Inheriting the bomb: the collapse of the USSR and the nuclear disarmament of Ukraine
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[2023]
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CONTENTS List ofAbbreviations ix Maps xii-xiii Acknowledgments xv Prologue Introduction PART I i 6 SOVIET NUCLEAR COLLAPSE 1 Soviet Collapse and Nuclear Weapons 2 Preventing Soviet Nuclear Collapse 15 17 39 3 The Road to Lisbon: Proliferation vs. Succession 4 Belarus and Kazakhstan: Paths Not Taken PART II 62 84 UKRAINE: NEGOTIATING A NUCLEAR EXCEPTION 107 5 The Road to Nuclear Renunciation 109 6 From Renunciation to Ownership 128 7 Nuclear Ownership and Deterrence 8 From Ownership to Renunciation Conclusion 225 Notes 241 Bibliography 289 Index 301 154 187
BIBLIOGRAPHY The author used the Library of Congress transliteration of Belarusian, Russian, and Ukrainian names and words through the book, except when a generally accepted convention otherwise existed for the names of well-known individuals or places. All translations from Belarusian, Russian, and Ukrainian are by the author unless otherwise indicated. The names of archives are noted in full, with the exception of the following recognizable acronyms: FBIS GARF TsDAVO Foreign Broadcast Information Service Gossudarstevennyi Arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii (State Archive of the Russian Federation) Tsentral'nyi Derzhavnyi Arkhiv Vyshchykh Organiv Vlady ta Upravlinnia Ukraiiny (Central State Archive of Supreme Bodies of Power and Governance of Ukraine) The author uses the following conventions for indicating a document’s location in post-Soviet archives: i.: fond or collection; op.: opis'or catalogue; d.: delo or folder. Interviews Allison, Graham. Interview by author, Cambridge, MA, December 9,2016. Bar'yakhtar, Viktor. Interview by author, Kyiv, April 2,2019. Courtney, William. Interview by author, Washington, DC, February 24, 2017. Drach, Ivan. Interview by author, Kyiv, May 22,2013. Filatov, Mykola. Interview by author, Kyiv, August 9,2018. Goodby, James E. Interview by author, Washington, DC, October 21,2016. Graham, Thomas, Jr. Interview by author, telephone, March 18,2016. Horbulin, Volodymyr. Interview by author, Kyiv, August 8, 2018. Hryshchenko, Kostiantyn. Interview by author, Kyiv, April 9,2019. Kostenko, Yuriy. Interview by author, Kyiv, April 25, 2017. Kravchuk,
Leonid. Interview by author, April 25, Kyiv, 2017. Lopata, Anatoliy. Interview by Polina Sinovets, Kyiv. January 31, 2017. Morozov, Kostiantyn. Interview by author, Washington, DC, December 5,2017. Perepelytsia, Hryhoriy. Interview by author, Kyiv, August 14,2018. Pifer, Steven. Interview by author, Washington, DC, March 24, 2015. Pustovyi, Ihor. Interview by author, Kyiv, July 31, 2018.
2ÿo Bibliography Sell, Louis D. Interview by author, telephone, February 3,2016. Shcherbyna, Valeriy. Interview by author, Kyiv, August 10,2018. Shevtsov, Anatoliy. Interview by author, telephone, August 18,2017. Steiner, Steven. Interview by author, Washington, DC, February 24, 2017. Tarasyuk, Borys. Interview by author, Budapest, November 14,2012. Tobey, William. Interview by author, Cambridge, MA, March 9,2017. Weber, Andrew. Interview by author, Cambridge, MA, September 28,2016. Zhalko-Tytarenko, Andrew. Interview by author, telephone, June 6,2017. Zolotarev, Pavel. Interview by author, Moscow, October 6,2017. Primary Sources Agreements and Treaties Agreement Between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation Concerning the Disposition of Highly Enriched Uranium Extracted from Nuclear Weapons, 18 February 1993. https://fissilematerials.org/library /heuleu93.pdf Alma-Atinskaia Deklaratsiia [The Alma-Aty Declaration], December 21,1991. http://cis.mmsk ,by/reestr/ru/index.html#reestr/view/text?doc=4. Dogovor о Soiuze Suverennykh Gosudarstv [Treaty on the Union of Sovereign States]. Draft, July 23,1991. In Rasspad SSSR: Dokumenty i Fakty; 1986-1992 Gg. [Dissolution of the USSR: Documents and Facts; 1986-1992], vol. 1, edited by Sergei Shakhrai, 744-54. Moscow: Kuchkovo Pole, 2016. Dohovir pro harantiii national'noii bezpeky Ukraiiny u zv'iazku z iiii pryiednanniam do Dohovoru pro nerozpovsiudzhennia iadernoii zbroii 1968 roku: Proekt [Treaty on Guarantees of National Security of Ukraine in Connection with her Accession to the
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INDEX Afghanistan: Soviet war in, 24 Babiy Yar: George H. W. Bush’s visit to, 123 air-launched cruise missiles (ALCMs), 19,174,204; Baker, James, 42,45,46,47,48,50, 65; and the in Kazakhstan, 36-37; in Ukraine, 35,183,222,223 collapse of the Soviet Union, 121; and concerns Aitken, Jonathan, 84 regarding command and control of the nuclear Aizenberg, Yakiv, 148,149 arsenal under the CIS, 58-59; and concerns Akhromeyev, Sergei, 28,32 regarding the nuclear status of Belarus, Aleksandrov, Anatoliy, 25 Kazakhstan, and Ukraine, 74,75,76-77,92-93· Allison, Graham, 48-49,50,212 All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Automatics (VNIIA), 182 Almaty Agreement on Joint Measures Regarding Nuclear Weapons, 58,138,140 Almaty Declaration: and management of the former Soviet nuclear arsenal, 58 133-34.138,151; and the Lisbon Protocol, 79-81 Baklanov, Oleg, 32-33 Baltic states: independence sought by, 28-29,114; as members of the NPT, 68; nuclear arsenal of, 39; and Soviet treaty obligations, 66. See also Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania Bartholomew, Reginald, 72-73,74,75,86,150 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM), 26 Bar’yakhtar, Viktor, 148, 200 Antonov, Viktor, 165 Bashkirov, Mykhailo, 142-43 Argentina: as member of the NPT, 11,70 Batiouk, Victor, 120 Armenia: declaration of sovereignty by, 114; and Belarus: and accession to the NPT, 8,71,80,83,85, hostilities with Azerbaijan, 39 Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA), 69,150 arms control treaties: between the Soviet Union and the United States, 26-27. See also START 88,91,92; and attempt to join the NPT, 29-30; Clinton’s visit to,
89-90; and concerns regarding the implementation of START, 73-78,86; CTR funds allotted to, 89,90; declaration of sovereignty by, 29,85; diplomatic recognition of, by the treaty; Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of United States, 59; highly enriched uranium in, Nuclear Weapons (NPT) 38; impact of the Chernobyl accident on, 85,86, Arzamas-16,178 90; and the Lisbon Protocol, 76-81, 84-85, Aspin, Les, 159,212; and efforts toward nuclear 86,89,151,152; as member of international disarmament, 47-48,49,50; and Ukraine’s institutions, 67; as member of the CIS, 58-61; as security concerns, 193,197 member of the NPT, 89; as militarized republic, Association Agreement (with the European Union): and Yanukovych’s refusal to sign, 225 87-88; nuclear arsenal of, 6,20,33-34,37-38,43, 58,87,90-91; nuclear disarmament of, 8,9-10, Austria State Treaty, 198 12,18, 78-81, 85, 86-88,89, 90-91; nuclear Azerbaijan: and hostilities with Armenia, 39; as research reactors in, 38; nuclear status of, independent state, 51 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union,
302 Belarus (cont.) Index Chechevatov, Viktor, 128,129 62-63,67-68,71,73-83,85-91; and proceeds cheget (Soviet nuclear briefcase), 21,31,57 from the sale of fissile material, 199-200; and Cheney, Dick, 47,121 ratification of the START treaty, 88-89; role of, Chernobyl accident, 1,3,24-25; impact of, on in the Soviet nuclear weapons complex, 22; Yeltsin’s visit to, 54-55 Belarusian Popular Front (BPF), 87 Belavezha Accord, 17, 55,56-57,137-38,140,166. Belarus, 85,86,90,232; significance of, for Ukraine and Ukrainians, 109-10,112,115-17,127, 230,232 Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, 238 See also Commonwealth of Independent States Chevron: investment in Kazakhstan by, 97 (CIS) China: as member of the NPT, 11,70 Black Sea Fleet (BSF), 174; in Crimea, 140,145; disagreement regarding the status of, 141-42, 201-3; and tactical nuclear weapons, 149 Blair, Bruce, 178 Chornovil, Vyacheslav, 131-32,133 Christopher, Warren, 101,190,209-10; and US monetary assistance for denudearization, 204 Clinton, Bill, 50,76,127,218; and Belarus, 89-90; Boldyrev, V., 31-32 and the Budapest Memorandum, 218,219; and Brazil: as member of the NPT, 11,70 Kazakhstan, 100,101,103-4; ^d the trilateral Brezhnev, Leonid, 23 nuclear agreement, 209-11; Ukraine policy Brooks, Linton, 159 under, 191-95,207-8; and Yeltsin, 192,209 Brzezinski, Ian, 172 collective farms, 1 Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 151; and assessment of Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS): Ukraine’s situation, after gaining independence, creation of, 50-51,55-57,137-38; Joint Armed 188 Forces (JAF) of, 58,60,139; limited effectiveness Budapest Memorandum:
invocation of, following of, 87; members of, 57; Minsk Agreement signed Russia’s invasion of Crimea, 225-26,229; and by members of, 59-60; nuclear policy as nuclear disarmament of Ukraine, 219-23,230; developed by, 58-61,138-39,140,143-44; and and security assurances to Belarus, Kazakhstan, questions regarding Soviet treaty obligations, 67; and Ukraine, 218-19 Burns, William, 100,157,200 Bush, George H. W., 26,50,98; and assurances regarding Ukraine’s security, 156; criticism of Ukrainian policy of, 126; and disappointing message to the Ukrainian people, 123-26; foreign policy of, 76; and instability in the Soviet Union, 41,44,121-23; Kravchuk’s meeting with, and the Russian Federation as the successor of the Soviet Union, 62-63; strategic forces of, 58, 59,61; tensions within, 139-40 Communist Party (following the collapse of the Soviet Union): challenges to, 29; and the Soviet military, 30; in Ukraine, no, 111,113 Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU): and the Soviet nudear weapons program, 21,22 133; Presidential Nuclear Initiatives announced Communist Party of Ukraine (CPU), 113,132 by, 44-45; and the START treaty, 71; and US Conference on Assistance to the Newly Indepen frustration with Ukraine, 188-89; Yeltsin’s meeting with, 181 Buteiko, Anton, 148,203,208,209 dent States (Lisbon), 79 Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), 85,92, no, 156,206,216; and Memoranda on Security Assurances in Carnegie Corporation, 48 Carter, Ash, 49,50,212 Carter, Jimmy, 188 Center for Administrative Control of Strategic Forces of Ukraine, 149 Çetin, Hikmet, 207
