Politics of uncertainty: the United States, the Baltic Question, and the collapse of the Soviet Union
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| Format: | Thesis Book |
| Language: | English |
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Oxford University Press
[2023]
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| Series: | Oxford studies in international history
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| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Literaturverzeichnis Register // Gemischte Register |
| Physical Description: | xi, 241 Seiten |
| ISBN: | 9780197578346 |
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CONTENTS Acknowledgments Introduction ix 1 1. The Origins of the Baltic Question 14 2. “Have you not noticed our absence?”: The Baltic Question during the Annus Mirabilis of 1989 49 3. Building a New World Order?: The Lithuanian Crisis of Spring 1990 72 4. The End of Perestroika?: The Baltic Quest for Visibility and the Soviet Crackdown 104 5. The Rise of the Republics, the Fall of the Center: The Baltic Exception and the Collapse of the USSR 134 Conclusion Notes 175 Bibliography Index 231 163 215
BIBLIOGRAPHY UNPUBLISHED PRIMARY SOURCES George Bush Presidential Library • Records on the Baltics states (FOIA Request 2000-1197-F) • Records on Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (FOIA request 2012-0360-F) • Brent Scowcroft Collection The State Archives of Estonia (Rahvusarhiiv) • Consulate General of Estonia in New York (ERA.1608) Latvian State Archives (LVA) • Papers of Prime Minister Ivars Godmanis (F. 270, A. 8, L. 15) • Foreign Affairs Committee of Supreme Soviet Latvia, meetings of chairman of the Supreme Soviet Anatolijs Gorbunovs (F. 290, A. 11, L. 560) Diplomatic Archives of Latvia (LAMA) • Various boxes of unprocessed documents. Lithuanian Diplomatic Archives (LURMA) • Documents of the CSCE meeting in New York (90.10-22) (F.3, A.3, L.2) • Documents of the Accession of the Republic of Lithuania to the CSCE Position of Lithuania 28.09.1990-17.12.1991 (F.3, A.3, L.3) GORBACHEV FOUNDATION Sterling Library, Yale University, Slavic, East European Central Asian Collection • Fond 89: Archives of the Soviet Communist Party and Soviet State. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University • James A. Baker III Papers • George F. Kennan Papers National Security Archives • Collection “The End of the Cold War” • Box 2: Geneva Summit 1, Reykjavik Summit
• Box 3: Domestic Stresses on the Soviet System, CIA Intelligence Assessment, November 1985; Rising Political Instability under Gorbachev: Understanding the Problem and Prospects for Resolution. CIA Intelligence Assessment, April 1989 • Box 4: Malta Summit, Washington Summit French National Archives • Série AG papiers des chefs de 1’Etat Sous série: 5 AG 4 François Mitterrand 1981-1995 о CD 242, dossieri o CD 242, dossier 4 о CD 314, dossier 13 French Diplomatic Archives • Direction d’Europe (1986-1990): URSS 6592, URSS 6682 • Direction d’Europe (1991-1995): URSS 7667 PRIVATE ARCHIVES OF AMBASSADOR OJĀRS KALNIŅŠ Interviews Aina Nagobads-Abols, Latvian representative in France (1990-1991) and Latvian ambassador to France (1991-1997), Paris, February 26, 2010. Janis Jurkāns, foreign minister of Latvia (1990-1992), Riga, March 2, 2010. Algirdas Saudargas, foreign minister of Lithuania (1990-1992), Brussels, March 24, 2010. Karina Petersone, diplomatic advisor to the Chairman of the Supreme Council of Latvia (1990-1993), Riga, March 2, 2010. Malle Talvet-Mustonen, Estonian representative in France (1991), Tallinn, March 5, 2010. Roland Dumas, French foreign minister (1988-1993), Paris, March 16, 2010. Richard Bačkis, Lithuanian representative in France (1990-1991) and Lithuanian ambassador to France (1994-1998), Paris, March 17, 2010. Ruth Lausma-Luik, chargée d’affaires at the Estonian Institute, Brussels, March 27, 2010. Philippe de Suremain, deputy director of the European Affairs Department of the French Foreign Ministry (1989-1991), Paris, March 11, 2010. Algirdas
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"Moscow Warned on Baltic Repression.” Washington Post, January 18,1991. Remnick, David.“Gorbachev Shows His Tough Side; Nationalist Movements Are Learning His Tolerance Has Limits.” Washington Post, August 30,1989. Riding, Alan. “Baltic Assaults Lead Europeans to Hold Off Aid.” New York Times, January 23,1991. Riding, Alan. “Soviet Crackdown; Europeans Warn Soviet about Aid.” New York Times, January 14,1991. Rosenthal, A. Μ. “How to Desert a Friend.” New York Times, April 15,1990. Rosenthal, A. Μ. “The New World Order Dies.” New York Times, January 15,1991. Roush, Matt. “TV Commentary: On the Air, Doom, Gloom and Optimism.” USA Today, January 14,1991. Safire, William. "Essay: Baltic to Baghdad.” New York Times, March 30,1990. Safire, William. “Gorbachev’s ‘Bloody Sunday.’” New York Times, January 17,1991. Safire, William. “World to Vilnius: Suffer." New York Times, April 23,1990. Sarraute, Claude. “Ces ne sont pas les Koweitens les Baltes!” Le Monde, November 22,1990. Savili, Annika. “The CSCE Summit—Inside File—Thaw Leaves Baltics Out in the Cold.” The Independent, November 21,1990. Schmemann, Serge. “Summit in Europe: Reporter’s Notebook.” New York Times, November 20,1990. Sergi, Sergio. “Il Baltico in rivolta. Erano un milione, mano nella mano.” L’Unità, August 24,1989. Thom, Françoise. “Le honteux lâchage des Baltes.” Quotidien de Paris, November 11,1990. Bibliography [229]
Vernet, Daniel “Coup de grâce pour la perestroïka.” Le Monde, January 15,1991. Warren, Marcus. “Putin Lets NATO ‘Recruit’ in Baltic.” The Telegraph, June 25, 2002. UNPUBLISHED DISSERTATIONSAND PAPERS Bergmane, Una. “French and US Reactions Facing the Disintegration of the USSR: The Case of the Baltic States (1989-1991).” PhD diss., Sciences Po Paris, 2016. Boss, Edijs. “Aligning with the Unipole: Security Policies of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, 1988-1998.” PhD diss., University of Cambridge, 2011. L’Hommedieu, Jonathan. “Exiles and Constituents: Baltic Refugees and American Cold War Politics, 1948-1960.” PhD diss., Turku University, 2011. Pettai, Velio Andreas. “Framing the Past as Future: The Power of Legal Restorationism In Estonia.” PhD diss., Columbia University, 2004. Saharov, Juhan. “From Economic Independence to Political Sovereignty: Inventing ‘Self-Management’ in the Estonian SSR.” PhD diss., University of Tartu, 2021. Whittington, Anna. “Contested Privilege: Ethnic Russians and the Unmaking of the Soviet Union.” Article accepted by Journal ofModern History. PRESENTATIONS AT CONFERENCES AND SEMINARS Piirimäe, Kaarel. “‘Estonia Has Not Time’: Perceptions of the Post-Cold War as a Window of Opportunity.” Paper presented at the Conference “Post-Cold War. Change and Continuity in the Making of a New World Order at the Turn of the 1990s.” University of Minnesota, October 27-28, 2016. Radchenko, Sergey. Presentation at the LSE International History Department Cold War Research Cluster Seminar, May 9, 2019. Ramonaitė, Ainė. “Explaining the Birth of Sąjūdis: The
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INDEX For the benefit of digital users, indexed terms that span two pages (e.g., 52-53) may, on occasion, appear on only one of those pages. Abuladze, Tengiz, 121 Adamkus, Valdas, 171 Afanasyev, Yury, 57-58 Aftonbladet, 122 Alexy II, 120-21 Algeria, 7 Alma-Ata, 33 American Latvian Association, 25-26, 27-28, 82-83,128 American Latvian Republican National Federation, 27-28 Andersson, Sten, 109 Annunzio, Frank, 31-32 Arbatov, Georgy, 57, 58 Armenia, 58,116,117,121,135, 144,146-47 Armstrong, David, 83 Atlantic Charter, 21 Austria, 112-13 Azerbaijan, 58,165-66 Bakatin, Vadim, 56-57,114,128-29, 136,161 Baker, James Baltic expulsion from CSCE summit, 111 Baltic states recognition role, 6768,162 diplomatic relations establishment role, 139 Gorbachev’s political survival and, 63 independence declaration suspension issue, 92-93 Kasten/Byrd resolution, 66 Malta summit role, 67-68 meetings with Baltic American lobbyists, 68, 82-83 negotiations 1991 role, 145-46 relationship with Yeltsin, 141 Soviet-American relations generally, 64 Soviet-American trade treaty, 1001,149-50 Soviet use of force issue, 65-66, 8690,126-27,131,132 on USSR/1933 borders issue, 137 Baklanov, Oleg, 153 Baltic Alliance, 96-99 Baltic American Freedom League, 3031, 82-83 Baltic Appeal to the United Nations (BATON), 28 Baltic Freedom Day, 31 Baltic independence civil-society mobilization, 38 crimes under Nazi occupation, 10H, 29 CSCE summit expulsion, 111-13 Declaration on the Sovereignty, 4445, 46-47 détente effects on, 29-30 diplomatic relations establishment, 137-41,158 direct letters campaigns, 66, 68, 8082,110
