 76-78; Congress of People's Deputies and, 67, 77, 105; elections and, 219nll4; enter prises and, 217n78; market transition programs and, 111; Moscow putsch and, 125; Tajik riots and, 82 surveys, sociological, 19-20, 66, 75, 80, 95, 137 "System of Optimally Functioning Socialist
Economy” (SOFE), 35 Tabarov, Nur, 90-91, 93 Tadzhikvneshtorg, 117-118, 217n90
INDEX Tajic-Kyrgyz border, 63, 70 Tajik Academy of Sciences, 20, 56 Tajik-Afghan border, 7, 137-138, 152, 159, 162, 173 Tajik Aluminum Factory, 21, 134 Tajikatlas, 72-73 Tajik Civil War: background and overview of, 1, 2-3, 13, 139-141, 224n5; perestroika and, 9, 178119; politicians as cause of, 141, 156; resolution of, 165-168, 235n80; Russia and, 158-159, 160, 165-167, 168, 230n8; stalemate of, 159-165 Tajikistan: background and overview of, 1, 3, 5-9, 12-15, 18-21; budget of, 120-121, 135,136, 137, 218nl06; civil war in (see Tajik Civil War); collapse of {see Tajiki stan collapse); Communist Party of (see Communist Party of Tajikistan (CPT)); CPSU and, 51-53, 57, 66, 69, 108, 125; demonstrations in (see demonstrations); economy of (see economy of Tajikistan); elections in, 78, 79-80, 83, 84-85, 104; foreign policy of, 136-137, 141; glasnost and, 55-58, 59, 64-67, 80, 201n30; govern ment paralysis of, 119-121, 140, 142, 143; language in (see language in Tajikistan); loyalty to Soviet leadership of, 108-109; military and, 126-127, 141, 148-152, 156; Mirrahim on, 58-59, 198n71,198n78; perestroika and, 46-49, 56-57, 59-60, 72-74; population of, 21,27-28,185n74; pre-perestroika leaders of, 15-18, 55-56, 57, 180n9 (see also specific leaders); press in, 55, 58-60, 121, 197П51; riots of Febru ary 1990 in (see riots of February 1990); Russia’s influence on, 173, 235n80; sov ereignty and, 109-110, 124, 126-127, 13 0—131, 133, 213034; standards of living in, 8, 9-10, 18-19, 26, 28, 98, 178n21; state of emergency and curfew in, 100, 104, 107, 121; Supreme Soviet of (see Supreme
Soviet, Tajik); unemployment in, 71, 80-81, 97-99, 115, 120-121, 206П114; Union Treaty and, 112. See also specific cities and regions of Tajikistan collapse: background and over view of, 140-141; demonstrations and, 145-149; scapegoating and, 142-146 Tajik Komsomol, 58-59, 64-65, 200nl2 Tajik SSR. See Tajikistan Tajik Union of Writers, 60 taxes: on business income, 119; on coopera tive businesses, 45, 75; on enterprises, 273 117; personal business, 42, 192n66; rev enue from, 26, 29, 73, 119-120, 135, 185n81; turnover, 29, 72-73 , 80, 185n81, 203158 Tax Service of Tajikistan, 137 Tbilisi, Georgia, 69, 169 Tett, Gillian, 114, 224-225n5 Tikhonov, Nikolai, 186n4 Tishkov, Valery, 172 Tiziakov, Aleksandr, 219n2 Tojikistoni sovety, 90, 91 tourists, Western, 38, 191n45 trade, 117-118, 134-135, 141, 142, 217n90 Transnistria, 5, 170 transport, public, 134, 223n76 Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE), 150, 176nl0, 227n69 TsEMI (Central Economics and Mathe matics Institute), 35-36 TsSU (Central Statistical Agency), 37 Tsulaia, Vladimir, 216n68 Turajonzoda, Hoji Akbar, 86-87, 113, 148, 216158,221147 Turkmenistan, 150, 151, 169 turnover taxes, 29, 72-73, 80,185n81, 203n58 Tursun, Akbar, 56, 62 Ukraine, 4, 24, 111, 124, 132, 150, 227n64 Umalatova, Sazhi, 215n45 Umarov, Hojimuhammad, 65 uncaptured income, 75 unemployment: in Chechnya, 234n63; "free ing up” of workers and, 40-41, 50-51, 192n58; in Tajikistan, 25-28, 71, 80-81, 97-99, 115, 120-121, 2061114 Union-level investigation of 1990 riots, 93 Union of Sovereign Socialist Republics, 110 Union Treaty, 110-112, 120,
122, 124, 215145, 220nl0 Union-wide Party of Islamic Revival, 213n21 "unitary” Soviet army, 149-150, 156 United Nations, 137, 168 United States, 4, 32,137, 150, 176nl0 United Tajik Opposition (UTO), 167, 168 unneeded workers, 40-41 urban area economy, 37-39 urbanization, 22-23, 26-27, 185n74 Usmanov, Usman, 91 Usmon, Davlat, 107, 130, 146,155,161, 213n21 Usmon, Ibrohim, 132, 142, 144