Charter of Democratic Partnership (between the United States and Kazakhstan), 103-4 Connection with Accession to the NPT (for Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine), 218-19 Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) treaty, 27, 40,46; following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, 63 Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) Act, 9,50, 62; and support for nudear nonproliferation, 89, 90,100,102,156-57,188-89, 208, 212-13, 220,221
Index ՅՕՅ Courtney, William, 94 the START treaty, 26-27,71; strategic nuclear Crimea: declaration of independence by, 149; and reductions proposed by, 44-45; union treaty referendum on “reuniting” Crimea with Russia, proposed by, 30-31,32,41,51,114,125,127 226-27; Russian annexation of (2014), 4,7, Gore, Al: in Kazakhstan, 102 225-291 Russian presence in, 141,197; separatist Grachev, Pavel, 52,90,193,223 movement in, 140-41,145 Graham, Thomas, Jr., 69,73,150,216 Greiveldinger, Geoffrey. 64,66 Dalgalyeu, Vasil, 87 Gromov, Boris, 176 Danylo, Prince, 1 GUMO (Main Directorate of the Ministry of Defense Council (Ukraine): and discussion of Ukraine’s nuclear inheritance, 148-49 Defense Department (US): and concerns regarding Defense): and responsibility for tactical nuclear weapons, 53,131,144,194 Gundersen, Jon, 113-14,122-23,126 Soviet treaty obligations following the collapse, 64 Deshchytsia, Andriy, 225-26 Hague, William, 226 Donbas: Russian invasion of (2014), 4,227 Helsinki Final Act of the Conference on Security Donetsk People’s Republic: militias of, 227 Hamburg, David, 48 and Cooperation in Europe, 110,211 Drach, Ivan: as leader of Rukh, 111,115,117,125 Herbst, John, 223 Dubinin, Yuriy, 163 highly enriched uranium (HEU): in Belarus, 38; as Dumas, Roland, 93 blended down and sold to the United States, Durdynets, Vasyl, 52,53-54,118,165 199-200; in Kazakhstan, 102-5; in Ukraine, 6, 36,159,204-5. See also Project Sapphire Eastern Europe: Soviet nuclear weapons in, 20 Hiroshima: nuclear strike on, 240 Eastern Mining and Enrichment Combine Holovatyi, Serhiy, 115-17,120
(SkhidHZK), 17 Estonia: declaration of sovereignty by, 28-29 Honchar, Oles’, 111-12 Horbulin, Volodymyr, 179,182,214,215 Hryshchenko, Kostiantyn, 155,183 Filatov, Mykola, 214 Filenko, Volodymyr, 132 India: as nuclear-weapon state, 11-12,70,235 France: as member of the NPT, 11,70 Institute of Nuclear Physics (Kyiv), 180 Freedom Support Act, 157,159 intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), 20,21, 43; in Belarus, 37; in Kazakhstan, 36; in Ukraine, Galicia: anti-Soviet sentiment in, 111 Gates, Robert, 43-44,121 34,36,167 intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBMs), 20 Georgia: declaration of sovereignty by, 114; as Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, independent state, 51-52 20,26,27,40,183; and debate surrounding the Gift, Elwood, 104 status of the newly independent Soviet republics, glasnost (political liberalization), 24,109; scrutiny 75-76; following the dissolution of the Soviet of the military under, 30 Union, 63; Horbulin’s concerns regarding, 215; Goodby, James, 90,100,203-4 and inspections rights, 75; Special Verification Gorbachev, Mikhail, 59; and arms control negotiations with the United States, 26-27; after the breakup of the Soviet Union, 121,122; and the Chernobyl accident, 25,109; coup attempt Committee of, 75 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 30,67; and Kazakhstan, 106; and the nuclear arsenals of former Soviet republics, 7,18,46 against, 31-33,40,42,43; as leader of the Soviet International Court of Justice, 67 Union, 23-31,33,42,51; political reforms initiated international law: and the succession of states, by, 28-29,30-31,111;
resignation of, 17,57,138; the 65-66,75-76. See aho Belarus; Kazakhstan; Soviet defense establishment’s distrust of, 28; and Ukraine
304 Iran: and interest in Kazakhstan’s nuclear material, 104 Index Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology (KhFTI), 180 Iraq: as nuclear-weapon state, 12,70 Kharkiv Physical-Technical Institute (KhFTI), 36 Isinaliyev, Mikhail, 99,102 Kharkiv, Ukraine: nuclear research based in, 36 ISKAN, 189 Khartron, 148,177 Israel: as nuclear-weapon state, 12,70; and policy Khasbulatov, Ruslan, 141 of nuclear opacity, 235 Khmara, Stepan, 136 Khrushchev, Nikita, 141,192 Joint Compliance and Inspections Commission (jcic), 79,154-55 Joint Strategic Armed Forces (of the CIS), 58,60 Kissinger, Henry, 151 Koldunov, Aleksandr, 26 Kolesnikov, Mikhail, 189 Komsomol (Communist youth league), 2 Kamman, Curtis, 119 Konyukhov, Stanislav, 148-49,182,214 Kasatonov, Igor, 142 Kostenko, Yuriy, 148,163,190; as critic of the Kataev, Vitaly, 22,232 Kavkaz (Soviet communications system), 21,31 Kazakhstan: and accession to the NPT, 8,83,100, 101,151,158,218; George H. W Bush as supporter of, 98; Clinton as supporter of, 100,101,103-4; START-Lisbon package, 158-59; and recognition of Ukraine’s ownership of nuclear weapons, 170-72 Kosygin, Alexei, 23 Kozyrev, Andrei, 74,75,76,77,79,80,130, !52,181, 189,206 and concerns regarding implementation of Kravchanka, Pyotr, 17,79, 84,85-86,88 START, 73-78,94; and connections with Kravchuk, Leonid, 58-59; background of, из; and the Islamic world, 97; and cooperation with the bilateral talks with Russia regarding nuclear safety United States, 102-6; CTR funds allotted to, and ownership, 162-64; as chairman of the Rada, too, 102; declaration of sovereignty by, 29,92;
113,124,128,131; on the challenges of indepen diplomatic recognition of, by the United States, dence, 188; and concerns regarding the CIS 59,93; and global nonproliferation efforts, 106; agreements, 139-40,145-47; and coup attempt by highly enriched uranium stored in, 103-5; and the the Soviet authorities, 128-29; and creation of Lisbon Protocol, 76-81,84-85,97,99,151,152; as the Ukrainian military, 134-35; and discussion member of the CIS, 58-61; as nuclear arsenal of, surrounding the question of Ukraine’s status as a 6,33-34,36-37,43,58,92,95; nuclear disarma nuclear state, 165,168-69,173,184,185; and ment of, 7,8,9,12,18,78-81,99,102,106,152; meeting with Yeltsin on nuclear issues, 201-2, nuclear material found in, 102-6; nuclear research 203; as president of Ukraine, 54-55,56, 57,58-59, in, 37; nuclear status of, following the dissolution 77,78,79,94,114,123,126,137-38,14З-46,148-50; of the Soviet Union, 62-63,68,71,73-83,92-102; and procedure to launch a nuclear strike from and ratification of the NPT, 102; and ratification Ukraine, 150; and proceeds from the sale of fissile of the START-Lisbon package, 99,100,157; role material, 199-200; security guarantees sought by, of, in the Soviet nuclear weapons complex, 22; 78,195; and skepticism regarding security and strategic alliance with Russia, 96; and assurances, 219; and the START treaty, 158; and struggle to form an independent armed forces, tensions with Russia, 201-2; and the trilateral 95-96; as a “temporary nuclear state,” 93,94,97; nuclear agreement, 208,209-12; and Ukraine’s uranium ore deposits in, 22,37,95;
US support nuclear arsenal, following independence, 133; and for, 92-93. See also Nazarbayev, Nursultan; visits to the United States, 149,213 Project Sapphire; Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan Kazbek (Soviet nuclear command and control), 21 Kryuchkov, Vladimir, 32,128 Kuchma, Leonid, 158,173,182,191,218; as advocate Kazlousky, Pavel, 86-87 for nuclear disarmament, 217; and the Budapest Kerry, John, 225-26 Memorandum, 218,219-20,229; as president of KGB: and Gorbachev’s ouster, 31-32; in Ukraine, 112 Ukraine, 213-16,217; on Russia’s invasion of Crimea, 229
Index Kunsberg, Philip, 64 Kyiv, Ukraine: nuclear reactor in, 35-36. See also Ukraine 305 Moiseyev, Mikhail, 32,42,129: as minister of defense, 135-36 Moldova: as independent state, 51-52 Kyiv Institute of Nuclear Research, 35-36 Monolit, 177 Kyrgyzstan, 20 Moroz, Oleksandr, 132 Morozov, Kostiantyn: as Ukrainian defense Latvia: declaration of sovereignty by, 29 Lavrov, Sergey, 226,227 Lisbon Protocol, 84-85,88,151,152,154; terms and minister, 52,53,129,135-36,14a, 146-47,148,175, 184,193,203 Mulroney, Brian, 41 conditions of, 79-81,155 Lithuania: declaration of sovereignty by, 29; Soviet response to independence movement in, 118 Lobov, General, 135 Lopata, Anatoliy, 176,184 low enriched uranium (LEU): derived from National Security Council (NSC): and US concerns about instability in the Soviet Union, 40,41, 64-65,121 National Space Agency of Ukraine (NSAU), 215; feasibility study conducted by, 179-80,182 HEU from Ukrainian warheads, 204-5; and fuel NATO. See North Atlantic Treaty Organization bank in Kazakhstan, 106; in the United States, Nazarbayev, Nursultan: background of, 91-92; 103 Lugar, Richard: and eiforts toward nuclear disarmament, 49-50,76,99,150-51 Luhansk People’s Republic: militias of, 227 Lukashenka, Alexander, 90; and the Budapest Memorandum, 218,219 and the Budapest Memorandum, 218,229; and negotiations over Kazakhstan’s nuclear status, 92-102,105-6; as president of Kazakhstan, 55,59, 77,78,91-102,105-6,218,232; and Project Sapphire, 103-5; and strategic alliance with Russia, 96-97 Neff, Thomas, 199 Lukin, Vladimir, 79,141,145,193 Nixon, Richard, 151; in