economic aid, 157-58
Baltic independence {cont.) economic autonomy project, 62 environmental activism, 38 escalation of tensions, 113-17 ethnic demographics in, 10-11, 178n.34 European support of, 157-58 Europeanism narrative, 108,168-69 foreign policy/1990s, 105-10 governments in exile, 124-25 historical context, 1-3,14-16 identity in, 26, 35-36, 52, 98,165 international recognition of state, 105-10,113,134,140-41,157֊ 60,165 legal basis of, 59-60 movements/demonstrations, 50-62 negotiations 1991,145-47 opposition movements, 41 perceptions of legitimacy, 165-66 Perestroika support initiatives in, 39-41 public opinion issue, 22-23 radical political forces in, 41-42 rationale for collective discussion, 11 research sources, 11-12 rise of movements, 12,15 secession procedures, 47 self-determination principle in, 60, 61-62, 66, 68-69, 74, 82-83, 95, 102,127,151,152,161 social visibility struggle, 6-8 sovereignty affirmation, 1056,159-62 Soviet annexation non-recognition policy, 2, 7,11,12,15-16,18, 21-24, 29-30, 64-66, 78, 80, 84,110, 150,172-73 Soviet annexation process, 16-24 Soviet condemnation of, 60-61 Soviet military crackdown^ 5-6 Soviet nationality policy vs. official ideology, 34-38 Soviet use of force, 64-66, 69-71, 7778, 84,105 strategy generally, 164-67 trade relations and, 167-68 Union Treaty, 44-46,145-47 US Congress support of, 105,106,110, 128,159-62 [232] Index US policy generally, 4 (see also Bush, George H. W.) Baltic Way, 59-62 Baltic World Conference, 29-30 Banionis, Asta, 128 Belarus, 58,162 Berlin Wall. see also German reunification, 4, 67, 70-71, 76 Berlingske Tidende,
124-25 Beschloss, Michael, 67, 68-69, 95,131 Bessarabia, 58 Bessmertnykh, Alexander, 126-27,13132,139 Bičkauskas, Egidijus, 117 Bīlmanis, Alfrēds, 20 Bišers Ilmārs, 145-46 Blackwell, Robert, 63-64, 91 Blot, Jacques, 111, 158 Bobelis, Kazys, 82-83 Bohlen, Charles E., 20, 23 Bonner, Yelena, 141 Bosnia, 171 Bourdieu, Pierre, 167-68 Bovin, Alexander, 121 Bradley, Bill, 150 Briand-Kellogg Pact of 1928,18-19 Broomfield, Bill, 31-32 Brundtland, Gro Harlem, 108-9,111-12 Burns, Nicholas, 140,146 Bush, George H. W. Baltic states legation meeting 1991,140 coup attempt role, 153-59 foreign policy generally, 8-9,165-66 on German reunification, 77-78 Iraq-Kuwait negotiations, 109-10, 113,116 Iraq-Kuwait policy, 109-10 Lithuanian crisis (see Lithuania/ Lithuanian crisis) Malta Summit, 67-71 meeting/Baltic American lobby, 82-83 meeting with Latvian/Estonian legations, 106-8 meeting with Prunskienė, 95-96 meeting with Ukraine, 150-51 Moscow summit July 1991,147-52 motivations, 69-70,128-29 quiet diplomacy by, 86-90 reaction to Soviet use offeree, 126-33
relationship with Gorbachev, 3-4 on self-determination, 95,151 Soviet-American relations policy, 63-65 support of Baltic independence by, 12,14-16, 63-71,151-52,159-62 USSR policy, 135-37 Bush, George W., 172 Bykau, Vasil, 57-58 Byrd, Robert, 32,66,106,128 California, 31-32 Californian Republican Heritage Groups Council, 81 Canada, 125,130,159 Carlsson, Ingvar, 111-12 Carrère d’Encausse, Hélène, 36 Chebrikov, Viktor, 45-46 Chernyaev, Anatoly, 46, 52-53, 54, 56-57, 61,74,98, 99,120,131,133, 148-49,155-56,19ІП.12 Cheskin, Ammon, 144 China, 19 Clinton, Bill, 171 Committee in Charge of Creating the Lithuanian Popular Front, 39 Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC), 116 Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), 76-77,107-8, 110,111-13,137-38,161-62 Congressional Select Committee to Investigate Communist Aggression and the Forced Incorporation of the Baltic States into the U.Ś.S.R., 1953-1955,27 Connecticut, 31-32 Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty, 109-10, 111, 113,148 Cox, Charles, 31-32 Crowe, William James, 87-88 Curzon line, 21-22 Czech and Slovak Federative Republic, 125 Czechoslovakia, 143 D’Amato, Alfonse, 31-32, 83, 93-94 Daugava hydroelectric dam, 38 Davis, Robert T., 82 Davoliūtė, Violeta, 36-38 de Beausse, Jean Jacques, 18 DeConcini, Dennis, 93-94 Dekanozov, Vladimir, 17 Denmark, 108-9,111-13,124-25,134, 137-39,143,157-58 Displaced Persons Act of 1948, 24 Dobrynin, Anatoly, 52-53 Dole, Robert, 83, 84,100,106 Druță, Ion, 58 Dubinin, Yury, 126 Dumas, Roland, 111, 112-13,126 Durbin, Dick, 27-28,31-32,102 Eagleburger, Lawrence, 83 Eden, Anthony, 21-22
elections, rigged, 17-18 Environmental Protection Club (Vides Aizsardzības Klubs), 38 Ereme Grigore, 58 ERSP/Estonia, 41-42, 51 Estonia Citizens’ Committees in, 41-42 demographics in, 35-36 deportations, 51 diplomatic relations establishment, 137-41,150-51,158 elections in, 96-97 Estonian Communist Party, 50 EU membership, 169 exclusive citizenship in, 51 government in exile, 25-26 grouping as Baltic state, 9 historical context, 1-3 independence declaration, 42, 62, 75, 78, 96-97,104,156-57 language/religion, 9-10 oil/gas embargo, 97 Perestroika support initiatives in, 39-41 radical political forces in, 41-42 rationale for collective discussion, 11 recognition of by Yeltsin, 141-42 referendum on independence, 142-45 reform communists in, 42-44 restorationism in, 50-62 Russian minority citizenship, 144,167-68 Russification policy, 36, 51 self-accounting initiative, 39 social visibility struggle, 6-8 sovereignty movement, 44-47 Index [2331
Estonia (cont.) Soviet annexation, process, 16-24 Soviet occupation of, 10-11, 21-22, 154-55,178Ո.34 Soviet recognition importance to, 160-61 as Soviet success model, 34 Supreme Soviet, 96-97 urbanization rate, 36-38,183n.96 US economic aid to, 139-40 Estonian American Council, 25-26 Estonian American National Committee, 128 Estonian American National Council, 82-83 Estonian American National Republican Committee, 27-28 Estonian Heritage Society (Eesti Muinsuskaitse Selts), 38 Estonian World Council, 25-26 European Union membership, 168-74 Evangelista, Matthew, 186n.29 ex injuria jus nonoritur, 18-19 Executive Order 8389,18 Expressen, 124-25 Falin, Valentin, 57, 58 Finland, 16,108-9,112-13,122,12425,168-69 Ford, Gerald, 29-30 France, see Mitterrand, François Franco-German initiative, 90-91,94,96 Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 122 Fredén, Lars Peter, 146,158 Freedom League/Lithuania, 41-42 Frowick, Robert, 29-30 Gates, Robert, 91 Gazeta, 208n.54 Gazprom, 173-74 Gelb, Leslie H., 79-80 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 92-93 Genscher, Hans-Dietrich, 64-65,126, 137-38,158 Georgia, 58,116,121,135,144,146-47, 165-66,172-74 German reunification, 2,6-7,12, 64-65,70-71,73, 75-79,96,10910,164-65 [234] Index Germany, see Genscher, Hans-Dietrich; Kohl, Helmut Gilman, Benjamin, 31-32 glasnost, 7-8, 33-34, 38, 55-56 Godmanis, Ivars, 97,106-7,141 Goldwater, Barry, 27-28 Gorbachev, Mikhail Baltic independence policy, 1-2, 4-5, 54-55, 60-62,105,139,186n.29 Baltic situation errors by, 34-38 Baltic situation limitations, 49 constitutional reforms 1988,44-48 criticism of in US,
32 CSCE summit expulsion and, 111-13 Iraq-Kuwait negotiations, 109-10, 113,116 language usage by, 55 Lithuanian crisis (see Lithuania/ Lithuanian crisis) Malta Summit, 67-71 Moscow summit July 1991,147-52 motivations, 69-70,114 nationalities question, 32-48 negotiations 1991,145-47 political circles, 56-59 preservation of USSR, 135 recognition of Baltic independence, 153,162 reforms (see Perestroika) relationship with Bush, 3-4 relationship with Kohl, 126 resignation of, 121 rivalry with Yeltsin, 136-37, 148,156-57 on self-determination, 74,152 Soviet identity shaping, 63-71 on Soviet use of force, 118-19,130-31 Gorbunovs, Anatolijs, 2-3, 43, 45, 97, 99,131,141-42,143,156-57, 160,161 Gorton, Slade, 159 Grachev, Andrei, 55-56,74,120,133 Gromov, Boris, 114 Gromyko, Andrei, 52-53 Guardian, 122 Gulf War, 6-7,117,126-27,129,130,132 Hamilton, Lee, 84 Hannibalsson, Jón Baldvin, 108-9, 125,137-38
Hathaway, Oona, 18-19 Havel, Václav, 111-12,143 Heinrichson, Elise Marie, 20 Helms, Jesse, 32, 60, 83, 84, 93-94,128 Helsingin Sanomat, 122 Helsinki Final Act, 29-31, 66, 76-77 Henderson, Loy W., 20-21 Hercegovina, 171 heresthetic concept, 186n.29 Hermannsson, Steingrimur, 112-13 Hewett, Ed, 146 Hitler-Stalin pact, see MolotovRibbentrop Pact Holocaust commemoration, 169-70 House Resolution 40,127 Hull, Cordell, 18 human rights abuses/rhetoric, 30-31 Humphrey, Gordon J., 83 Hungary, 50, 60-61, 64, 67-68,112-13, 125,168-69,170-71 Hurd, Douglas, 125 Hussein, Saddam, 104-5 Hutchings, Robert, 64, 67-68 hysteresis, 167-68 Iceland, 109,112-13,137-38 Ignalina nuclear plant, 38 Ignatenko, Vitaly, 120,131 Illinois, 31-32 Ilves, Toomas Hendrik, 171 Interfront/Latvia, 41 Intermovement/Estonia, 41 International Disaster Relief Program, 116 Iraq, 104-5,109-10,113 īvāns, Dainis, 56-57, 59, 98,124-25 Jackson-Vanik amendment, 92,116 Japan, 19 Japanese Northern Territories, 78 Jervis, Robert, 65 Joint Baltic American National Committee (JBANC), 28, 29-30, 68, 82-83 Joint Resolution 201, 31 Jurkāns, Jānis, 107,108,111-13 Kalējs, Konrāds, 29 Kalniņš, Ojārs, 106,134,139-40, 150,152 Kamman, Curtis, 139-40,149-50 Karimov, Islam, 117 Kasten, Bob, 66, 83,106 Kazakhstan, 162 Kazannik, Alexey, 57-58 Kazickas, Joseph, 95 Kazlauskas, Walter V, 80 Kelam, Tunne, 82-83 Kelley, Robert F., 20 Kennan, George E, 14, 20,179n.l7 Kennedy, Ted, 87-88 Kerr, Richard, 154 Kersten, Charles, 27 Kessedjian, Bernard, 158 Kissinger, Henry, 29-30, 67-68 Klimov, Elem, 121 Kohl, Helmut, 2, 64-65, 77, 90-91, 95,