274 INDEX USSR: about, 10-11, 48; collapse of (see USSR collapse); Council of Ministers of, 44, 50, 74, 76, 111; development promise of, 20-22; economy of (see economy of USSR); military of, 3-5, 87-88, 126, 149-152, 208n21; Ministry of Defense of, 129-130; nuclear arsenal of, 4, 5, 150, 151; periphery SSRs gap with, 47-49; standard of living in, 2, 33, 171; subsidies from, 28-30, 120, 127, 185n81; Supreme Soviet of (see Supreme Soviet of the USSR) USSR collapse: background and overview of, 3-6, 176n4; causes of, 95; conclusions on, 170-173; Gorbachev and, 133; periph ery SSRs and, 127, 132-133; responsibility for, 6-7; Yeltsin and, 124 Uzbekistan: Georgia and, 63; Meskhetian Turks and, 69-70; military of, 150; "Red Invasion" of, 196—197150; social satisfac tion in, 20; Tajikistan and, 7, 58, 59, 159, 166, 198n78; violence in, 99, 168 Uzbek Party, 197n50 Uzbeks in Tajikistan, 14, 162,163 Vakhidov, Vakhob, 78, 128-129 Vakhsh River, 21-22, 67 Vakhsh River Valley, 116, 162-164, 216n68, 232n30 Vakhshstroi, 15 Velikhov; Evgenii, 130-131, 172 Veselkov, Genady, 86, 99, 137 violence and disorder: of 1989, 63-64, 69-70, 76, 202n44; of 1990 (see riots of Febru ary 1990); endemic, 168-170; reform and, 9-10, 70-71,98-99; Tajik Civil War and, 160—168, 171, 232n30; Tajik Civil War beginnings and, 154-157, 229n97; Tajiki stan collapse and (see Tajikistan collapse) Volkov, Vadim, 171-172 voucher system, 133 wages. See salaries Warsaw Treaty Organization, 176nl0 “wild 1990s," 5 Window Optical-Electronic Command and Control Center (Okno), 152, 159, 173, 228n82, 231n22 working without
pay, 137, 224n96 World Bank, 137 “Wounds of History, The" (Yusuf), 107 Yakovlev, Aleksandr, 31, 54-57, 66, 131, 196738, 196n43 Yanaev, Genady, 122 Yazov, Dmitry, 122 Yetlsin, Boris: Gorbachev and, 107-108; military and, 4, 151; Moscow putsch and, 123; parliament and, 5, 170; sovereignty and, 110, 112; Tajikistan and, 67-68, 129-130, 131, 152, 158, 160, 172; USSR collapse and, 124, 132, 220n21 Yovoroni Bossozi, 62, 199n5 Yugoslavia, 160 Yusuf, Shodmon, 107-108, 124, 130, 154 Yusupov, A., 146 Yusupov, Khul’kar, 58 Zabolotnii, Viacheslav, 152, 154, 157 Zafarbekov, Olim, 91 Zairov, Mukhitdin, 57, 196n49 Zardakov, Qurbon, 81 Zarifova, Nizoramoh, 15-16, 17, 129 Zaslavskaya, Tatyana, 34-36 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek München |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| any_adam_object_boolean | 1 |
| author | Scarborough, Isaac |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1162918489 |
| author_facet | Scarborough, Isaac |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Scarborough, Isaac |
| author_variant | i s is |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV049095274 |
| classification_rvk | NQ 8306 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1377761655 (DE-599)BVBBV049095274 |
| discipline | Geschichte |
| discipline_str_mv | Geschichte |
| era | Geschichte 1989-1992 gnd Geschichte 1991-1997 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1989-1992 Geschichte 1991-1997 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic_facet | Tadschikistan Sowjetunion |
| id | DE-604.BV049095274 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-03T22:30:57Z |
| indexdate | 2024-12-11T09:00:41Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9781501771026 1501771027 |
| language | English |
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| physical | xvi, 274 Seiten Karten |
| psigel | BSB_NED_20230918 |
| publishDate | 2023 |
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| publisher | Cornell University Press |
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| spelling | Scarborough, Isaac Verfasser (DE-588)1162918489 aut Moscow's heavy shadow the violent collapse of the USSR Isaac McKean Scarborough Ithaca ; London Cornell University Press 2023 xvi, 274 Seiten Karten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Literaturverzeichnis Seite 237-261 Moscow's Heavy Shadow tells the story of the collapse of the USSR from the perspective of the many millions of Soviet citizens who experienced it as a period of abjection and violence. Mikhail Gorbachev and the leaders of the USSR saw the years of reform preceding the