Ukraine, 113-14 Luk’yanenko, Levko, 111,115,126 North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NACC), 156 Lviv, Ukraine: annexation of, by the Soviet Union North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): as (1939), 1 adversary of the Soviet Union, 20-21; and the Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) treaty, 27, Major, John, 133; and the Budapest Memorandum, 218 Maksimov, Yuriy, 42,162 40; Partnership for Peace program, 90,104,198; as supporter of the US position on nuclear nonproliferation, 46 Mamedov, Georgiy, 193,202,205,208 North Korea: as nuclear power, 10 Marchuk, Yevhen, 136-37,148,165 Novo-Ogarevo process, 30-31,55,122 Mariupol, Ukraine, 238 Novorossiya (New Russia), 225 Martyrosian, Vilen, 118,119 NPT. See Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Matlock, Jack, 17-18,40,122 nuclear age: impact of, on Ukraine, 3-4 Mayorsky, Boris, 68,71 nuclear deterrence: costs and challenges of, 176-84; medium-range ballistic missiles (MRBMs), 20 Melnyk, Andriy, 229-30 nuclear weapons as, 239 nuclear disarmament: of Belarus, 8,9-10,12,18, Mette, Vitaliy, 102-3 78-81,85,86-88,89,90-91; after the collapse of the Mikhailov, Viktor, 200 Soviet Union, 8-12,13,47-51; in the 1990S, 70-71; Mikhtiuk, Volodymyr, 150,160 and insights gleaned from the nuclear disarma Miller, Steven, 49 ment of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine, 231-37; Minsk Agreement, 59-60 of Kazakhstan, 7,8,9,12,18,78-81,99,102,106,152; Mironov, V., 31 politics of, 3-4; trilateral deal arrived at, 207-12; MIRVs (multiple independently targeted reentry trilateral process for, 202-5; of Ukraine, 4,7-10, vehicles): in Ukraine, 34 Missile Technology
Control Regime (MTCR), 215 11-12,19,134,143,219-23. See also Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty; nuclear proliferation
Зоб Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). Index Pugo, Boris, 32 See Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Pustovy, Ihor, 230 Weapons Putin, Vladimir: and denial of Russian military nuclear proliferation: as concern of the West, following the collapse of the Soviet Union, 9, activity in Crimea, 226; and nuclear threat, 227; and the specter of nuclear strike, 239-40 39-42,43-51,57,62-63, 72-83; factors affecting, Rada. See Verkhovna Rada (Ukrainian legislature) 231-37 Nuclear Suppliers Group, 170 Rademaker, Stephen, 66 nuclear weapons: delivery platforms for, 19-20; Reagan, Ronald, 27,126 locations of, throughout the Soviet Union, Remnick, David, 43 20-21; reductions in, following the INF Treaty, Restatement of The Law Third: The Foreign 26; reductions in, following the START treaty, Relations Law of the United States, 66 26-27. See also Soviet nuclear arsenal; Soviet Rice, Condoleezza, 121 Union; Ukraine; United States Rogov, Sergei, 189 Nunn, Sam, 42; and efforts toward nuclear disarmament, 47-48,49-50,76,99,150-51 Nurmagambetov, Sagadat, 95 Rukh (People’s Movement for Perestroika), 29,111; CIAs analysis of, 121-22; founding congress of, 111-12; and resolution on Ukraine as a nuclear-free zone, 112,115-17; US perception of, 121 Odom, William, 26 Officers’ Union of Ukraine (OUU), 119 Oliynyk, Ivan, 157,162 Russian Federation: as aspiring democracy, 130; and bilateral talks with Ukraine regarding nuclear safety and ownership, 162-64; after the collapse of the Soviet Union, 60-61,62-63; and concerns Pakistan: as nuclear-weapon state, 10,11-12,70,235 Partial Test Ban
Treaty (PTBT): Ukraine and Belarus as members of, 67 Partnership for Peace (PfP), 90,104,198,204,213 about START, following the collapse of the Soviet Union, 72-76; and concerns regarding the safety and maintenance of Ukraine’s nuclear stockpile, 160-62; and condemnation of attack on Crimea, Pavlychko, Dmytro, 171,212 228; Crimea invaded by (2014), 4,7,225-29; People’s Movement for Perestroika. See Rukh declaration of sovereignty by, 29,40; and Perepelytsia, Hryhoriy, 175 disagreement with Ukraine regarding the perestroika (economic restructuring), 24; popular disposition of tactical nuclear weapons, 131-32; movements in support of, 28-29 Perry, William, 50,208,212,223 Donbas invaded by (2014), 4,227; and efforts to establish a relationship with Ukraine, 130-31; as Pilyugin Center, 177 inheritor of Soviet treaty obligations after the Pivdenmash missile factory, 34,36,53,148,177,181, collapse, 66-67; as member of the CIS, 58; as 182, 213 Pivdenne design bureau, 34,36,148,179,181,182, 213, 214,215 member of the NPT, 63,71; and negotiations relating to implementation of the START treaty, 154-60; nuclear arsenal of, 33-34,43,53,58,60-61; Plyushch, Ivan, 132,165,173 as nuclear power, 4,18; and security guarantees for Poland: and diplomatic recognition of Ukraine, 137 Ukraine, 196-97; as security threat to Ukraine, 150, Popadiuk, Roman, 188-89,196 155-56, 187; as successor to the Soviet UN Security Poroshenko, Petro, 228 Council seat, 67; as successor to the USSR in Potapenko, Hrihoriy, 142-43 relation to the NPT, 68-69; and tensions with Powell, Colin, 48 Ukraine, 201-5; and
trilateral nuclear agreement, Presidential Nuclear Initiatives (PNIs), 9,44-45, 207-12; Ukraine invaded by (2022), 5,237-40; on 53,131 Project Sapphire: and the transport of nuclear Ukraine’s declarations of nuclear ownership, material from Kazakhstan, 102-5 Prydniprovsky Chemical Plant, 178-79 190-91; Ukraine’s suspicions regarding, 130; Ukraine’s treaty with, 130; US aid package to, 101. See also Soviet nuclear arsenal; Soviet Union
Index Russian State Committee on the State of Emergency (GKChP), 32-33,128 307 Union, 9,39-42,43-51,57,62-63, 72-83· See also Belarus; Kazakhstan; Ukraine Rust, Dean, 234 Soviet Strategic Missile Forces (RVSN), 20,42,53 Rust, Mathias, 26 Soviet technologies: Gorbachev’s concerns Rutskoi, Aleksandr, 53,130,145,146 regarding, 25-26 RVSN. See Soviet Strategic Missile Forces Soviet Threat Reduction Act. See Cooperative Safe and Secure Dismantlement of Nuclear Soviet treaty obligations: legal succession to, Threat Reduction (CTR) Act Weapons (SSD) talks, 156-57 Safire, William, 126,218 SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) I and II, 26 following the collapse, 64-68 Soviet Union: aid package proposed for, 48; and annexation of Ukraine, 1; and arms control negotiations with the United States, 26-27; and Schmidt, Helmut, 23 challenges to the military, under glasnost, 24,30; Scowcroft, Brent, 43-44,47,48,66,121,125,128 changes proposed to structure of, 30-31; and the sea-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), 19 Chernobyl accident, 24-25; collapse of, 6,8-12, Selivanov, Volodymyr, 159-60,162 13,17-18,33; and debate surrounding the future Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: air base in, 36-37; of the military, 51-54; establishment of, 55; under closure of the nuclear test site at, 91; nuclear Gorbachev, 23-31,33,42,43,51, 55; indepen testing in, 19,37,99,105,231,232 dence movements within, 2-3,28-31,39,51-52, Sevastopol, Crimea: and ties to Russia, 140,197 54; instability in, preceding the collapse, 39-40, Shakhnazarov, Georgy, 23,27-28,31 51-53,119-27; as a militarized economy, 22-23,
Shaposhnikov, Yevgeniy, 41,51,52-53, 57,59; as 24,27-28,52; military-industrial complex in, commander in chief of the JAF, 58-59,139,142, 21-22, 24,52-53; as a nuclear-weapon state, 38; 145,194 questions regarding succession to, following the Shevardnadzhe, Eduard, 26 collapse, 233-34։ response of the West to the Shkolnik, Vladimir, 104 collapse of, 38; and rivalry with the United Shmarov, Valeriy, 202, 223 States, 19-20, 24,40; shortages of consumer Shushkevich, Stanislau, 58-59; and the Belavezha goods in, 23; treaty obligations of, 64-65; union Accord, 137-38; as chairman of the Belarusian treaty proposed for, 30-31,51,125,127; and war parliament, 54-55,56,57,77,86,88,89-90 in Afghanistan, 24. See also Belarus; Kazakhstan; Slavsky, Yefim, 25 Sobchak, Anatoliy, 130 Russian Federation; Soviet nuclear arsenal; Ukraine Sokolov, Sergei, 26 SS-18 ICBMs, 36,95,102,148,177 South Africa: as member of the NPT, 7,70 SS-19 ICBMs, 160-61,177; deactivation of, 193-94, Soviet-German alliance pact, 28,111 Soviet military: response of, to the independence movement in Ukraine, 117-19; status of, following the collapse of the Soviet Union, 143, 174-75 Soviet nuclear arsenal, 6,18,19-20,33-34; as 204 SS-24 ICBMs, 34,36,147,148,149,177,178,181, 182-83,194։ deactivation of, 204,208,212, 220-22 Stalin, Josef, 19 START treaty, 11,26-27,40-41,45,46,48,50; affected by the Belavezha Accord, 56-57; George H. W. Bush’s signing of, 123; guiding command and control of, 21-22; command and principles for, 72-73; Joint Compliance and control of, during and after the disintegration of Inspections
Commission of, 79,154-55; and the Soviet Union, 39-40,42,52-54,55-57,58-61; the Lisbon Protocol, 79-81,84-85,151,152; locations of, 20-21; makers of components of negotiations relating to the implementation of, 177; management of, under the CIS, 58-61, 154-60; ratification of, by Belarus, 88-89; 139; and the West’s concerns about nuclear ratification of, by Kazakhstan, 100,157; ratification proliferation following the collapse of the Soviet of, by Russia, 158; ratification of, by
ļo8 START treaty (cont.) the United States, 99,158; renegotiation of, after Index Soviet Union, 81-83; impact of Soviet disintegration on, 68-70,71; Kazakhstan’s the dissolution of the Soviet Union, 63,64,68, accession to, 8,83,100,101,151,158,218; 71,72-78,79-81, 84-85,94; and the signing of provisions outlined in, 10-11; review conference the Budapest Memorandum, 218; Ukraine’s for, 70,71; Russian Federation as member of, reservations regarding, 158-59,190-91,196, 63; Ukraine as member of, 18-19; Ukraine’s 205-7,212· See also Belarus; Kazakhstan; accession to, 7-8,12,29-30, 69-70,71,77,83,138, Ukraine START-II: impact of, 181-82; Ukraine’s objections to, 189 151,158,164,196,216-18; Ukraine’s attempt to become a member of, 29-30,120; Ukraine’s commitment to joining, 138 Steiner, Steven, 62,154,155 Truman, Harry, 19 Stelmakh, Taras, 4 Trump, Donald, 229 Stepanchuk, John, 122 Tu-շշտ, 223 Steury, Donald P., 15 TU-95S, 35,222-23 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) I and II, TU-95MSS, 35,36 26 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty. See START treaty TU-142S, 222 TU-160S, 35, 222 submarines: armed with nuclear torpedoes and sea-launched ballistic missiles, 19 Sukhumi Institute of Physics and Technology, 179-80 Suleimenov, Olzhas, 91 Syanko, Uladzimir, 86 Udovenko, Hennadiy, 216-17 Ukraine: and accession to the NPT, 7-8,12,29-30, 69-70,71,77,83,138,151,158,164,196,216-18; Act of Independence of, 129; and the Agreement on Joint Armed Forces, 60; and bilateral talks with Russia regarding nuclear safety and Talbott, Strobe, 207; and negotiations with ownership, 162-64; George H. W.