96,100-1,109-10,126,158 Koivisto, Mauno, 111-12 Kolbin, Gennady, 33 Korotich, Vitaly, 57-58 Kovalev, Anatoly, 130-31 Kozyrev, Andrei, 154 Kravets, Volodymyr, 58 Krol, George, 114-15,149-50 Kryuchkov, Vladimir, 117,119, 148,153 Kunaev, Dinmukhamed, 33 Kuril Islands, 151-52 Kuwait, 104-5,108,109-10 Kuzmickas, Bronius, 124-25 Kyrgyzstan, 58 Landsbergis, Vytautas, 59, 61, 74-75, 82-83, 90-91, 94,97,102,140, 141-42,149-50,154-55,160 Latvia Citizens’ Committees in, 41-42 Communist Party, 97,114-15 deportations, 51 demographics, 35-36 diaspora networks in independence, 50,185Ո.Յ diplomatic relations establishment, 137-41,150-51,158 elections in, 96-97 escalation of tensions, 114-15,116 EU membership, 169 grouping as Baltic state, 9 historical context, 1-3 Index Í2351
Latvia (cont.) independence declaration, 62, 75, 78, 96-98,104,156-57 language/religion, 9-10 Latvian Interferon, 114-15 Masļenki attack, 16-17 National Salvation Committee, 11415,155 OMON unit, 118,147,202n.80 Perestroika support initiatives in, 39-41 radical political forces in, 41-42 rationale for collective discussion, 11 recognition of by Yeltsin, 141-42 referendum on independence, 142-45 reform communists in, 42-44, 45 restorationism in, 50-62 Russian minority citizenship, 144,167-68 Russification policy, 36, 51 social visibility struggle, 6-8 sovereignty movement, 44-47 Soviet annexation process, 16-24 Soviet occupation of, 10-11, 21-22, 155,178Ո.34 Soviet recognition importance to, 160-61 as Soviet success model, 34 Soviet use of force in, 105, 116,118-19 Trade Unions of Creative Professions, 52 urbanization rate, 36-38,183n.96 US economic aid to, 139-40 violence/killings in Riga, 13 Latvian Popular Front, see Tautas Fronte Le Monde, 122 Lenin, Vladimir, 32-33 Leningrad City Soviet, 98-99 Lévesque, Jacques, 70-71 Lewis, Anthony, 60 Libération, 61 Lieberman, Joe, 193n.6O Lieven, Anatol, 116-17 Lindsay, James, 66 Lippmaa, Endel, 54 Lithuania/Lithuanian crisis Baltic Alliance, 96-99 Communist Party, 36-38, 62, 87 deportations, 51 [236] Index demographics, 36-38 diplomatic relations establishment, 137-41,150-51,158 direct letters campaigns, 80-82 economic pressures, 92-94,100-2 escalation of tensions, 85-94, 99 exclusive citizenship in, 51 Franco-German initiative, 9091,94, 96 generally, 12 German reunification and, 75-79 Gorbachev-Gorbunovs meeting, 99 Gorbachev’s
policies generally, 74-75 government in exile, 25-26 governmental crisis in, 116-17 Green Movement, 38 grouping as Baltic state, 9 historical context, 1-3 Independence Day, 31 independence declaration, 42, 62, 74-84, 89-90, 91,96, 99,1023,127-28 independence movement in, 51 international recognition of states, 72-74 language/religion, 9-10 Malta summit on, 70 media coverage, 208n.54 media coverage/US, 79-80, 82 oil/gas embargo, 90, 91-94, 98-99, 101-2,104 Perestroika support initiatives in, 39-41 quiet diplomacy, 86-90 radical political forces in, 41-42 rationale for collective discussion, 11 recognition of, 98-99 referendum, 88 referendum on independence, 142-45, 208Ո.54 reform communists in, 42-44, 45 restorationism in, 50-62 Russification policy, 36 secession procedure, 75, 79,19ІП.12 self-determination in, 74, 82-83,102 social visibility struggle, 6-8 sovereignty movement, 44-47 Soviet annexation process, 16-24 Soviet occupation of, 10-11, 21-22, 154-55,178Ո.34
Soviet recognition importance to, 160-61 as Soviet success model, 34 Soviet use of force in, 77-78, 84, 85-86,87-89,105,118-24,13031,155 Supreme Soviet elections, 74-75 trust of Gorbachev, 79 Union Treaty, 74, 75 urbanization rate, 36-38,183n.96 US Congress support of, 83-84, 9394,100,102 US economic aid to, 139-40 US policy, 73-74, 75, 76-78, 79-90, 193Ո.60 Washington summit, 100-3 Western mediation of, 94-103 Lithuanian American Committee, 128 Lithuanian American Community, 82-83 Lithuanian American Council, 2526, 82-83 Lithuanian American Republican National Federation, 82-83 Lithuanian World Community, 25-26 LNNK/Latvia, 41-42 Los Angeles Daily News, 127 Lozoraitis, Stasys, 25-26 Lubbers, Ruud, 154-55 Lugar, Richard, 91 Lukyanov, Anatoly, 45-46,47 Madisson, Tiit, 52 Maikovskis, Boļeslavs, 29 Major, John, 153-54 Malta Summit, 12, 67-71 Manchuria invasion, 19 Mandela, Judith, 150 Margrethe II, 134 Maslyukov, Yuri, 47 Massachusetts, 31-32 Matlock, Jack, 68, 88,117,131,136 Mazeika, Lucija, 81 Mazowiecki, Tadeusz, 60-61,111-12 McCarthy, Joseph, 27 McGrory, Mary, 127 media coverage Baltic independence, 59-62 Bush’s meeting with Ukraine, 150-52 CSCE summit expulsion, 111-12 Lithuanian crisis, 79-80, 82 Soviet use of force, 120-21,122,12425,127,130,131 Medininkai, 147,152 Medvedev, Vadim, 45-46,47, 5253, 54, 85 Mekas, Jonas, 78 Meri, Lennart, 79,105-6,108,111-13, 134,137-38,149-50 Michigan, 31-32 Mikulski, Barbara Ann, 93-94 Milosz, Czeslaw, 122 Mitchell, George, 14, 84, 92-93 Mitterrand, François, 2, 64-65, 77-78, 90-91, 94-96,126,132-33,14849,153-54 Moldova, 58,
98-99,116,117,135, 144,146-47 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact anniversary of, 33, 59 Commission, 56-59 demonstrations/protests, 50-51 impacts of, 16 legal condemnation of, 56, 58 public references to, 21-22 secret protocol, 51-53, 54-56 as symbol of separatism, 12, 52-53 Western betrayal narrative, 68 Montevideo Convention (1933), 72-73 Morel, Pierre, 110, 111 Moskovskiye novosti, 120-21 Most Favored Nation (MFN) status, 9293,149-50 Moynihan, Daniel, 31-32 Mulroney, Brian, 159 Murkowski, Lisa, 83; 93-94 Naftali, Timothy, 68-69 Nagobads-Ābols, Aina, 111, 112-13 Nagorno-Karabakh, 33, 86-87,122-24 NATO, 76-77,109,154-55,169 NATO Article 5,170-71 NATO membership, 170-74 Nazarbayev, Nursultan, 117,161 Nazi Germany, 10-11,18,19-20, 29, 52,169-70 Nelsas, Angela, 82-83 New Deal, 22, 27-28 New York, 31-32 New York Times, 19-20, 60, 67-68,78, 79-80,122,151 Index [237]
9 + 1 agreement, 145 Nixon, Richard, 27-28 Nordic Council, 109 Norway, 25-26,95,108-9,138-39 Oakes, John В., 79-80 Omnibus Export Amendments Act of 1990,102 Pact of Paris of August 27th, 1928,19 Padomju Jaunatne, 52 Paris Charter, 113 Paris Peace Conference of 1946, 23 Päts, Konstantin, 16-17 Pavlov, Valentin, 142,148,153 Pavlovskis, Valdis, 82-83,128 Pennsylvania, 31-32,128 Perestroika collective memory/mass mobilization, 50-51 conceptualizations of, 5,153 freedom of speech, 7-8, 33-34, 38, 55-56 historical context, 1-3 impacts of, 4-6, 7-8, 31, 33-34, 3844, 92,163-64,166 limitations of, 49-50,59-62 Lithuanian independence effects on, 89 norms/normative expectations role, 6 Soviet identity shaping, 63-64 Soviet use of force impacts on, 118-33, 203Ո.109 Perestroika: The New Thinking for Our Country and the World (Gorbachev), 32-33 Peters, Jānis, 156-57,159,160-61 phosphorite mining/Estonia, 38 Plokhy, Serhii, 154,172-73 Poland allocation of by Pact, 58 CSCE summit expulsion and, 112-13 democratization of, 64, 67-68 EU membership, 168-69 German-Polish border question, 77, 78 NATO membership, 170-71 Solidarity, 60-61 Soviet occupation of, 16, 21-22, 50, 54-55 Soviet use of force protests in, 125 [238] Index as witness to Lithuanian referendum, 143 Politiken, 124-25 Ponomaryov, Lev, 141 Popov, Gavriil, 121 Popular Front for Perestroika Support, 39. see also Rahvarinne Pravda, 139 Pressler, Harry L„ 83 Primakov, Yevgeny, 120,131 Prunskienė, Kazimira, 74-75, 77, 94-96, 99,100,102-3,105-6, 107,116-17 Pugo, Boris, 52, 53-54,114,117,119, 147,153 Putin, Vladimir, 172 Quotidien de
Paris, 61 Radchenko, Sergey, 69-70 Rahva Hää, 52 Rahvarinne citizen defense against Soviet use of force, 118 Declaration on the Sovereignty role, 44-45 founding of, 39 as Gorbachev challengers, 49 independence as primary goal, 62 on independence referendum, 144 member election to office, 53-54, 97 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact recognition, 54 in national identity formation, 41 nations of the world appeal, 59-60 restorationism/exclusionism role, 51 strategy formation by, 59 rapprochement of nations (sblizhenije), 35 Reagan, Ronald, 8-9, 31, 63 recognition types generally, 8 Reform Movement of Lithuania, see Sąjūdis Remnick, David, 61 Resolution 678,116 Rice, Condoleezza, 63-64, 68-69, 92-93, 126,128-29,136,142-43 Ridgway, Rozanne, 67 Riegle, Donald, 31-32 Riga, see Latvia