collapse as opportunities for rebuilding (perestroika), rejuvenation, and openness (glasnost). For those in provincial cities across the Soviet Union, however, these reforms led to rapid change, economic collapse, and violence.Focusing on Dushanbe, Tajikistan, Isaac McKean Scarborough describes how this city experienced skyrocketing unemployment, a depleted budget, and streets filled with angry young men unable to support their families. Tajikistan was left without financial or military resources, unable and unprepared to stand against the wave of populist politicians of all stripes who took advantage of the economic collapse and social discontent to try to gain power. By May 1992, political conflict became violent and bloody and engulfed the whole of Tajikistan in war. Moscow's Heavy Shadow tells the story of how this war came to be, and how it was grounded in the reform and collapse of the Soviet economy that came before Geschichte 1989-1992 gnd rswk-swf Geschichte 1991-1997 gnd rswk-swf Unabhängigkeit (DE-588)4186820-1 gnd rswk-swf Gewalt (DE-588)4020832-1 gnd rswk-swf Bürgerkrieg (DE-588)4008784-0 gnd rswk-swf Auflösung (DE-588)4193468-4 gnd rswk-swf Politischer Wandel (DE-588)4175047-0 gnd rswk-swf Perestroika (DE-588)4193962-1 gnd rswk-swf Tadschikistan (DE-588)4058877-4 gnd rswk-swf Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 gnd rswk-swf Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 g Perestroika (DE-588)4193962-1 s Auflösung (DE-588)4193468-4 s Politischer Wandel (DE-588)4175047-0 s Geschichte 1989-1992 z DE-604 Tadschikistan (DE-588)4058877-4 g Unabhängigkeit (DE-588)4186820-1 s Bürgerkrieg (DE-588)4008784-0 s Gewalt (DE-588)4020832-1 s Geschichte 1991-1997 z Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, PDF 978-1-5017-7103-3 (DE-604)BV049468869 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, EPUB 978-1-5017-7104-0 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034356907&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034356907&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Literaturverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034356907&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Scarborough, Isaac Moscow's heavy shadow the violent collapse of the USSR Unabhängigkeit (DE-588)4186820-1 gnd Gewalt (DE-588)4020832-1 gnd Bürgerkrieg (DE-588)4008784-0 gnd Auflösung (DE-588)4193468-4 gnd Politischer Wandel (DE-588)4175047-0 gnd Perestroika (DE-588)4193962-1 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4186820-1 (DE-588)4020832-1 (DE-588)4008784-0 (DE-588)4193468-4 (DE-588)4175047-0 (DE-588)4193962-1 (DE-588)4058877-4 (DE-588)4077548-3 |
| title | Moscow's heavy shadow the violent collapse of the USSR |
| title_auth | Moscow's heavy shadow the violent collapse of the USSR |
| title_exact_search | Moscow's heavy shadow the violent collapse of the USSR |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Moscow's heavy shadow the violent collapse of the USSR |
| title_full | Moscow's heavy shadow the violent collapse of the USSR Isaac McKean Scarborough |
| title_fullStr | Moscow's heavy shadow the violent collapse of the USSR Isaac McKean Scarborough |
| title_full_unstemmed | Moscow's heavy shadow the violent collapse of the USSR Isaac McKean Scarborough |
| title_short | Moscow's heavy shadow |
| title_sort | moscow s heavy shadow the violent collapse of the ussr |
| title_sub | the violent collapse of the USSR |
| topic | Unabhängigkeit (DE-588)4186820-1 gnd Gewalt (DE-588)4020832-1 gnd Bürgerkrieg (DE-588)4008784-0 gnd Auflösung (DE-588)4193468-4 gnd Politischer Wandel (DE-588)4175047-0 gnd Perestroika (DE-588)4193962-1 gnd |
| topic_facet | Unabhängigkeit Gewalt Bürgerkrieg Auflösung Politischer Wandel Perestroika Tadschikistan Sowjetunion |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034356907&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034356907&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034356907&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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