Bush’s visit to, Kazakhstan, 101; and negotiations with Russia 123-26; after the Chernobyl accident, 109-10, and Ukraine, 192-93,201, 202,203,207; and the 112,115-17,127,230; and compensation for fissile trilateral nuclear agreement, 208,209-10; and material, 199-200,205,208; and concerns Ukraine’s security concerns, 197-98 Tarasyuk, Borys, 150,187,191,193,196,202,205,229 Tashkent Collective Security Treaty, 87,96,99,139 regarding implementation of the START treaty, 73-78,133.134.137. ISO, 151,152» 155-60,188, 189,205-7; and concerns regarding nuclear Thielmann, Greg, 107 disarmament, 151,152-53,158-60; and concerns Tlatelolco, Treaty of, 11,70 regarding the maintenance and safety of the Tolubko, Volodymyr, 147,158,159,173-74,176,184 nuclear stockpile in, 160-62; and the costs and Track II dialogues: focusing on arms control, challenges of nuclear deterrence, 176-84; and 47-48 Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe counterfactual reflections, following Russian (CFE), 184 Treaty on Coordinating Activity in the Military Sphere, 88 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear the costs of nuclear ownership, 169-70; and aggressions, 230-31,234-35; CTR funds allotted to, 220, 221-22; debate surrounding nuclear status of, 3,7-8,9,18-19,38,78-81,136,164-69; Declaration of Sovereignty by, 29,114-15.116,117. Weapons (NPT) 6,7,46, 230; Belarus as member 119-20,127,129,132,146,176; and desire to be of, 89; Belarus’s accession to, 8,71,80,83,85,88, nuclear-free, 109-10,112,115-17.127.133.134. 91,92; Belarus’s attempt to become a member of, 136; diplomatic recognition of, by
Canada, 137; 29-30,120; countries participating in, 11-12; diplomatic recognition of, by several European extension of, 12; as framework for nuclear countries, 137; diplomatic recognition of, by the discourse, 233-34; impact of, on nuclear United States, 59,138,153; and disagreement with disarmament, following the collapse of the Russia regarding the disposition of tactical
Index 309 nuclear weapons, 131-32; economic aid to, 209,216, 231; the Soviet military’s view of the 213,215-16; and efforts to secure diplomatic independence movement in, 118; statehood recognition from the West, 133-345 and the achieved by, 129-30; strategic aviation regiments elimination of its nuclear infrastructure, 220-23; in, 35; as successor to Soviet conventional highly enriched uranium in, 6,36; independence weaponry, 184; as successor to Soviet movement in, 2-3,29,51-52,54,109-15; and international obligations, 150; and support for international reaction to Ukraine’s hesitancy to nuclear rearmament, following Russia’s invasion ratify the START-Lisbon package, 206-7; of Crimea, 229-30; and tensions with Russia, international recognition of sovereignty of, 78,189-90,201-5; and tensions with the United 119-20; and international recognition of States, 185; and transfer of nuclear weapons to Ukraine’s right to nuclear ownership, 170-72; Russia, 131,143-45,149, 208-9,212; and international support for, following the Russian trilateral nuclear agreement, 207-12; uranium invasion, 238-39; Javelin missiles sold to, 229; mining in, 36; US aid requested by, 228-29; US Kravchuk as president of, 54-55,56,57,58-59,77, perspective on Ukraine’s role in the post-Soviet 78,79,94,114,123,124,126; and the Lisbon order, 151; and US policy under Bill Clinton, Protocol, 76-81,84-85,151,152; as member of 191-95; and US reluctance to get involved with international institutions, 67; as member of the Ukrainian sovereignty, 120-27; and the West’s CIS, 58-61; as member of the NPT, 18-19; as
caution regarding Ukrainian statehood, 119-20. member of the United Nations, 29, 63,67,119; See also Chernobyl accident; Crimea Ministry of Defense in, 130; Ministry of Foreign Ukraine Freedom Support Act, 228-29 Affairs in, 119; missiles held by, 34-35,36; and Ukrainian Helsinki Group, 111 negotiations relating to implementation of the Ukrainian military: and the CIS-subordinated START treaty, 154-60; Richard Nixon’s visit to, units, 140,147; and concerns regarding the air 113-14; nuclear arsenal of, 3-4,6-7,18,20,34-36, force, 142-43; establishment of, 132,134-37, 43, 53-54, 58,117-18,127,133-34; nuclear 146-47; Morozov as defense minister of, 52,53, disarmament of, 4,7-10,11-12,19,134,143, 129,135-36,142,146-47; and tensions with the CIS, 147 219-23,230,231; nuclear infrastructure inherited by, 35-36,147-50; and nuclear ownership as deterrence, 171-72,173-76; and nuclear ownership as grounds for compensation (political and Ukrainian Ministry of Defense: and the creation of armed forces, 51,130,137,142 Ukrainian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA), 119; financial), 164-69; and nuclear ownership as and memorandum on Ukraine’s nuclear status, political advantage, 169-72; nuclear ownership 164-69; and security guarantees for Ukraine, claimed by, 190-91; nuclear status of, following 197; and Ukraine’s concerns regarding the dissolution of the Soviet Union, 62-63, ratification of the START-Lisbon package, 67-68,71,73-83,134,151-52; opposition to 206-7 disarmament of, 187,189; and opposition to Ukrainian National Security and Defense Council, transfer of its nuclear weapons,
132-34,143,147; 159 Ukrainian Popular Movement for Perestroika. and the Partnership for Peace program, 198,204, 213; and problems with START-II, 189; and proceeds from the sale of fissile material, 199-200; referendum on independence for, 137; and the right to independent armed forces, 115; See Rukh Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic: living conditions in, 1-2; and resistance to Soviet occupation, 2 role of, in the Soviet nuclear weapons complex, Ukrainian Writers’ Union, 111 22; Russia as security threat to, 7,150,155-56,187, Ulba Metallurgical Plant, 102-3,104,106 225-40; Russian invasion of (2022), 5,237-40; UNESCO, 67 and Russian pressures to disarm, 9; Russia’s United Nations, 156; Belarus as member of, 29,63, efforts to establish a relationship with, 130-31; 67; Kazakhstan as member of, 63; Ukraine as security guarantees sought by, 4,155-56,195-99, member of, 29,63,67,119
Зю United Nations Security Council: and resolution on Russia’s annexation of Crimea, 226-27; Russia as successor to the Soviet Union at, 62-63 United States: and arms control negotiations with the Soviet Union, 26-27; and concerns regarding the Index Vienna Convention on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties, 65-66,69,206 Vienna Convention on the Succession of States in Respect to State Property, Archives and Debts (1983)» 185» 205-6 Soviet nuclear arsenal, during and after the Voshanov, Pavel, 130 collapse, 8-9,38-42,43-51» 57,64-66,72-75,76-82, Vyshenskiy, Ivan, 148 150-51; and diplomatic recognition of the former Vyuga radio communication system, 177 Soviet republics, 59,65,93,138; and economic aid to Ukraine, 215-16; five principles in response to the Soviet disintegration, 45,46; geostrategic goals Warsaw Pact member-states: and the Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) treaty, 27,40 of, 41; and instability within the Soviet Union, Weber, Andy, 102-3,104 119-27; Kravchuk’s visit to, 149; and the Lisbon World Health Organization (WHO), 67 Protocol, 79-80; and negotiations between Russia and Ukraine, 202-5; and negotiations relating to Yakovlev, Alexander, 24 implementation of the START treaty, 154-60; and Yanayev, Gennady, 33,126-27 negotiations with Kazakhstan, 92-102,105-6; Yanukovych, Viktor, 225 nudear arsenal of, 4,19-20; response of, to the Yazov, Dmitry, 32,41,42 collapse of the Soviet Union, 120-27; and rivalry Yeltsin, Boris, 29,187,190,218; and the Belavezha with the Soviet Union, 19-20,24,40; as supporter Accord, 137-38; and the Black Sea Fleet, 145; and
of the NPT, 70,71,81; and the trilateral nudear the Budapest Memorandum, 218,219; George H. W agreement, 207-12; and Ukraine policy in the Bush’s meeting with, 182; and the challenge of Clinton administration, 191-95; and Ukraine’s Ukrainian statehood, 121,130; and Bill Clinton, security concerns, 155-56,195-99. See also 192,209; and command and control of the nudear arsenal, 59,60,78; and compensation to Ukraine Presidential Nudear Initiatives (PN!s) uranium. See highly enriched uranium (HEU); low enriched uranium (LEU) for fissile materials, 200; as leader of Russia during and after the collapse, 33,45,52,53,54-55,56,59,92, USSR. See Soviet Union 93,121,127,131,203; and meeting with Kravchuk on Utkin, Volodymyr, 214 nudear issues, 201-2, 203; and procedure for removal of nudear weapons from Ukraine, 149; Varennikov, Valentin, 32,128,129 and the trilateral nudear agreement, 210-11 Vasylenko, Volodymyr, 117 Yugoslavia: ethnic violence in, 45-46 Verkhovna Rada (Ukrainian legislature): and Act of Independence of Ukraine, 129-30; George H. W. Bush’s address to, 123-25; and creation of a Zaporizhzhia nudear power plant: Russian attack on, 238 Ukrainian military, 130,134-37; and debate Zayets, Ivan, 136 surrounding ratification of the START-Lisbon Zelenskiy, Viktor, 148 package, 205-7; Kravchuk as chairman of, 113, Zelensky, Volodymyr, 237 124,128-29; national-democratic forces as Zelikow, Phillip, 137 members of, 112-13, H4î and the NPT, 196; and Zhalko-Tytarenko, Andrew, 182,215 referendum on Ukraine’s independence, 54,129; Zhovti Vody, Ukraine, 36 and reservations about the
START treaty, 158-59, Zhukeyev, Tulegen, 79 190-91,196,205-7,212; and resolution ensuring Zhyrinovsky, Vladimir, 207 Ukraine’s attainment of nonnuclear status, Zlenko, Anatoly: on the Partnership for Peace 145-46; and the trilateral nudear agreement, program, 204; and Ukraine’s daim to nudear 210-12; and Ukraine’s accession to the NPT, ownership, 169; as Ukrainian foreign minister, 78, 216-17; and Ukraine’s commitment to 79,109,119,133,138,148,151,190,191,195,206, denudearize, 134 209,212 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek München |
| adam_txt |
CONTENTS List ofAbbreviations ix Maps xii-xiii Acknowledgments xv Prologue Introduction PART I i 6 SOVIET NUCLEAR COLLAPSE 1 Soviet Collapse and Nuclear Weapons 2 Preventing Soviet Nuclear Collapse 15 17 39 3 The Road to Lisbon: Proliferation vs. Succession 4 Belarus and Kazakhstan: Paths Not Taken PART II 62 84 UKRAINE: NEGOTIATING A NUCLEAR EXCEPTION 107 5 The Road to Nuclear Renunciation 109 6 From Renunciation to Ownership 128 7 Nuclear Ownership and Deterrence 8 From Ownership to Renunciation Conclusion 225 Notes 241 Bibliography 289 Index 301 154 187
BIBLIOGRAPHY The author used the Library of Congress transliteration of Belarusian, Russian, and Ukrainian names and words through the book, except when a generally accepted convention otherwise existed for the names of well-known individuals or places. All translations from Belarusian, Russian, and Ukrainian are by the author unless otherwise indicated. The names of archives are noted in full, with the exception of the following recognizable acronyms: FBIS GARF TsDAVO Foreign Broadcast Information Service Gossudarstevennyi Arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii (State Archive of the Russian Federation) Tsentral'nyi Derzhavnyi Arkhiv Vyshchykh Organiv Vlady ta Upravlinnia Ukraiiny (Central State Archive of Supreme Bodies of Power and Governance of Ukraine) The author uses the following conventions for indicating a document’s location in post-Soviet archives: i.: fond or collection; op.: opis'or catalogue; d.: delo or folder. Interviews Allison, Graham. Interview by author, Cambridge, MA, December 9,2016. Bar'yakhtar, Viktor. Interview by author, Kyiv, April 2,2019. Courtney, William. Interview by author, Washington, DC, February 24, 2017. Drach, Ivan. Interview by author, Kyiv, May 22,2013. Filatov, Mykola. Interview by author, Kyiv, August 9,2018. Goodby, James E. Interview by author, Washington, DC, October 21,2016. Graham, Thomas, Jr. Interview by author, telephone, March 18,2016. Horbulin, Volodymyr. Interview by author, Kyiv, August 8, 2018. Hryshchenko, Kostiantyn. Interview by author, Kyiv, April 9,2019. Kostenko, Yuriy. Interview by author, Kyiv, April 25, 2017. Kravchuk,
Leonid. Interview by author, April 25, Kyiv, 2017. Lopata, Anatoliy. Interview by Polina Sinovets, Kyiv. January 31, 2017. Morozov, Kostiantyn. Interview by author, Washington, DC, December 5,2017. Perepelytsia, Hryhoriy. Interview by author, Kyiv, August 14,2018. Pifer, Steven. Interview by author, Washington, DC, March 24, 2015. Pustovyi, Ihor. Interview by author, Kyiv, July 31, 2018.