Riga axiom, 20 Rikken, Mari-Ann, 82-83,128 Ringmar, Erik, 8 Ritter, Donald (Don), 31-32,128 Rodman, Peter, 103 Romania, 16,168-69 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 18, 22-23, 2728,84 Rosenthal, A. Μ., 79-80 Ross, Dennis B., 89 Roudaut, René, 111 Rubiks, Alfrēds, 97 Rüütel, Arnold, 97,99,102,141-42, 147,156-57 Ryzhkov, Nikolai, 39,45-46,99,102-3 Safire, William, 79-80,127,151 Sąjūdis citizen defense against Soviet use of force, 118 Declaration on the Sovereignty role, 44-45 defense of Gorbachev by, 61 founding of, 39 as Gorbachev challengers, 49-50 independence as primary goal, 62 members elected to office, 5354, 74-75 nations of the world appeal, 59-60 secret protocol pubhshing by, 52 strategy formation by, 59 Sarotte, Mary, 75-76 Sarpalius, Bill, 27-28 Saudargas, Algirdas, 108,111-13,125 Savisaar, Edgar, 39, 59,97,99,105,107, 140,161 Scheer, François, 158 Schlüter, Poul, 111-12 Scowcroft, Brent Baltic aid role, 128-29,140 independence declaration suspension issue, 92-93, 95 Lithuania independence recognition, 80, 82-83 mistrust of Gorbachev, 63-64 negotiations 1991 role, 145-46 Soviet annexation non-recognition policy, 29-30 on Soviet power dynamics, 135-36 on Soviet tolerance for change, 49 Soviet use of force issue, 70,11516,117 on USSR/1933 borders issue, 137 Senate Resolution 14,127 September 11, 2001 attacks, 172 Shakhnazarov, Georgy, 47, 52-53, 5657,74,98,118 Shapiro, Scott, 18-19 Shevardnadze, Eduard, 5, 64-66, 86-90, 91, 96,100,114,122-24,128-29, 136,153 Shifrinson, Joshua, 70-71 Shmelev, Nikolai, 121 Simon, Paul, 31-32 Simons, Thomas, 67 Simonyan, Renald, 47-48
Skubiszewski, Krzysztof, 109 Slovakia, 168-69 Slyunkov, Nikolay, 45-46 Smetona, Antanas, 16-17 Sniečkus, Antanas, 36-38 Sørensen, Peter, 82 Sovetskaya Estonia, 52 Soviet-American trade treaty, 92-94, 100-2,147-48,149-50 Soviet Union see also Soviet use of force collapse of, 2,8-11, 64-65,134-35, 167-68,178Ո.34 Congress of People’s Deputies, 44, 5357, 75,98,141 constitutional reforms 1988, 44-48 coup attempt in, 134-35, 148,153-59 deportations, 17,24,33,50-51 economic aid to, 148-49 economic sanctions against, 127,129-30 elections in, 53 escalation of tensions by, 113-17 ethnic unrest/protests in, 32-38 Federation Council, 114,117, 122-24 German reunification policy, 75-79 historical context, 1-3 identity of, 114 legitimacy of, 51 motivations, 21-23, 60-61, 63-64 Plenum on Nationalities Policy, 62 political landscape/1990s, 114-15 power dynamics/1991,135-37 Index [239]
Soviet Union (cont.) relations with Nazi Germany (see also Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact), 1920, 21 secession procedures, 47, 62, 75, 191Ո.12 selective martial law in, 115 Soviet Defense Council, 114 Union Treaty, 114,145-47,152 urbanization rate, 36-38,183n.96 US grain credits, 148 war crime propaganda by, 29 Western fears regarding policies of, 5-6 Soviet use of force Baltic independence and, 64-66, 6971, 77-78, 84,105 Bush’s reaction to, 126-33 concepts of, 122-24 European outrage/demonstrations over, 124-26 Gorbachev on, 118-19,130-31,135 in Latvia, 105,116,118-19 in Lithuania, 77-78, 84, 85-86, 8789,105,118-24,130-31,155 media coverage, 120-21,122,124-25, 127,130,131 Medininkai, 147,152 Perestroika impacts, 118-33, 203Ո.109 restrictions on, 18-19,166 troop withdrawals, 132-33,167-68 as valid option, 135 Spain, 72 St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 79-80 St. Petersburg Times, 79-80 Stalin, Joseph pro-European tradition and, 56 Soviet annexation process, 16-17,1920, 21-23 war crimes committed by, 51 Steel, Roger, 122 Stimson, Henry, 19 Stoel, Max van der, 169 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), 107,132,147-49 Strauss, Robert, 159 Sununu, John, 80-81,126-27 Supreme Committee for the Liberation of Lithuania, 25-26, 82-83 [240] Index Suremain, Philippe de, 111 Sweden, 25-26,95,108-9,124-25,13839,158,168-69 Syse, Jan Peder, 108-9 Talbott, Strobe, 67, 68-69,95,131,139 Talinn see Estonia Tarazevich, Georgy, 47 Tautas Fronte citizen defense against Soviet use of force, 118 civil disobedience calls by, 11415,124-25 Declaration on the Sovereignty role, 44-45 founding of, 39, 52 as Gorbachev
challengers, 49 independence as primary goal, 62 on independence referendum, 144 meeting with Gorbachev 1990, 97 member election to office, 53-54, 75 in national identity formation, 41, 98 nations of the world appeal, 59-60 strategy formation by, 59 Tehran Conference, 21-22 Ten-Point Plan, 64-65 Ter-Petrosyan, Levon, 161 Thatcher, Margaret, 64-65, 87-88,95, 96 Thompson, Llewellyn, 23 Time magazine, 80 Toronto Star, 111 Treaty of Mutual Understanding and Cooperation, 96-99 Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany, 109-10 Trubin, Nikolai, 147 Ukraine, 58,116,121,135, ISO51, 172-74 Ukrainian Popular Front (Rukh), 151 Ulmanis, Kârlis, 16-17 UN Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, 28 United Kingdom, 125 United Nations, 109 United States Baltic-American diaspora, 12,15, 2432,171,180Ո.36
Baltic lobbying efforts, 26-32, 80-83, 127,128,171 Baltic voting districts in, 31-32 charter of cooperatioñ/Baltic countries, 171-72 Congressional support of Baltic independence, 105,106,110, 128,159-62 Democrat Party/Baltic American relationships, 27-28, 31-32 diplomatic/economic pressure by, 65-66 family median income/BalticAmericans, 25 fears regarding Soviet policies, 5-6 foreign policy generally, 171-72 freezing of Baltic assets in, 19, 24,116, 180Ո.36 homeland/diaspora networks in, 29, 31,50, 80-81,185Ո.Յ Lithuanian diaspora, 24-25 motivations, 21-23, 77,106,109-10, 113,164-65 public support for Baltic independence in, 79-84 reaction to Baltic States occupation, 18-24,179Ո.17,180n.28 Republican Party/Baltic American relationships, 27-28, 31-32, 80-81 Soviet annexation non-recognition policy, 12,15-16,18, 21-24, 29-30, 64-66, 78, 80, 84,110,150 Urbonas, Jonas, 80-81 US Agency for International Development (AID), 139 US Helsinki Commission, 138 USA Today, 127,130 USSR, see Soviet Union Valjas, Vaino, 54 Varennikov, Valentin, 117 Velliste, Trivimi, 50 Vershbow, Alexander, 150 Vīķe-Freiberga, Vaira, 171 Vilnius, see Lithuania/Lithuanian crisis Vulfsons, Mavriks, 52,120 Vyshinsky, Andrei, 17 Waffen-SS, 10-11,29, 36-38 Wall Street Journal, 122,127 Warsaw Pact, 76-77,125 Washington Post, 60, 61,79-80,82,127 Welles, Sumner, 18-19, 21 Weyrich, Paul, 128 working people’s lists, 17 World Federation of Free Latvians, 25-26 World Union of Free Latvians, 112-13 Yakovlev, Alexander, 5, 40, 43, 52-53, 55-56, 63, 85,114,120,128-29 Yalta Conference, 23, 27-28 Yanayev, Gennady, 153
Yazov, Dmitry, 111, 116,117,119,148, 153,155 Yedinstvo/Lithuania, 41 Yeltsin, Boris Baltic alliance with, 141-42,167-68 cooperation treaties signed by, 141-42 coup attempt role, 154,155-56 on Lithuanian oil/gas embargo, 98-99 political assets/post-coup, 156— 57,166-67 preservation of USSR by, 135 recognition of Baltic independence by, 156-57,161 relationship with Baker, 141 removal from RSFSR, 142 rivalry with Gorbachev, 136-37, 148,156-57 secret protocol accusations by, 55-56 support of Baltic independence by, 13, 57-58,117,121,130,136-37 US ties with, 128-29,136-37 Zaķe, leva, 25 Zakharov, Mark, 121 Zaslavskaya, Tatyana, 121 Zelikow, Philip, 68-69 Zhdanov, Andrei, 17 StoetsbíWioehík Index [241] |
| adam_txt |
CONTENTS Acknowledgments Introduction ix 1 1. The Origins of the Baltic Question 14 2. “Have you not noticed our absence?”: The Baltic Question during the Annus Mirabilis of 1989 49 3. Building a New World Order?: The Lithuanian Crisis of Spring 1990 72 4. The End of Perestroika?: The Baltic Quest for Visibility and the Soviet Crackdown 104 5. The Rise of the Republics, the Fall of the Center: The Baltic Exception and the Collapse of the USSR 134 Conclusion Notes 175 Bibliography Index 231 163 215
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"Moscow Warned on Baltic Repression.” Washington Post, January 18,1991. Remnick, David.“Gorbachev Shows His Tough Side; Nationalist Movements Are Learning His Tolerance Has Limits.” Washington Post, August 30,1989. Riding, Alan. “Baltic Assaults Lead Europeans to Hold Off Aid.” New York Times, January 23,1991. Riding, Alan. “Soviet Crackdown; Europeans Warn Soviet about Aid.” New York Times, January 14,1991. Rosenthal, A. Μ. “How to Desert a Friend.” New York Times, April 15,1990. Rosenthal, A. Μ. “The New World Order Dies.” New York Times, January 15,1991. Roush, Matt. “TV Commentary: On the Air, Doom, Gloom and Optimism.” USA Today, January 14,1991. Safire, William. "Essay: Baltic to Baghdad.” New York Times, March 30,1990. Safire, William. “Gorbachev’s ‘Bloody Sunday.’” New York Times, January 17,1991. Safire, William. “World to Vilnius: Suffer." New York Times, April 23,1990. Sarraute, Claude. “Ces ne sont pas les Koweitens les Baltes!” Le Monde, November 22,1990. Savili, Annika. “The CSCE Summit—Inside File—Thaw Leaves Baltics Out in the Cold.” The Independent, November 21,1990. Schmemann, Serge. “Summit in Europe: Reporter’s Notebook.” New York Times, November 20,1990. Sergi, Sergio. “Il Baltico in rivolta. Erano un milione, mano nella mano.” L’Unità, August 24,1989. Thom, Françoise. “Le honteux lâchage des Baltes.” Quotidien de Paris, November 11,1990. Bibliography [229]
Vernet, Daniel “Coup de grâce pour la perestroïka.” Le Monde, January 15,1991. Warren, Marcus. “Putin Lets NATO ‘Recruit’ in Baltic.” The Telegraph, June 25, 2002. UNPUBLISHED DISSERTATIONSAND PAPERS Bergmane, Una. “French and US Reactions Facing the Disintegration of the USSR: The Case of the Baltic States (1989-1991).” PhD diss., Sciences Po Paris, 2016. Boss, Edijs. “Aligning with the Unipole: Security Policies of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, 1988-1998.” PhD diss., University of Cambridge, 2011. L’Hommedieu, Jonathan. “Exiles and Constituents: Baltic Refugees and American Cold War Politics, 1948-1960.” PhD diss., Turku University, 2011. Pettai, Velio Andreas. “Framing the Past as Future: The Power of Legal Restorationism In Estonia.” PhD diss., Columbia University, 2004. Saharov, Juhan. “From Economic Independence to Political Sovereignty: Inventing ‘Self-Management’ in the Estonian SSR.” PhD diss., University of Tartu, 2021. Whittington, Anna. “Contested Privilege: Ethnic Russians and the Unmaking of the Soviet Union.” Article accepted by Journal ofModern History. PRESENTATIONS AT CONFERENCES AND SEMINARS Piirimäe, Kaarel. “‘Estonia Has Not Time’: Perceptions of the Post-Cold War as a Window of Opportunity.” Paper presented at the Conference “Post-Cold War. Change and Continuity in the Making of a New World Order at the Turn of the 1990s.” University of Minnesota, October 27-28, 2016. Radchenko, Sergey. Presentation at the LSE International History Department Cold War Research Cluster Seminar, May 9, 2019. Ramonaitė, Ainė. “Explaining the Birth of Sąjūdis: The
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INDEX For the benefit of digital users, indexed terms that span two pages (e.g., 52-53) may, on occasion, appear on only one of those pages. Abuladze, Tengiz, 121 Adamkus, Valdas, 171 Afanasyev, Yury, 57-58 Aftonbladet, 122 Alexy II, 120-21 Algeria, 7 Alma-Ata, 33 American Latvian Association, 25-26, 27-28, 82-83,128 American Latvian Republican National Federation, 27-28 Andersson, Sten, 109 Annunzio, Frank, 31-32 Arbatov, Georgy, 57, 58 Armenia, 58,116,117,121,135, 144,146-47 Armstrong, David, 83 Atlantic Charter, 21 Austria, 112-13 Azerbaijan, 58,165-66 Bakatin, Vadim, 56-57,114,128-29, 136,161 Baker, James Baltic expulsion from CSCE summit, 111 Baltic states recognition role, 6768,162 diplomatic relations establishment role, 139 Gorbachev’s political survival and, 63 independence declaration suspension issue, 92-93 Kasten/Byrd resolution, 66 Malta summit role, 67-68 meetings with Baltic American lobbyists, 68, 82-83 negotiations 1991 role, 145-46 relationship with Yeltsin, 141 Soviet-American relations generally, 64 Soviet-American trade treaty, 1001,149-50 Soviet use of force issue, 65-66, 8690,126-27,131,132 on USSR/1933 borders issue, 137 Baklanov, Oleg, 153 Baltic Alliance, 96-99 Baltic American Freedom League, 3031, 82-83 Baltic Appeal to the United Nations (BATON), 28 Baltic Freedom Day, 31 Baltic independence civil-society mobilization, 38 crimes under Nazi occupation, 10H, 29 CSCE summit expulsion, 111-13 Declaration on the Sovereignty, 4445, 46-47 détente effects on, 29-30 diplomatic relations establishment, 137-41,158 direct letters campaigns, 66, 68, 8082,110
economic aid, 157-58
Baltic independence {cont.) economic autonomy project, 62 environmental activism, 38 escalation of tensions, 113-17 ethnic demographics in, 10-11, 178n.34 European support of, 157-58 Europeanism narrative, 108,168-69 foreign policy/1990s, 105-10 governments in exile, 124-25 historical context, 1-3,14-16 identity in, 26, 35-36, 52, 98,165 international recognition of state, 105-10,113,134,140-41,157֊ 60,165 legal basis of, 59-60 movements/demonstrations, 50-62 negotiations 1991,145-47 opposition movements, 41 perceptions of legitimacy, 165-66 Perestroika support initiatives in, 39-41 public opinion issue, 22-23 radical political forces in, 41-42 rationale for collective discussion, 11 research sources, 11-12 rise of movements, 12,15 secession procedures, 47 self-determination principle in, 60, 61-62, 66, 68-69, 74, 82-83, 95, 102,127,151,152,161 social visibility struggle, 6-8 sovereignty affirmation, 1056,159-62 Soviet annexation non-recognition policy, 2, 7,11,12,15-16,18, 21-24, 29-30, 64-66, 78, 80, 84,110, 150,172-73 Soviet annexation process, 16-24 Soviet condemnation of, 60-61 Soviet military crackdown^ 5-6 Soviet nationality policy vs. official ideology, 34-38 Soviet use of force, 64-66, 69-71, 7778, 84,105 strategy generally, 164-67 trade relations and, 167-68 Union Treaty, 44-46,145-47 US Congress support of, 105,106,110, 128,159-62 [232] Index US policy generally, 4 (see also Bush, George H. W.) Baltic Way, 59-62 Baltic World Conference, 29-30 Banionis, Asta, 128 Belarus, 58,162 Berlin Wall. see also German reunification, 4, 67, 70-71, 76 Berlingske Tidende,
124-25 Beschloss, Michael, 67, 68-69, 95,131 Bessarabia, 58 Bessmertnykh, Alexander, 126-27,13132,139 Bičkauskas, Egidijus, 117 Bīlmanis, Alfrēds, 20 Bišers Ilmārs, 145-46 Blackwell, Robert, 63-64, 91 Blot, Jacques, 111, 158 Bobelis, Kazys, 82-83 Bohlen, Charles E., 20, 23 Bonner, Yelena, 141 Bosnia, 171 Bourdieu, Pierre, 167-68 Bovin, Alexander, 121 Bradley, Bill, 150 Briand-Kellogg Pact of 1928,18-19 Broomfield, Bill, 31-32 Brundtland, Gro Harlem, 108-9,111-12 Burns, Nicholas, 140,146 Bush, George H. W. Baltic states legation meeting 1991,140 coup attempt role, 153-59 foreign policy generally, 8-9,165-66 on German reunification, 77-78 Iraq-Kuwait negotiations, 109-10, 113,116 Iraq-Kuwait policy, 109-10 Lithuanian crisis (see Lithuania/ Lithuanian crisis) Malta Summit, 67-71 meeting/Baltic American lobby, 82-83 meeting with Latvian/Estonian legations, 106-8 meeting with Prunskienė, 95-96 meeting with Ukraine, 150-51 Moscow summit July 1991,147-52 motivations, 69-70,128-29 quiet diplomacy by, 86-90 reaction to Soviet use offeree, 126-33
relationship with Gorbachev, 3-4 on self-determination, 95,151 Soviet-American relations policy, 63-65 support of Baltic independence by, 12,14-16, 63-71,151-52,159-62 USSR policy, 135-37 Bush, George W., 172 Bykau, Vasil, 57-58 Byrd, Robert, 32,66,106,128 California, 31-32 Californian Republican Heritage Groups Council, 81 Canada, 125,130,159 Carlsson, Ingvar, 111-12 Carrère d’Encausse, Hélène, 36 Chebrikov, Viktor, 45-46 Chernyaev, Anatoly, 46, 52-53, 54, 56-57, 61,74,98, 99,120,131,133, 148-49,155-56,19ІП.12 Cheskin, Ammon, 144 China, 19 Clinton, Bill, 171 Committee in Charge of Creating the Lithuanian Popular Front, 39 Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC), 116 Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), 76-77,107-8, 110,111-13,137-38,161-62 Congressional Select Committee to Investigate Communist Aggression and the Forced Incorporation of the Baltic States into the U.Ś.S.R., 1953-1955,27 Connecticut, 31-32 Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty, 109-10, 111, 113,148 Cox, Charles, 31-32 Crowe, William James, 87-88 Curzon line, 21-22 Czech and Slovak Federative Republic, 125 Czechoslovakia, 143 D’Amato, Alfonse, 31-32, 83, 93-94 Daugava hydroelectric dam, 38 Davis, Robert T., 82 Davoliūtė, Violeta, 36-38 de Beausse, Jean Jacques, 18 DeConcini, Dennis, 93-94 Dekanozov, Vladimir, 17 Denmark, 108-9,111-13,124-25,134, 137-39,143,157-58 Displaced Persons Act of 1948, 24 Dobrynin, Anatoly, 52-53 Dole, Robert, 83, 84,100,106 Druță, Ion, 58 Dubinin, Yury, 126 Dumas, Roland, 111, 112-13,126 Durbin, Dick, 27-28,31-32,102 Eagleburger, Lawrence, 83 Eden, Anthony, 21-22