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INDEX Afghanistan: Soviet war in, 24 Babiy Yar: George H. W. Bush’s visit to, 123 air-launched cruise missiles (ALCMs), 19,174,204; Baker, James, 42,45,46,47,48,50, 65; and the in Kazakhstan, 36-37; in Ukraine, 35,183,222,223 collapse of the Soviet Union, 121; and concerns Aitken, Jonathan, 84 regarding command and control of the nuclear Aizenberg, Yakiv, 148,149 arsenal under the CIS, 58-59; and concerns Akhromeyev, Sergei, 28,32 regarding the nuclear status of Belarus, Aleksandrov, Anatoliy, 25 Kazakhstan, and Ukraine, 74,75,76-77,92-93· Allison, Graham, 48-49,50,212 All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Automatics (VNIIA), 182 Almaty Agreement on Joint Measures Regarding Nuclear Weapons, 58,138,140 Almaty Declaration: and management of the former Soviet nuclear arsenal, 58 133-34.138,151; and the Lisbon Protocol, 79-81 Baklanov, Oleg, 32-33 Baltic states: independence sought by, 28-29,114; as members of the NPT, 68; nuclear arsenal of, 39; and Soviet treaty obligations, 66. See also Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania Bartholomew, Reginald, 72-73,74,75,86,150 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM), 26 Bar’yakhtar, Viktor, 148, 200 Antonov, Viktor, 165 Bashkirov, Mykhailo, 142-43 Argentina: as member of the NPT, 11,70 Batiouk, Victor, 120 Armenia: declaration of sovereignty by, 114; and Belarus: and accession to the NPT, 8,71,80,83,85, hostilities with Azerbaijan, 39 Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA), 69,150 arms control treaties: between the Soviet Union and the United States, 26-27. See also START 88,91,92; and attempt to join the NPT, 29-30; Clinton’s visit to,
89-90; and concerns regarding the implementation of START, 73-78,86; CTR funds allotted to, 89,90; declaration of sovereignty by, 29,85; diplomatic recognition of, by the treaty; Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of United States, 59; highly enriched uranium in, Nuclear Weapons (NPT) 38; impact of the Chernobyl accident on, 85,86, Arzamas-16,178 90; and the Lisbon Protocol, 76-81, 84-85, Aspin, Les, 159,212; and efforts toward nuclear 86,89,151,152; as member of international disarmament, 47-48,49,50; and Ukraine’s institutions, 67; as member of the CIS, 58-61; as security concerns, 193,197 member of the NPT, 89; as militarized republic, Association Agreement (with the European Union): and Yanukovych’s refusal to sign, 225 87-88; nuclear arsenal of, 6,20,33-34,37-38,43, 58,87,90-91; nuclear disarmament of, 8,9-10, Austria State Treaty, 198 12,18, 78-81, 85, 86-88,89, 90-91; nuclear Azerbaijan: and hostilities with Armenia, 39; as research reactors in, 38; nuclear status of, independent state, 51 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union,
302 Belarus (cont.) Index Chechevatov, Viktor, 128,129 62-63,67-68,71,73-83,85-91; and proceeds cheget (Soviet nuclear briefcase), 21,31,57 from the sale of fissile material, 199-200; and Cheney, Dick, 47,121 ratification of the START treaty, 88-89; role of, Chernobyl accident, 1,3,24-25; impact of, on in the Soviet nuclear weapons complex, 22; Yeltsin’s visit to, 54-55 Belarusian Popular Front (BPF), 87 Belavezha Accord, 17, 55,56-57,137-38,140,166. Belarus, 85,86,90,232; significance of, for Ukraine and Ukrainians, 109-10,112,115-17,127, 230,232 Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, 238 See also Commonwealth of Independent States Chevron: investment in Kazakhstan by, 97 (CIS) China: as member of the NPT, 11,70 Black Sea Fleet (BSF), 174; in Crimea, 140,145; disagreement regarding the status of, 141-42, 201-3; and tactical nuclear weapons, 149 Blair, Bruce, 178 Chornovil, Vyacheslav, 131-32,133 Christopher, Warren, 101,190,209-10; and US monetary assistance for denudearization, 204 Clinton, Bill, 50,76,127,218; and Belarus, 89-90; Boldyrev, V., 31-32 and the Budapest Memorandum, 218,219; and Brazil: as member of the NPT, 11,70 Kazakhstan, 100,101,103-4; ^d the trilateral Brezhnev, Leonid, 23 nuclear agreement, 209-11; Ukraine policy Brooks, Linton, 159 under, 191-95,207-8; and Yeltsin, 192,209 Brzezinski, Ian, 172 collective farms, 1 Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 151; and assessment of Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS): Ukraine’s situation, after gaining independence, creation of, 50-51,55-57,137-38; Joint Armed 188 Forces (JAF) of, 58,60,139; limited effectiveness Budapest Memorandum:
invocation of, following of, 87; members of, 57; Minsk Agreement signed Russia’s invasion of Crimea, 225-26,229; and by members of, 59-60; nuclear policy as nuclear disarmament of Ukraine, 219-23,230; developed by, 58-61,138-39,140,143-44; and and security assurances to Belarus, Kazakhstan, questions regarding Soviet treaty obligations, 67; and Ukraine, 218-19 Burns, William, 100,157,200 Bush, George H. W., 26,50,98; and assurances regarding Ukraine’s security, 156; criticism of Ukrainian policy of, 126; and disappointing message to the Ukrainian people, 123-26; foreign policy of, 76; and instability in the Soviet Union, 41,44,121-23; Kravchuk’s meeting with, and the Russian Federation as the successor of the Soviet Union, 62-63; strategic forces of, 58, 59,61; tensions within, 139-40 Communist Party (following the collapse of the Soviet Union): challenges to, 29; and the Soviet military, 30; in Ukraine, no, 111,113 Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU): and the Soviet nudear weapons program, 21,22 133; Presidential Nuclear Initiatives announced Communist Party of Ukraine (CPU), 113,132 by, 44-45; and the START treaty, 71; and US Conference on Assistance to the Newly Indepen frustration with Ukraine, 188-89; Yeltsin’s meeting with, 181 Buteiko, Anton, 148,203,208,209 dent States (Lisbon), 79 Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), 85,92, no, 156,206,216; and Memoranda on Security Assurances in Carnegie Corporation, 48 Carter, Ash, 49,50,212 Carter, Jimmy, 188 Center for Administrative Control of Strategic Forces of Ukraine, 149 Çetin, Hikmet, 207
Charter of Democratic Partnership (between the United States and Kazakhstan), 103-4 Connection with Accession to the NPT (for Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine), 218-19 Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) treaty, 27, 40,46; following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, 63 Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) Act, 9,50, 62; and support for nudear nonproliferation, 89, 90,100,102,156-57,188-89, 208, 212-13, 220,221
Index ՅՕՅ Courtney, William, 94 the START treaty, 26-27,71; strategic nuclear Crimea: declaration of independence by, 149; and reductions proposed by, 44-45; union treaty referendum on “reuniting” Crimea with Russia, proposed by, 30-31,32,41,51,114,125,127 226-27; Russian annexation of (2014), 4,7, Gore, Al: in Kazakhstan, 102 225-291 Russian presence in, 141,197; separatist Grachev, Pavel, 52,90,193,223 movement in, 140-41,145 Graham, Thomas, Jr., 69,73,150,216 Greiveldinger, Geoffrey. 64,66 Dalgalyeu, Vasil, 87 Gromov, Boris, 176 Danylo, Prince, 1 GUMO (Main Directorate of the Ministry of Defense Council (Ukraine): and discussion of Ukraine’s nuclear inheritance, 148-49 Defense Department (US): and concerns regarding Defense): and responsibility for tactical nuclear weapons, 53,131,144,194 Gundersen, Jon, 113-14,122-23,126 Soviet treaty obligations following the collapse, 64 Deshchytsia, Andriy, 225-26 Hague, William, 226 Donbas: Russian invasion of (2014), 4,227 Helsinki Final Act of the Conference on Security Donetsk People’s Republic: militias of, 227 Hamburg, David, 48 and Cooperation in Europe, 110,211 Drach, Ivan: as leader of Rukh, 111,115,117,125 Herbst, John, 223 Dubinin, Yuriy, 163 highly enriched uranium (HEU): in Belarus, 38; as Dumas, Roland, 93 blended down and sold to the United States, Durdynets, Vasyl, 52,53-54,118,165 199-200; in Kazakhstan, 102-5; in Ukraine, 6, 36,159,204-5. See also Project Sapphire Eastern Europe: Soviet nuclear weapons in, 20 Hiroshima: nuclear strike on, 240 Eastern Mining and Enrichment Combine Holovatyi, Serhiy, 115-17,120