elections, rigged, 17-18 Environmental Protection Club (Vides Aizsardzības Klubs), 38 Ereme Grigore, 58 ERSP/Estonia, 41-42, 51 Estonia Citizens’ Committees in, 41-42 demographics in, 35-36 deportations, 51 diplomatic relations establishment, 137-41,150-51,158 elections in, 96-97 Estonian Communist Party, 50 EU membership, 169 exclusive citizenship in, 51 government in exile, 25-26 grouping as Baltic state, 9 historical context, 1-3 independence declaration, 42, 62, 75, 78, 96-97,104,156-57 language/religion, 9-10 oil/gas embargo, 97 Perestroika support initiatives in, 39-41 radical political forces in, 41-42 rationale for collective discussion, 11 recognition of by Yeltsin, 141-42 referendum on independence, 142-45 reform communists in, 42-44 restorationism in, 50-62 Russian minority citizenship, 144,167-68 Russification policy, 36, 51 self-accounting initiative, 39 social visibility struggle, 6-8 sovereignty movement, 44-47 Index [2331
Estonia (cont.) Soviet annexation, process, 16-24 Soviet occupation of, 10-11, 21-22, 154-55,178Ո.34 Soviet recognition importance to, 160-61 as Soviet success model, 34 Supreme Soviet, 96-97 urbanization rate, 36-38,183n.96 US economic aid to, 139-40 Estonian American Council, 25-26 Estonian American National Committee, 128 Estonian American National Council, 82-83 Estonian American National Republican Committee, 27-28 Estonian Heritage Society (Eesti Muinsuskaitse Selts), 38 Estonian World Council, 25-26 European Union membership, 168-74 Evangelista, Matthew, 186n.29 ex injuria jus nonoritur, 18-19 Executive Order 8389,18 Expressen, 124-25 Falin, Valentin, 57, 58 Finland, 16,108-9,112-13,122,12425,168-69 Ford, Gerald, 29-30 France, see Mitterrand, François Franco-German initiative, 90-91,94,96 Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 122 Fredén, Lars Peter, 146,158 Freedom League/Lithuania, 41-42 Frowick, Robert, 29-30 Gates, Robert, 91 Gazeta, 208n.54 Gazprom, 173-74 Gelb, Leslie H., 79-80 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 92-93 Genscher, Hans-Dietrich, 64-65,126, 137-38,158 Georgia, 58,116,121,135,144,146-47, 165-66,172-74 German reunification, 2,6-7,12, 64-65,70-71,73, 75-79,96,10910,164-65 [234] Index Germany, see Genscher, Hans-Dietrich; Kohl, Helmut Gilman, Benjamin, 31-32 glasnost, 7-8, 33-34, 38, 55-56 Godmanis, Ivars, 97,106-7,141 Goldwater, Barry, 27-28 Gorbachev, Mikhail Baltic independence policy, 1-2, 4-5, 54-55, 60-62,105,139,186n.29 Baltic situation errors by, 34-38 Baltic situation limitations, 49 constitutional reforms 1988,44-48 criticism of in US,
32 CSCE summit expulsion and, 111-13 Iraq-Kuwait negotiations, 109-10, 113,116 language usage by, 55 Lithuanian crisis (see Lithuania/ Lithuanian crisis) Malta Summit, 67-71 Moscow summit July 1991,147-52 motivations, 69-70,114 nationalities question, 32-48 negotiations 1991,145-47 political circles, 56-59 preservation of USSR, 135 recognition of Baltic independence, 153,162 reforms (see Perestroika) relationship with Bush, 3-4 relationship with Kohl, 126 resignation of, 121 rivalry with Yeltsin, 136-37, 148,156-57 on self-determination, 74,152 Soviet identity shaping, 63-71 on Soviet use of force, 118-19,130-31 Gorbunovs, Anatolijs, 2-3, 43, 45, 97, 99,131,141-42,143,156-57, 160,161 Gorton, Slade, 159 Grachev, Andrei, 55-56,74,120,133 Gromov, Boris, 114 Gromyko, Andrei, 52-53 Guardian, 122 Gulf War, 6-7,117,126-27,129,130,132 Hamilton, Lee, 84 Hannibalsson, Jón Baldvin, 108-9, 125,137-38
Hathaway, Oona, 18-19 Havel, Václav, 111-12,143 Heinrichson, Elise Marie, 20 Helms, Jesse, 32, 60, 83, 84, 93-94,128 Helsingin Sanomat, 122 Helsinki Final Act, 29-31, 66, 76-77 Henderson, Loy W., 20-21 Hercegovina, 171 heresthetic concept, 186n.29 Hermannsson, Steingrimur, 112-13 Hewett, Ed, 146 Hitler-Stalin pact, see MolotovRibbentrop Pact Holocaust commemoration, 169-70 House Resolution 40,127 Hull, Cordell, 18 human rights abuses/rhetoric, 30-31 Humphrey, Gordon J., 83 Hungary, 50, 60-61, 64, 67-68,112-13, 125,168-69,170-71 Hurd, Douglas, 125 Hussein, Saddam, 104-5 Hutchings, Robert, 64, 67-68 hysteresis, 167-68 Iceland, 109,112-13,137-38 Ignalina nuclear plant, 38 Ignatenko, Vitaly, 120,131 Illinois, 31-32 Ilves, Toomas Hendrik, 171 Interfront/Latvia, 41 Intermovement/Estonia, 41 International Disaster Relief Program, 116 Iraq, 104-5,109-10,113 īvāns, Dainis, 56-57, 59, 98,124-25 Jackson-Vanik amendment, 92,116 Japan, 19 Japanese Northern Territories, 78 Jervis, Robert, 65 Joint Baltic American National Committee (JBANC), 28, 29-30, 68, 82-83 Joint Resolution 201, 31 Jurkāns, Jānis, 107,108,111-13 Kalējs, Konrāds, 29 Kalniņš, Ojārs, 106,134,139-40, 150,152 Kamman, Curtis, 139-40,149-50 Karimov, Islam, 117 Kasten, Bob, 66, 83,106 Kazakhstan, 162 Kazannik, Alexey, 57-58 Kazickas, Joseph, 95 Kazlauskas, Walter V, 80 Kelam, Tunne, 82-83 Kelley, Robert F., 20 Kennan, George E, 14, 20,179n.l7 Kennedy, Ted, 87-88 Kerr, Richard, 154 Kersten, Charles, 27 Kessedjian, Bernard, 158 Kissinger, Henry, 29-30, 67-68 Klimov, Elem, 121 Kohl, Helmut, 2, 64-65, 77, 90-91, 95,
96,100-1,109-10,126,158 Koivisto, Mauno, 111-12 Kolbin, Gennady, 33 Korotich, Vitaly, 57-58 Kovalev, Anatoly, 130-31 Kozyrev, Andrei, 154 Kravets, Volodymyr, 58 Krol, George, 114-15,149-50 Kryuchkov, Vladimir, 117,119, 148,153 Kunaev, Dinmukhamed, 33 Kuril Islands, 151-52 Kuwait, 104-5,108,109-10 Kuzmickas, Bronius, 124-25 Kyrgyzstan, 58 Landsbergis, Vytautas, 59, 61, 74-75, 82-83, 90-91, 94,97,102,140, 141-42,149-50,154-55,160 Latvia Citizens’ Committees in, 41-42 Communist Party, 97,114-15 deportations, 51 demographics, 35-36 diaspora networks in independence, 50,185Ո.Յ diplomatic relations establishment, 137-41,150-51,158 elections in, 96-97 escalation of tensions, 114-15,116 EU membership, 169 grouping as Baltic state, 9 historical context, 1-3 Index Í2351
Latvia (cont.) independence declaration, 62, 75, 78, 96-98,104,156-57 language/religion, 9-10 Latvian Interferon, 114-15 Masļenki attack, 16-17 National Salvation Committee, 11415,155 OMON unit, 118,147,202n.80 Perestroika support initiatives in, 39-41 radical political forces in, 41-42 rationale for collective discussion, 11 recognition of by Yeltsin, 141-42 referendum on independence, 142-45 reform communists in, 42-44, 45 restorationism in, 50-62 Russian minority citizenship, 144,167-68 Russification policy, 36, 51 social visibility struggle, 6-8 sovereignty movement, 44-47 Soviet annexation process, 16-24 Soviet occupation of, 10-11, 21-22, 155,178Ո.34 Soviet recognition importance to, 160-61 as Soviet success model, 34 Soviet use of force in, 105, 116,118-19 Trade Unions of Creative Professions, 52 urbanization rate, 36-38,183n.96 US economic aid to, 139-40 violence/killings in Riga, 13 Latvian Popular Front, see Tautas Fronte Le Monde, 122 Lenin, Vladimir, 32-33 Leningrad City Soviet, 98-99 Lévesque, Jacques, 70-71 Lewis, Anthony, 60 Libération, 61 Lieberman, Joe, 193n.6O Lieven, Anatol, 116-17 Lindsay, James, 66 Lippmaa, Endel, 54 Lithuania/Lithuanian crisis Baltic Alliance, 96-99 Communist Party, 36-38, 62, 87 deportations, 51 [236] Index demographics, 36-38 diplomatic relations establishment, 137-41,150-51,158 direct letters campaigns, 80-82 economic pressures, 92-94,100-2 escalation of tensions, 85-94, 99 exclusive citizenship in, 51 Franco-German initiative, 9091,94, 96 generally, 12 German reunification and, 75-79 Gorbachev-Gorbunovs meeting, 99 Gorbachev’s
policies generally, 74-75 government in exile, 25-26 governmental crisis in, 116-17 Green Movement, 38 grouping as Baltic state, 9 historical context, 1-3 Independence Day, 31 independence declaration, 42, 62, 74-84, 89-90, 91,96, 99,1023,127-28 independence movement in, 51 international recognition of states, 72-74 language/religion, 9-10 Malta summit on, 70 media coverage, 208n.54 media coverage/US, 79-80, 82 oil/gas embargo, 90, 91-94, 98-99, 101-2,104 Perestroika support initiatives in, 39-41 quiet diplomacy, 86-90 radical political forces in, 41-42 rationale for collective discussion, 11 recognition of, 98-99 referendum, 88 referendum on independence, 142-45, 208Ո.54 reform communists in, 42-44, 45 restorationism in, 50-62 Russification policy, 36 secession procedure, 75, 79,19ІП.12 self-determination in, 74, 82-83,102 social visibility struggle, 6-8 sovereignty movement, 44-47 Soviet annexation process, 16-24 Soviet occupation of, 10-11, 21-22, 154-55,178Ո.34
Soviet recognition importance to, 160-61 as Soviet success model, 34 Soviet use of force in, 77-78, 84, 85-86,87-89,105,118-24,13031,155 Supreme Soviet elections, 74-75 trust of Gorbachev, 79 Union Treaty, 74, 75 urbanization rate, 36-38,183n.96 US Congress support of, 83-84, 9394,100,102 US economic aid to, 139-40 US policy, 73-74, 75, 76-78, 79-90, 193Ո.60 Washington summit, 100-3 Western mediation of, 94-103 Lithuanian American Committee, 128 Lithuanian American Community, 82-83 Lithuanian American Council, 2526, 82-83 Lithuanian American Republican National Federation, 82-83 Lithuanian World Community, 25-26 LNNK/Latvia, 41-42 Los Angeles Daily News, 127 Lozoraitis, Stasys, 25-26 Lubbers, Ruud, 154-55 Lugar, Richard, 91 Lukyanov, Anatoly, 45-46,47 Madisson, Tiit, 52 Maikovskis, Boļeslavs, 29 Major, John, 153-54 Malta Summit, 12, 67-71 Manchuria invasion, 19 Mandela, Judith, 150 Margrethe II, 134 Maslyukov, Yuri, 47 Massachusetts, 31-32 Matlock, Jack, 68, 88,117,131,136 Mazeika, Lucija, 81 Mazowiecki, Tadeusz, 60-61,111-12 McCarthy, Joseph, 27 McGrory, Mary, 127 media coverage Baltic independence, 59-62 Bush’s meeting with Ukraine, 150-52 CSCE summit expulsion, 111-12 Lithuanian crisis, 79-80, 82 Soviet use of force, 120-21,122,12425,127,130,131 Medininkai, 147,152 Medvedev, Vadim, 45-46,47, 5253, 54, 85 Mekas, Jonas, 78 Meri, Lennart, 79,105-6,108,111-13, 134,137-38,149-50 Michigan, 31-32 Mikulski, Barbara Ann, 93-94 Milosz, Czeslaw, 122 Mitchell, George, 14, 84, 92-93 Mitterrand, François, 2, 64-65, 77-78, 90-91, 94-96,126,132-33,14849,153-54 Moldova, 58,
98-99,116,117,135, 144,146-47 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact anniversary of, 33, 59 Commission, 56-59 demonstrations/protests, 50-51 impacts of, 16 legal condemnation of, 56, 58 public references to, 21-22 secret protocol, 51-53, 54-56 as symbol of separatism, 12, 52-53 Western betrayal narrative, 68 Montevideo Convention (1933), 72-73 Morel, Pierre, 110, 111 Moskovskiye novosti, 120-21 Most Favored Nation (MFN) status, 9293,149-50 Moynihan, Daniel, 31-32 Mulroney, Brian, 159 Murkowski, Lisa, 83; 93-94 Naftali, Timothy, 68-69 Nagobads-Ābols, Aina, 111, 112-13 Nagorno-Karabakh, 33, 86-87,122-24 NATO, 76-77,109,154-55,169 NATO Article 5,170-71 NATO membership, 170-74 Nazarbayev, Nursultan, 117,161 Nazi Germany, 10-11,18,19-20, 29, 52,169-70 Nelsas, Angela, 82-83 New Deal, 22, 27-28 New York, 31-32 New York Times, 19-20, 60, 67-68,78, 79-80,122,151 Index [237]
9 + 1 agreement, 145 Nixon, Richard, 27-28 Nordic Council, 109 Norway, 25-26,95,108-9,138-39 Oakes, John В., 79-80 Omnibus Export Amendments Act of 1990,102 Pact of Paris of August 27th, 1928,19 Padomju Jaunatne, 52 Paris Charter, 113 Paris Peace Conference of 1946, 23 Päts, Konstantin, 16-17 Pavlov, Valentin, 142,148,153 Pavlovskis, Valdis, 82-83,128 Pennsylvania, 31-32,128 Perestroika collective memory/mass mobilization, 50-51 conceptualizations of, 5,153 freedom of speech, 7-8, 33-34, 38, 55-56 historical context, 1-3 impacts of, 4-6, 7-8, 31, 33-34, 3844, 92,163-64,166 limitations of, 49-50,59-62 Lithuanian independence effects on, 89 norms/normative expectations role, 6 Soviet identity shaping, 63-64 Soviet use of force impacts on, 118-33, 203Ո.109 Perestroika: The New Thinking for Our Country and the World (Gorbachev), 32-33 Peters, Jānis, 156-57,159,160-61 phosphorite mining/Estonia, 38 Plokhy, Serhii, 154,172-73 Poland allocation of by Pact, 58 CSCE summit expulsion and, 112-13 democratization of, 64, 67-68 EU membership, 168-69 German-Polish border question, 77, 78 NATO membership, 170-71 Solidarity, 60-61 Soviet occupation of, 16, 21-22, 50, 54-55 Soviet use of force protests in, 125 [238] Index as witness to Lithuanian referendum, 143 Politiken, 124-25 Ponomaryov, Lev, 141 Popov, Gavriil, 121 Popular Front for Perestroika Support, 39. see also Rahvarinne Pravda, 139 Pressler, Harry L„ 83 Primakov, Yevgeny, 120,131 Prunskienė, Kazimira, 74-75, 77, 94-96, 99,100,102-3,105-6, 107,116-17 Pugo, Boris, 52, 53-54,114,117,119, 147,153 Putin, Vladimir, 172 Quotidien de
Paris, 61 Radchenko, Sergey, 69-70 Rahva Hää, 52 Rahvarinne citizen defense against Soviet use of force, 118 Declaration on the Sovereignty role, 44-45 founding of, 39 as Gorbachev challengers, 49 independence as primary goal, 62 on independence referendum, 144 member election to office, 53-54, 97 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact recognition, 54 in national identity formation, 41 nations of the world appeal, 59-60 restorationism/exclusionism role, 51 strategy formation by, 59 rapprochement of nations (sblizhenije), 35 Reagan, Ronald, 8-9, 31, 63 recognition types generally, 8 Reform Movement of Lithuania, see Sąjūdis Remnick, David, 61 Resolution 678,116 Rice, Condoleezza, 63-64, 68-69, 92-93, 126,128-29,136,142-43 Ridgway, Rozanne, 67 Riegle, Donald, 31-32 Riga, see Latvia
Riga axiom, 20 Rikken, Mari-Ann, 82-83,128 Ringmar, Erik, 8 Ritter, Donald (Don), 31-32,128 Rodman, Peter, 103 Romania, 16,168-69 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 18, 22-23, 2728,84 Rosenthal, A. Μ., 79-80 Ross, Dennis B., 89 Roudaut, René, 111 Rubiks, Alfrēds, 97 Rüütel, Arnold, 97,99,102,141-42, 147,156-57 Ryzhkov, Nikolai, 39,45-46,99,102-3 Safire, William, 79-80,127,151 Sąjūdis citizen defense against Soviet use of force, 118 Declaration on the Sovereignty role, 44-45 defense of Gorbachev by, 61 founding of, 39 as Gorbachev challengers, 49-50 independence as primary goal, 62 members elected to office, 5354, 74-75 nations of the world appeal, 59-60 secret protocol pubhshing by, 52 strategy formation by, 59 Sarotte, Mary, 75-76 Sarpalius, Bill, 27-28 Saudargas, Algirdas, 108,111-13,125 Savisaar, Edgar, 39, 59,97,99,105,107, 140,161 Scheer, François, 158 Schlüter, Poul, 111-12 Scowcroft, Brent Baltic aid role, 128-29,140 independence declaration suspension issue, 92-93, 95 Lithuania independence recognition, 80, 82-83 mistrust of Gorbachev, 63-64 negotiations 1991 role, 145-46 Soviet annexation non-recognition policy, 29-30 on Soviet power dynamics, 135-36 on Soviet tolerance for change, 49 Soviet use of force issue, 70,11516,117 on USSR/1933 borders issue, 137 Senate Resolution 14,127 September 11, 2001 attacks, 172 Shakhnazarov, Georgy, 47, 52-53, 5657,74,98,118 Shapiro, Scott, 18-19 Shevardnadze, Eduard, 5, 64-66, 86-90, 91, 96,100,114,122-24,128-29, 136,153 Shifrinson, Joshua, 70-71 Shmelev, Nikolai, 121 Simon, Paul, 31-32 Simons, Thomas, 67 Simonyan, Renald, 47-48
Skubiszewski, Krzysztof, 109 Slovakia, 168-69 Slyunkov, Nikolay, 45-46 Smetona, Antanas, 16-17 Sniečkus, Antanas, 36-38 Sørensen, Peter, 82 Sovetskaya Estonia, 52 Soviet-American trade treaty, 92-94, 100-2,147-48,149-50 Soviet Union see also Soviet use of force collapse of, 2,8-11, 64-65,134-35, 167-68,178Ո.34 Congress of People’s Deputies, 44, 5357, 75,98,141 constitutional reforms 1988, 44-48 coup attempt in, 134-35, 148,153-59 deportations, 17,24,33,50-51 economic aid to, 148-49 economic sanctions against, 127,129-30 elections in, 53 escalation of tensions by, 113-17 ethnic unrest/protests in, 32-38 Federation Council, 114,117, 122-24 German reunification policy, 75-79 historical context, 1-3 identity of, 114 legitimacy of, 51 motivations, 21-23, 60-61, 63-64 Plenum on Nationalities Policy, 62 political landscape/1990s, 114-15 power dynamics/1991,135-37 Index [239]
Soviet Union (cont.) relations with Nazi Germany (see also Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact), 1920, 21 secession procedures, 47, 62, 75, 191Ո.12 selective martial law in, 115 Soviet Defense Council, 114 Union Treaty, 114,145-47,152 urbanization rate, 36-38,183n.96 US grain credits, 148 war crime propaganda by, 29 Western fears regarding policies of, 5-6 Soviet use of force Baltic independence and, 64-66, 6971, 77-78, 84,105 Bush’s reaction to, 126-33 concepts of, 122-24 European outrage/demonstrations over, 124-26 Gorbachev on, 118-19,130-31,135 in Latvia, 105,116,118-19 in Lithuania, 77-78, 84, 85-86, 8789,105,118-24,130-31,155 media coverage, 120-21,122,124-25, 127,130,131 Medininkai, 147,152 Perestroika impacts, 118-33, 203Ո.109 restrictions on, 18-19,166 troop withdrawals, 132-33,167-68 as valid option, 135 Spain, 72 St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 79-80 St. Petersburg Times, 79-80 Stalin, Joseph pro-European tradition and, 56 Soviet annexation process, 16-17,1920, 21-23 war crimes committed by, 51 Steel, Roger, 122 Stimson, Henry, 19 Stoel, Max van der, 169 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), 107,132,147-49 Strauss, Robert, 159 Sununu, John, 80-81,126-27 Supreme Committee for the Liberation of Lithuania, 25-26, 82-83 [240] Index Suremain, Philippe de, 111 Sweden, 25-26,95,108-9,124-25,13839,158,168-69 Syse, Jan Peder, 108-9 Talbott, Strobe, 67, 68-69,95,131,139 Talinn see Estonia Tarazevich, Georgy, 47 Tautas Fronte citizen defense against Soviet use of force, 118 civil disobedience calls by, 11415,124-25 Declaration on the Sovereignty role, 44-45 founding of, 39, 52 as Gorbachev