(SkhidHZK), 17 Estonia: declaration of sovereignty by, 28-29 Honchar, Oles’, 111-12 Horbulin, Volodymyr, 179,182,214,215 Hryshchenko, Kostiantyn, 155,183 Filatov, Mykola, 214 Filenko, Volodymyr, 132 India: as nuclear-weapon state, 11-12,70,235 France: as member of the NPT, 11,70 Institute of Nuclear Physics (Kyiv), 180 Freedom Support Act, 157,159 intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), 20,21, 43; in Belarus, 37; in Kazakhstan, 36; in Ukraine, Galicia: anti-Soviet sentiment in, 111 Gates, Robert, 43-44,121 34,36,167 intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBMs), 20 Georgia: declaration of sovereignty by, 114; as Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, independent state, 51-52 20,26,27,40,183; and debate surrounding the Gift, Elwood, 104 status of the newly independent Soviet republics, glasnost (political liberalization), 24,109; scrutiny 75-76; following the dissolution of the Soviet of the military under, 30 Union, 63; Horbulin’s concerns regarding, 215; Goodby, James, 90,100,203-4 and inspections rights, 75; Special Verification Gorbachev, Mikhail, 59; and arms control negotiations with the United States, 26-27; after the breakup of the Soviet Union, 121,122; and the Chernobyl accident, 25,109; coup attempt Committee of, 75 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 30,67; and Kazakhstan, 106; and the nuclear arsenals of former Soviet republics, 7,18,46 against, 31-33,40,42,43; as leader of the Soviet International Court of Justice, 67 Union, 23-31,33,42,51; political reforms initiated international law: and the succession of states, by, 28-29,30-31,111;
resignation of, 17,57,138; the 65-66,75-76. See aho Belarus; Kazakhstan; Soviet defense establishment’s distrust of, 28; and Ukraine
304 Iran: and interest in Kazakhstan’s nuclear material, 104 Index Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology (KhFTI), 180 Iraq: as nuclear-weapon state, 12,70 Kharkiv Physical-Technical Institute (KhFTI), 36 Isinaliyev, Mikhail, 99,102 Kharkiv, Ukraine: nuclear research based in, 36 ISKAN, 189 Khartron, 148,177 Israel: as nuclear-weapon state, 12,70; and policy Khasbulatov, Ruslan, 141 of nuclear opacity, 235 Khmara, Stepan, 136 Khrushchev, Nikita, 141,192 Joint Compliance and Inspections Commission (jcic), 79,154-55 Joint Strategic Armed Forces (of the CIS), 58,60 Kissinger, Henry, 151 Koldunov, Aleksandr, 26 Kolesnikov, Mikhail, 189 Komsomol (Communist youth league), 2 Kamman, Curtis, 119 Konyukhov, Stanislav, 148-49,182,214 Kasatonov, Igor, 142 Kostenko, Yuriy, 148,163,190; as critic of the Kataev, Vitaly, 22,232 Kavkaz (Soviet communications system), 21,31 Kazakhstan: and accession to the NPT, 8,83,100, 101,151,158,218; George H. W Bush as supporter of, 98; Clinton as supporter of, 100,101,103-4; START-Lisbon package, 158-59; and recognition of Ukraine’s ownership of nuclear weapons, 170-72 Kosygin, Alexei, 23 Kozyrev, Andrei, 74,75,76,77,79,80,130, !52,181, 189,206 and concerns regarding implementation of Kravchanka, Pyotr, 17,79, 84,85-86,88 START, 73-78,94; and connections with Kravchuk, Leonid, 58-59; background of, из; and the Islamic world, 97; and cooperation with the bilateral talks with Russia regarding nuclear safety United States, 102-6; CTR funds allotted to, and ownership, 162-64; as chairman of the Rada, too, 102; declaration of sovereignty by, 29,92;
113,124,128,131; on the challenges of indepen diplomatic recognition of, by the United States, dence, 188; and concerns regarding the CIS 59,93; and global nonproliferation efforts, 106; agreements, 139-40,145-47; and coup attempt by highly enriched uranium stored in, 103-5; and the the Soviet authorities, 128-29; and creation of Lisbon Protocol, 76-81,84-85,97,99,151,152; as the Ukrainian military, 134-35; and discussion member of the CIS, 58-61; as nuclear arsenal of, surrounding the question of Ukraine’s status as a 6,33-34,36-37,43,58,92,95; nuclear disarma nuclear state, 165,168-69,173,184,185; and ment of, 7,8,9,12,18,78-81,99,102,106,152; meeting with Yeltsin on nuclear issues, 201-2, nuclear material found in, 102-6; nuclear research 203; as president of Ukraine, 54-55,56, 57,58-59, in, 37; nuclear status of, following the dissolution 77,78,79,94,114,123,126,137-38,14З-46,148-50; of the Soviet Union, 62-63,68,71,73-83,92-102; and procedure to launch a nuclear strike from and ratification of the NPT, 102; and ratification Ukraine, 150; and proceeds from the sale of fissile of the START-Lisbon package, 99,100,157; role material, 199-200; security guarantees sought by, of, in the Soviet nuclear weapons complex, 22; 78,195; and skepticism regarding security and strategic alliance with Russia, 96; and assurances, 219; and the START treaty, 158; and struggle to form an independent armed forces, tensions with Russia, 201-2; and the trilateral 95-96; as a “temporary nuclear state,” 93,94,97; nuclear agreement, 208,209-12; and Ukraine’s uranium ore deposits in, 22,37,95;
US support nuclear arsenal, following independence, 133; and for, 92-93. See also Nazarbayev, Nursultan; visits to the United States, 149,213 Project Sapphire; Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan Kazbek (Soviet nuclear command and control), 21 Kryuchkov, Vladimir, 32,128 Kuchma, Leonid, 158,173,182,191,218; as advocate Kazlousky, Pavel, 86-87 for nuclear disarmament, 217; and the Budapest Kerry, John, 225-26 Memorandum, 218,219-20,229; as president of KGB: and Gorbachev’s ouster, 31-32; in Ukraine, 112 Ukraine, 213-16,217; on Russia’s invasion of Crimea, 229
Index Kunsberg, Philip, 64 Kyiv, Ukraine: nuclear reactor in, 35-36. See also Ukraine 305 Moiseyev, Mikhail, 32,42,129: as minister of defense, 135-36 Moldova: as independent state, 51-52 Kyiv Institute of Nuclear Research, 35-36 Monolit, 177 Kyrgyzstan, 20 Moroz, Oleksandr, 132 Morozov, Kostiantyn: as Ukrainian defense Latvia: declaration of sovereignty by, 29 Lavrov, Sergey, 226,227 Lisbon Protocol, 84-85,88,151,152,154; terms and minister, 52,53,129,135-36,14a, 146-47,148,175, 184,193,203 Mulroney, Brian, 41 conditions of, 79-81,155 Lithuania: declaration of sovereignty by, 29; Soviet response to independence movement in, 118 Lobov, General, 135 Lopata, Anatoliy, 176,184 low enriched uranium (LEU): derived from National Security Council (NSC): and US concerns about instability in the Soviet Union, 40,41, 64-65,121 National Space Agency of Ukraine (NSAU), 215; feasibility study conducted by, 179-80,182 HEU from Ukrainian warheads, 204-5; and fuel NATO. See North Atlantic Treaty Organization bank in Kazakhstan, 106; in the United States, Nazarbayev, Nursultan: background of, 91-92; 103 Lugar, Richard: and eiforts toward nuclear disarmament, 49-50,76,99,150-51 Luhansk People’s Republic: militias of, 227 Lukashenka, Alexander, 90; and the Budapest Memorandum, 218,219 and the Budapest Memorandum, 218,229; and negotiations over Kazakhstan’s nuclear status, 92-102,105-6; as president of Kazakhstan, 55,59, 77,78,91-102,105-6,218,232; and Project Sapphire, 103-5; and strategic alliance with Russia, 96-97 Neff, Thomas, 199 Lukin, Vladimir, 79,141,145,193 Nixon, Richard, 151; in
Ukraine, 113-14 Luk’yanenko, Levko, 111,115,126 North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NACC), 156 Lviv, Ukraine: annexation of, by the Soviet Union North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): as (1939), 1 adversary of the Soviet Union, 20-21; and the Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) treaty, 27, Major, John, 133; and the Budapest Memorandum, 218 Maksimov, Yuriy, 42,162 40; Partnership for Peace program, 90,104,198; as supporter of the US position on nuclear nonproliferation, 46 Mamedov, Georgiy, 193,202,205,208 North Korea: as nuclear power, 10 Marchuk, Yevhen, 136-37,148,165 Novo-Ogarevo process, 30-31,55,122 Mariupol, Ukraine, 238 Novorossiya (New Russia), 225 Martyrosian, Vilen, 118,119 NPT. See Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Matlock, Jack, 17-18,40,122 nuclear age: impact of, on Ukraine, 3-4 Mayorsky, Boris, 68,71 nuclear deterrence: costs and challenges of, 176-84; medium-range ballistic missiles (MRBMs), 20 Melnyk, Andriy, 229-30 nuclear weapons as, 239 nuclear disarmament: of Belarus, 8,9-10,12,18, Mette, Vitaliy, 102-3 78-81,85,86-88,89,90-91; after the collapse of the Mikhailov, Viktor, 200 Soviet Union, 8-12,13,47-51; in the 1990S, 70-71; Mikhtiuk, Volodymyr, 150,160 and insights gleaned from the nuclear disarma Miller, Steven, 49 ment of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine, 231-37; Minsk Agreement, 59-60 of Kazakhstan, 7,8,9,12,18,78-81,99,102,106,152; Mironov, V., 31 politics of, 3-4; trilateral deal arrived at, 207-12; MIRVs (multiple independently targeted reentry trilateral process for, 202-5; of Ukraine, 4,7-10, vehicles): in Ukraine, 34 Missile Technology
Control Regime (MTCR), 215 11-12,19,134,143,219-23. See also Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty; nuclear proliferation