challengers, 49 independence as primary goal, 62 on independence referendum, 144 meeting with Gorbachev 1990, 97 member election to office, 53-54, 75 in national identity formation, 41, 98 nations of the world appeal, 59-60 strategy formation by, 59 Tehran Conference, 21-22 Ten-Point Plan, 64-65 Ter-Petrosyan, Levon, 161 Thatcher, Margaret, 64-65, 87-88,95, 96 Thompson, Llewellyn, 23 Time magazine, 80 Toronto Star, 111 Treaty of Mutual Understanding and Cooperation, 96-99 Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany, 109-10 Trubin, Nikolai, 147 Ukraine, 58,116,121,135, ISO51, 172-74 Ukrainian Popular Front (Rukh), 151 Ulmanis, Kârlis, 16-17 UN Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, 28 United Kingdom, 125 United Nations, 109 United States Baltic-American diaspora, 12,15, 2432,171,180Ո.36
Baltic lobbying efforts, 26-32, 80-83, 127,128,171 Baltic voting districts in, 31-32 charter of cooperatioñ/Baltic countries, 171-72 Congressional support of Baltic independence, 105,106,110, 128,159-62 Democrat Party/Baltic American relationships, 27-28, 31-32 diplomatic/economic pressure by, 65-66 family median income/BalticAmericans, 25 fears regarding Soviet policies, 5-6 foreign policy generally, 171-72 freezing of Baltic assets in, 19, 24,116, 180Ո.36 homeland/diaspora networks in, 29, 31,50, 80-81,185Ո.Յ Lithuanian diaspora, 24-25 motivations, 21-23, 77,106,109-10, 113,164-65 public support for Baltic independence in, 79-84 reaction to Baltic States occupation, 18-24,179Ո.17,180n.28 Republican Party/Baltic American relationships, 27-28, 31-32, 80-81 Soviet annexation non-recognition policy, 12,15-16,18, 21-24, 29-30, 64-66, 78, 80, 84,110,150 Urbonas, Jonas, 80-81 US Agency for International Development (AID), 139 US Helsinki Commission, 138 USA Today, 127,130 USSR, see Soviet Union Valjas, Vaino, 54 Varennikov, Valentin, 117 Velliste, Trivimi, 50 Vershbow, Alexander, 150 Vīķe-Freiberga, Vaira, 171 Vilnius, see Lithuania/Lithuanian crisis Vulfsons, Mavriks, 52,120 Vyshinsky, Andrei, 17 Waffen-SS, 10-11,29, 36-38 Wall Street Journal, 122,127 Warsaw Pact, 76-77,125 Washington Post, 60, 61,79-80,82,127 Welles, Sumner, 18-19, 21 Weyrich, Paul, 128 working people’s lists, 17 World Federation of Free Latvians, 25-26 World Union of Free Latvians, 112-13 Yakovlev, Alexander, 5, 40, 43, 52-53, 55-56, 63, 85,114,120,128-29 Yalta Conference, 23, 27-28 Yanayev, Gennady, 153
Yazov, Dmitry, 111, 116,117,119,148, 153,155 Yedinstvo/Lithuania, 41 Yeltsin, Boris Baltic alliance with, 141-42,167-68 cooperation treaties signed by, 141-42 coup attempt role, 154,155-56 on Lithuanian oil/gas embargo, 98-99 political assets/post-coup, 156— 57,166-67 preservation of USSR by, 135 recognition of Baltic independence by, 156-57,161 relationship with Baker, 141 removal from RSFSR, 142 rivalry with Gorbachev, 136-37, 148,156-57 secret protocol accusations by, 55-56 support of Baltic independence by, 13, 57-58,117,121,130,136-37 US ties with, 128-29,136-37 Zaķe, leva, 25 Zakharov, Mark, 121 Zaslavskaya, Tatyana, 121 Zelikow, Philip, 68-69 Zhdanov, Andrei, 17 StoetsbíWioehík Index [241] |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| any_adam_object_boolean | 1 |
| author | Bergmane, Una |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1214013341 |
| author_facet | Bergmane, Una |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Bergmane, Una |
| author_variant | u b ub |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV048839226 |
| classification_rvk | MG 59086 NQ 8281 NQ 8306 NQ 8344 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1381310299 (DE-599)BVBBV048839226 |
| discipline | Politologie Geschichte |
| discipline_str_mv | Geschichte |
| era | Geschichte 1989-1991 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1989-1991 |
| format | Thesis Book |
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| genre | (DE-588)4113937-9 Hochschulschrift gnd-content |
| genre_facet | Hochschulschrift |
| geographic | Baltikum (DE-588)4004379-4 gnd USA (DE-588)4078704-7 gnd Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Baltikum USA Sowjetunion |
| id | DE-604.BV048839226 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-03T21:37:10Z |
| indexdate | 2024-12-09T15:02:12Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9780197578346 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-034104685 |
| oclc_num | 1381310299 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-Re13 DE-BY-UBR DE-29 DE-12 DE-11 DE-739 |
| owner_facet | DE-Re13 DE-BY-UBR DE-29 DE-12 DE-11 DE-739 |
| physical | xi, 241 Seiten |
| psigel | BSB_NED_20230526 |
| publishDate | 2023 |
| publishDateSearch | 2023 |
| publishDateSort | 2023 |
| publisher | Oxford University Press |
| record_format | marc |
| series2 | Oxford studies in international history |
| spelling | Bergmane, Una Verfasser (DE-588)1214013341 aut Politics of uncertainty the United States, the Baltic Question, and the collapse of the Soviet Union Una Bergmane New York Oxford University Press [2023] © 2023 xi, 241 Seiten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Oxford studies in international history Dissertation Sciences Po Paris Geschichte 1989-1991 gnd rswk-swf Unabhängigkeit (DE-588)4186820-1 gnd rswk-swf Unabhängigkeitsbewegung (DE-588)4121814-0 gnd rswk-swf Internationale Politik (DE-588)4072885-7 gnd rswk-swf Außenpolitik (DE-588)4003846-4 gnd rswk-swf Zerfall (DE-588)4067675-4 gnd rswk-swf Perestroika (DE-588)4193962-1 gnd rswk-swf Baltikum (DE-588)4004379-4 gnd rswk-swf USA (DE-588)4078704-7 gnd rswk-swf Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4113937-9 Hochschulschrift gnd-content Baltikum (DE-588)4004379-4 g Unabhängigkeitsbewegung (DE-588)4121814-0 s Unabhängigkeit (DE-588)4186820-1 s Geschichte 1989-1991 z DE-604 Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 g Perestroika (DE-588)4193962-1 s Zerfall (DE-588)4067675-4 s USA (DE-588)4078704-7 g Außenpolitik (DE-588)4003846-4 s Internationale Politik (DE-588)4072885-7 s Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, EPUB 978-0-19-757836-0 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034104685&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034104685&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Literaturverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034104685&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Bergmane, Una Politics of uncertainty the United States, the Baltic Question, and the collapse of the Soviet Union Unabhängigkeit (DE-588)4186820-1 gnd Unabhängigkeitsbewegung (DE-588)4121814-0 gnd Internationale Politik (DE-588)4072885-7 gnd Außenpolitik (DE-588)4003846-4 gnd Zerfall (DE-588)4067675-4 gnd Perestroika (DE-588)4193962-1 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4186820-1 (DE-588)4121814-0 (DE-588)4072885-7 (DE-588)4003846-4 (DE-588)4067675-4 (DE-588)4193962-1 (DE-588)4004379-4 (DE-588)4078704-7 (DE-588)4077548-3 (DE-588)4113937-9 |
| title | Politics of uncertainty the United States, the Baltic Question, and the collapse of the Soviet Union |
| title_auth | Politics of uncertainty the United States, the Baltic Question, and the collapse of the Soviet Union |
| title_exact_search | Politics of uncertainty the United States, the Baltic Question, and the collapse of the Soviet Union |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Politics of uncertainty the United States, the Baltic Question, and the collapse of the Soviet Union |
| title_full | Politics of uncertainty the United States, the Baltic Question, and the collapse of the Soviet Union Una Bergmane |
| title_fullStr | Politics of uncertainty the United States, the Baltic Question, and the collapse of the Soviet Union Una Bergmane |
| title_full_unstemmed | Politics of uncertainty the United States, the Baltic Question, and the collapse of the Soviet Union Una Bergmane |
| title_short | Politics of uncertainty |
| title_sort | politics of uncertainty the united states the baltic question and the collapse of the soviet union |
| title_sub | the United States, the Baltic Question, and the collapse of the Soviet Union |
| topic | Unabhängigkeit (DE-588)4186820-1 gnd Unabhängigkeitsbewegung (DE-588)4121814-0 gnd Internationale Politik (DE-588)4072885-7 gnd Außenpolitik (DE-588)4003846-4 gnd Zerfall (DE-588)4067675-4 gnd Perestroika (DE-588)4193962-1 gnd |
| topic_facet | Unabhängigkeit Unabhängigkeitsbewegung Internationale Politik Außenpolitik Zerfall Perestroika Baltikum USA Sowjetunion Hochschulschrift |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034104685&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034104685&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034104685&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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