Зоб Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). Index Pugo, Boris, 32 See Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Pustovy, Ihor, 230 Weapons Putin, Vladimir: and denial of Russian military nuclear proliferation: as concern of the West, following the collapse of the Soviet Union, 9, activity in Crimea, 226; and nuclear threat, 227; and the specter of nuclear strike, 239-40 39-42,43-51,57,62-63, 72-83; factors affecting, Rada. See Verkhovna Rada (Ukrainian legislature) 231-37 Nuclear Suppliers Group, 170 Rademaker, Stephen, 66 nuclear weapons: delivery platforms for, 19-20; Reagan, Ronald, 27,126 locations of, throughout the Soviet Union, Remnick, David, 43 20-21; reductions in, following the INF Treaty, Restatement of The Law Third: The Foreign 26; reductions in, following the START treaty, Relations Law of the United States, 66 26-27. See also Soviet nuclear arsenal; Soviet Rice, Condoleezza, 121 Union; Ukraine; United States Rogov, Sergei, 189 Nunn, Sam, 42; and efforts toward nuclear disarmament, 47-48,49-50,76,99,150-51 Nurmagambetov, Sagadat, 95 Rukh (People’s Movement for Perestroika), 29,111; CIAs analysis of, 121-22; founding congress of, 111-12; and resolution on Ukraine as a nuclear-free zone, 112,115-17; US perception of, 121 Odom, William, 26 Officers’ Union of Ukraine (OUU), 119 Oliynyk, Ivan, 157,162 Russian Federation: as aspiring democracy, 130; and bilateral talks with Ukraine regarding nuclear safety and ownership, 162-64; after the collapse of the Soviet Union, 60-61,62-63; and concerns Pakistan: as nuclear-weapon state, 10,11-12,70,235 Partial Test Ban
Treaty (PTBT): Ukraine and Belarus as members of, 67 Partnership for Peace (PfP), 90,104,198,204,213 about START, following the collapse of the Soviet Union, 72-76; and concerns regarding the safety and maintenance of Ukraine’s nuclear stockpile, 160-62; and condemnation of attack on Crimea, Pavlychko, Dmytro, 171,212 228; Crimea invaded by (2014), 4,7,225-29; People’s Movement for Perestroika. See Rukh declaration of sovereignty by, 29,40; and Perepelytsia, Hryhoriy, 175 disagreement with Ukraine regarding the perestroika (economic restructuring), 24; popular disposition of tactical nuclear weapons, 131-32; movements in support of, 28-29 Perry, William, 50,208,212,223 Donbas invaded by (2014), 4,227; and efforts to establish a relationship with Ukraine, 130-31; as Pilyugin Center, 177 inheritor of Soviet treaty obligations after the Pivdenmash missile factory, 34,36,53,148,177,181, collapse, 66-67; as member of the CIS, 58; as 182, 213 Pivdenne design bureau, 34,36,148,179,181,182, 213, 214,215 member of the NPT, 63,71; and negotiations relating to implementation of the START treaty, 154-60; nuclear arsenal of, 33-34,43,53,58,60-61; Plyushch, Ivan, 132,165,173 as nuclear power, 4,18; and security guarantees for Poland: and diplomatic recognition of Ukraine, 137 Ukraine, 196-97; as security threat to Ukraine, 150, Popadiuk, Roman, 188-89,196 155-56, 187; as successor to the Soviet UN Security Poroshenko, Petro, 228 Council seat, 67; as successor to the USSR in Potapenko, Hrihoriy, 142-43 relation to the NPT, 68-69; and tensions with Powell, Colin, 48 Ukraine, 201-5; and
trilateral nuclear agreement, Presidential Nuclear Initiatives (PNIs), 9,44-45, 207-12; Ukraine invaded by (2022), 5,237-40; on 53,131 Project Sapphire: and the transport of nuclear Ukraine’s declarations of nuclear ownership, material from Kazakhstan, 102-5 Prydniprovsky Chemical Plant, 178-79 190-91; Ukraine’s suspicions regarding, 130; Ukraine’s treaty with, 130; US aid package to, 101. See also Soviet nuclear arsenal; Soviet Union
Index Russian State Committee on the State of Emergency (GKChP), 32-33,128 307 Union, 9,39-42,43-51,57,62-63, 72-83· See also Belarus; Kazakhstan; Ukraine Rust, Dean, 234 Soviet Strategic Missile Forces (RVSN), 20,42,53 Rust, Mathias, 26 Soviet technologies: Gorbachev’s concerns Rutskoi, Aleksandr, 53,130,145,146 regarding, 25-26 RVSN. See Soviet Strategic Missile Forces Soviet Threat Reduction Act. See Cooperative Safe and Secure Dismantlement of Nuclear Soviet treaty obligations: legal succession to, Threat Reduction (CTR) Act Weapons (SSD) talks, 156-57 Safire, William, 126,218 SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) I and II, 26 following the collapse, 64-68 Soviet Union: aid package proposed for, 48; and annexation of Ukraine, 1; and arms control negotiations with the United States, 26-27; and Schmidt, Helmut, 23 challenges to the military, under glasnost, 24,30; Scowcroft, Brent, 43-44,47,48,66,121,125,128 changes proposed to structure of, 30-31; and the sea-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), 19 Chernobyl accident, 24-25; collapse of, 6,8-12, Selivanov, Volodymyr, 159-60,162 13,17-18,33; and debate surrounding the future Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: air base in, 36-37; of the military, 51-54; establishment of, 55; under closure of the nuclear test site at, 91; nuclear Gorbachev, 23-31,33,42,43,51, 55; indepen testing in, 19,37,99,105,231,232 dence movements within, 2-3,28-31,39,51-52, Sevastopol, Crimea: and ties to Russia, 140,197 54; instability in, preceding the collapse, 39-40, Shakhnazarov, Georgy, 23,27-28,31 51-53,119-27; as a militarized economy, 22-23,
Shaposhnikov, Yevgeniy, 41,51,52-53, 57,59; as 24,27-28,52; military-industrial complex in, commander in chief of the JAF, 58-59,139,142, 21-22, 24,52-53; as a nuclear-weapon state, 38; 145,194 questions regarding succession to, following the Shevardnadzhe, Eduard, 26 collapse, 233-34։ response of the West to the Shkolnik, Vladimir, 104 collapse of, 38; and rivalry with the United Shmarov, Valeriy, 202, 223 States, 19-20, 24,40; shortages of consumer Shushkevich, Stanislau, 58-59; and the Belavezha goods in, 23; treaty obligations of, 64-65; union Accord, 137-38; as chairman of the Belarusian treaty proposed for, 30-31,51,125,127; and war parliament, 54-55,56,57,77,86,88,89-90 in Afghanistan, 24. See also Belarus; Kazakhstan; Slavsky, Yefim, 25 Sobchak, Anatoliy, 130 Russian Federation; Soviet nuclear arsenal; Ukraine Sokolov, Sergei, 26 SS-18 ICBMs, 36,95,102,148,177 South Africa: as member of the NPT, 7,70 SS-19 ICBMs, 160-61,177; deactivation of, 193-94, Soviet-German alliance pact, 28,111 Soviet military: response of, to the independence movement in Ukraine, 117-19; status of, following the collapse of the Soviet Union, 143, 174-75 Soviet nuclear arsenal, 6,18,19-20,33-34; as 204 SS-24 ICBMs, 34,36,147,148,149,177,178,181, 182-83,194։ deactivation of, 204,208,212, 220-22 Stalin, Josef, 19 START treaty, 11,26-27,40-41,45,46,48,50; affected by the Belavezha Accord, 56-57; George H. W. Bush’s signing of, 123; guiding command and control of, 21-22; command and principles for, 72-73; Joint Compliance and control of, during and after the disintegration of Inspections
Commission of, 79,154-55; and the Soviet Union, 39-40,42,52-54,55-57,58-61; the Lisbon Protocol, 79-81,84-85,151,152; locations of, 20-21; makers of components of negotiations relating to the implementation of, 177; management of, under the CIS, 58-61, 154-60; ratification of, by Belarus, 88-89; 139; and the West’s concerns about nuclear ratification of, by Kazakhstan, 100,157; ratification proliferation following the collapse of the Soviet of, by Russia, 158; ratification of, by
ļo8 START treaty (cont.) the United States, 99,158; renegotiation of, after Index Soviet Union, 81-83; impact of Soviet disintegration on, 68-70,71; Kazakhstan’s the dissolution of the Soviet Union, 63,64,68, accession to, 8,83,100,101,151,158,218; 71,72-78,79-81, 84-85,94; and the signing of provisions outlined in, 10-11; review conference the Budapest Memorandum, 218; Ukraine’s for, 70,71; Russian Federation as member of, reservations regarding, 158-59,190-91,196, 63; Ukraine as member of, 18-19; Ukraine’s 205-7,212· See also Belarus; Kazakhstan; accession to, 7-8,12,29-30, 69-70,71,77,83,138, Ukraine START-II: impact of, 181-82; Ukraine’s objections to, 189 151,158,164,196,216-18; Ukraine’s attempt to become a member of, 29-30,120; Ukraine’s commitment to joining, 138 Steiner, Steven, 62,154,155 Truman, Harry, 19 Stelmakh, Taras, 4 Trump, Donald, 229 Stepanchuk, John, 122 Tu-շշտ, 223 Steury, Donald P., 15 TU-95S, 35,222-23 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) I and II, TU-95MSS, 35,36 26 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty. See START treaty TU-142S, 222 TU-160S, 35, 222 submarines: armed with nuclear torpedoes and sea-launched ballistic missiles, 19 Sukhumi Institute of Physics and Technology, 179-80 Suleimenov, Olzhas, 91 Syanko, Uladzimir, 86 Udovenko, Hennadiy, 216-17 Ukraine: and accession to the NPT, 7-8,12,29-30, 69-70,71,77,83,138,151,158,164,196,216-18; Act of Independence of, 129; and the Agreement on Joint Armed Forces, 60; and bilateral talks with Russia regarding nuclear safety and Talbott, Strobe, 207; and negotiations with ownership, 162-64; George H. W.
Bush’s visit to, Kazakhstan, 101; and negotiations with Russia 123-26; after the Chernobyl accident, 109-10, and Ukraine, 192-93,201, 202,203,207; and the 112,115-17,127,230; and compensation for fissile trilateral nuclear agreement, 208,209-10; and material, 199-200,205,208; and concerns Ukraine’s security concerns, 197-98 Tarasyuk, Borys, 150,187,191,193,196,202,205,229 Tashkent Collective Security Treaty, 87,96,99,139 regarding implementation of the START treaty, 73-78,133.134.137. ISO, 151,152» 155-60,188, 189,205-7; and concerns regarding nuclear Thielmann, Greg, 107 disarmament, 151,152-53,158-60; and concerns Tlatelolco, Treaty of, 11,70 regarding the maintenance and safety of the Tolubko, Volodymyr, 147,158,159,173-74,176,184 nuclear stockpile in, 160-62; and the costs and Track II dialogues: focusing on arms control, challenges of nuclear deterrence, 176-84; and 47-48 Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe counterfactual reflections, following Russian (CFE), 184 Treaty on Coordinating Activity in the Military Sphere, 88 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear the costs of nuclear ownership, 169-70; and aggressions, 230-31,234-35; CTR funds allotted to, 220, 221-22; debate surrounding nuclear status of, 3,7-8,9,18-19,38,78-81,136,164-69; Declaration of Sovereignty by, 29,114-15.116,117. Weapons (NPT) 6,7,46, 230; Belarus as member 119-20,127,129,132,146,176; and desire to be of, 89; Belarus’s accession to, 8,71,80,83,85,88, nuclear-free, 109-10,112,115-17.127.133.134. 91,92; Belarus’s attempt to become a member of, 136; diplomatic recognition of, by
Canada, 137; 29-30,120; countries participating in, 11-12; diplomatic recognition of, by several European extension of, 12; as framework for nuclear countries, 137; diplomatic recognition of, by the discourse, 233-34; impact of, on nuclear United States, 59,138,153; and disagreement with disarmament, following the collapse of the Russia regarding the disposition of tactical
Index 309 nuclear weapons, 131-32; economic aid to, 209,216, 231; the Soviet military’s view of the 213,215-16; and efforts to secure diplomatic independence movement in, 118; statehood recognition from the West, 133-345 and the achieved by, 129-30; strategic aviation regiments elimination of its nuclear infrastructure, 220-23; in, 35; as successor to Soviet conventional highly enriched uranium in, 6,36; independence weaponry, 184; as successor to Soviet movement in, 2-3,29,51-52,54,109-15; and international obligations, 150; and support for international reaction to Ukraine’s hesitancy to nuclear rearmament, following Russia’s invasion ratify the START-Lisbon package, 206-7; of Crimea, 229-30; and tensions with Russia, international recognition of sovereignty of, 78,189-90,201-5; and tensions with the United 119-20; and international recognition of States, 185; and transfer of nuclear weapons to Ukraine’s right to nuclear ownership, 170-72; Russia, 131,143-45,149, 208-9,212; and international support for, following the Russian trilateral nuclear agreement, 207-12; uranium invasion, 238-39; Javelin missiles sold to, 229; mining in, 36; US aid requested by, 228-29; US Kravchuk as president of, 54-55,56,57,58-59,77, perspective on Ukraine’s role in the post-Soviet 78,79,94,114,123,124,126; and the Lisbon order, 151; and US policy under Bill Clinton, Protocol, 76-81,84-85,151,152; as member of 191-95; and US reluctance to get involved with international institutions, 67; as member of the Ukrainian sovereignty, 120-27; and the West’s CIS, 58-61; as member of the NPT, 18-19; as
caution regarding Ukrainian statehood, 119-20. member of the United Nations, 29, 63,67,119; See also Chernobyl accident; Crimea Ministry of Defense in, 130; Ministry of Foreign Ukraine Freedom Support Act, 228-29 Affairs in, 119; missiles held by, 34-35,36; and Ukrainian Helsinki Group, 111 negotiations relating to implementation of the Ukrainian military: and the CIS-subordinated START treaty, 154-60; Richard Nixon’s visit to, units, 140,147; and concerns regarding the air 113-14; nuclear arsenal of, 3-4,6-7,18,20,34-36, force, 142-43; establishment of, 132,134-37, 43, 53-54, 58,117-18,127,133-34; nuclear 146-47; Morozov as defense minister of, 52,53, disarmament of, 4,7-10,11-12,19,134,143, 129,135-36,142,146-47; and tensions with the CIS, 147 219-23,230,231; nuclear infrastructure inherited by, 35-36,147-50; and nuclear ownership as deterrence, 171-72,173-76; and nuclear ownership as grounds for compensation (political and Ukrainian Ministry of Defense: and the creation of armed forces, 51,130,137,142 Ukrainian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA), 119; financial), 164-69; and nuclear ownership as and memorandum on Ukraine’s nuclear status, political advantage, 169-72; nuclear ownership 164-69; and security guarantees for Ukraine, claimed by, 190-91; nuclear status of, following 197; and Ukraine’s concerns regarding the dissolution of the Soviet Union, 62-63, ratification of the START-Lisbon package, 67-68,71,73-83,134,151-52; opposition to 206-7 disarmament of, 187,189; and opposition to Ukrainian National Security and Defense Council, transfer of its nuclear weapons,
132-34,143,147; 159 Ukrainian Popular Movement for Perestroika. and the Partnership for Peace program, 198,204, 213; and problems with START-II, 189; and proceeds from the sale of fissile material, 199-200; referendum on independence for, 137; and the right to independent armed forces, 115; See Rukh Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic: living conditions in, 1-2; and resistance to Soviet occupation, 2 role of, in the Soviet nuclear weapons complex, Ukrainian Writers’ Union, 111 22; Russia as security threat to, 7,150,155-56,187, Ulba Metallurgical Plant, 102-3,104,106 225-40; Russian invasion of (2022), 5,237-40; UNESCO, 67 and Russian pressures to disarm, 9; Russia’s United Nations, 156; Belarus as member of, 29,63, efforts to establish a relationship with, 130-31; 67; Kazakhstan as member of, 63; Ukraine as security guarantees sought by, 4,155-56,195-99, member of, 29,63,67,119
Зю United Nations Security Council: and resolution on Russia’s annexation of Crimea, 226-27; Russia as successor to the Soviet Union at, 62-63 United States: and arms control negotiations with the Soviet Union, 26-27; and concerns regarding the Index Vienna Convention on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties, 65-66,69,206 Vienna Convention on the Succession of States in Respect to State Property, Archives and Debts (1983)» 185» 205-6 Soviet nuclear arsenal, during and after the Voshanov, Pavel, 130 collapse, 8-9,38-42,43-51» 57,64-66,72-75,76-82, Vyshenskiy, Ivan, 148 150-51; and diplomatic recognition of the former Vyuga radio communication system, 177 Soviet republics, 59,65,93,138; and economic aid to Ukraine, 215-16; five principles in response to the Soviet disintegration, 45,46; geostrategic goals Warsaw Pact member-states: and the Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) treaty, 27,40 of, 41; and instability within the Soviet Union, Weber, Andy, 102-3,104 119-27; Kravchuk’s visit to, 149; and the Lisbon World Health Organization (WHO), 67 Protocol, 79-80; and negotiations between Russia and Ukraine, 202-5; and negotiations relating to Yakovlev, Alexander, 24 implementation of the START treaty, 154-60; and Yanayev, Gennady, 33,126-27 negotiations with Kazakhstan, 92-102,105-6; Yanukovych, Viktor, 225 nudear arsenal of, 4,19-20; response of, to the Yazov, Dmitry, 32,41,42 collapse of the Soviet Union, 120-27; and rivalry Yeltsin, Boris, 29,187,190,218; and the Belavezha with the Soviet Union, 19-20,24,40; as supporter Accord, 137-38; and the Black Sea Fleet, 145; and
of the NPT, 70,71,81; and the trilateral nudear the Budapest Memorandum, 218,219; George H. W agreement, 207-12; and Ukraine policy in the Bush’s meeting with, 182; and the challenge of Clinton administration, 191-95; and Ukraine’s Ukrainian statehood, 121,130; and Bill Clinton, security concerns, 155-56,195-99. See also 192,209; and command and control of the nudear arsenal, 59,60,78; and compensation to Ukraine Presidential Nudear Initiatives (PN!s) uranium. See highly enriched uranium (HEU); low enriched uranium (LEU) for fissile materials, 200; as leader of Russia during and after the collapse, 33,45,52,53,54-55,56,59,92, USSR. See Soviet Union 93,121,127,131,203; and meeting with Kravchuk on Utkin, Volodymyr, 214 nudear issues, 201-2, 203; and procedure for removal of nudear weapons from Ukraine, 149; Varennikov, Valentin, 32,128,129 and the trilateral nudear agreement, 210-11 Vasylenko, Volodymyr, 117 Yugoslavia: ethnic violence in, 45-46 Verkhovna Rada (Ukrainian legislature): and Act of Independence of Ukraine, 129-30; George H. W. Bush’s address to, 123-25; and creation of a Zaporizhzhia nudear power plant: Russian attack on, 238 Ukrainian military, 130,134-37; and debate Zayets, Ivan, 136 surrounding ratification of the START-Lisbon Zelenskiy, Viktor, 148 package, 205-7; Kravchuk as chairman of, 113, Zelensky, Volodymyr, 237 124,128-29; national-democratic forces as Zelikow, Phillip, 137 members of, 112-13, H4î and the NPT, 196; and Zhalko-Tytarenko, Andrew, 182,215 referendum on Ukraine’s independence, 54,129; Zhovti Vody, Ukraine, 36 and reservations about the
START treaty, 158-59, Zhukeyev, Tulegen, 79 190-91,196,205-7,212; and resolution ensuring Zhyrinovsky, Vladimir, 207 Ukraine’s attainment of nonnuclear status, Zlenko, Anatoly: on the Partnership for Peace 145-46; and the trilateral nudear agreement, program, 204; and Ukraine’s daim to nudear 210-12; and Ukraine’s accession to the NPT, ownership, 169; as Ukrainian foreign minister, 78, 216-17; and Ukraine’s commitment to 79,109,119,133,138,148,151,190,191,195,206, denudearize, 134 209,212 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek München |
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| author | Budjeryn, Mariana 1975- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1138591238 |
| author_facet | Budjeryn, Mariana 1975- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Budjeryn, Mariana 1975- |
| author_variant | m b mb |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV048466621 |
| classification_rvk | MG 82940 NQ 8286 MG 85086 MK 3600 MG 85940 ML 7264 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1370397571 (DE-599)BVBBV048466621 |
| discipline | Politologie Geschichte |
| discipline_str_mv | Politologie Geschichte |
| era | Geschichte 1990-1994 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1990-1994 |
| format | Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV048466621 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-03T20:35:31Z |
| indexdate | 2025-01-23T15:01:21Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9781421445861 9781421445380 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-033844511 |
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| physical | xvii, 310 Seiten Illustrationen, 2 Karten |
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| publishDate | 2023 |
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| publisher | Johns Hopkins University Press |
| record_format | marc |
| series2 | John Hopkins nuclear history and contemporary affairs |
| spelling | Budjeryn, Mariana 1975- Verfasser (DE-588)1138591238 aut Inheriting the bomb the collapse of the USSR and the nuclear disarmament of Ukraine Mariana Budjeryn Baltimore Johns Hopkins University Press [2023] © 2023 xvii, 310 Seiten Illustrationen, 2 Karten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier John Hopkins nuclear history and contemporary affairs Geschichte 1990-1994 gnd rswk-swf Atomare Abrüstung (DE-588)4332988-3 gnd rswk-swf Kernwaffe (DE-588)4003434-3 gnd rswk-swf Kasachstan (DE-588)4029839-5 gnd rswk-swf Belarus (DE-588)4079143-9 gnd rswk-swf Ukraine (DE-588)4061496-7 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4113937-9 Hochschulschrift gnd-content Ukraine (DE-588)4061496-7 g Belarus (DE-588)4079143-9 g Kasachstan (DE-588)4029839-5 g Kernwaffe (DE-588)4003434-3 s Atomare Abrüstung (DE-588)4332988-3 s Geschichte 1990-1994 z DE-604 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe 978-1-4214-4539-7 Digitalisierung UB Bamberg - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033844511&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033844511&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Literaturverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033844511&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Budjeryn, Mariana 1975- Inheriting the bomb the collapse of the USSR and the nuclear disarmament of Ukraine Atomare Abrüstung (DE-588)4332988-3 gnd Kernwaffe (DE-588)4003434-3 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4332988-3 (DE-588)4003434-3 (DE-588)4029839-5 (DE-588)4079143-9 (DE-588)4061496-7 (DE-588)4113937-9 |
| title | Inheriting the bomb the collapse of the USSR and the nuclear disarmament of Ukraine |
| title_auth | Inheriting the bomb the collapse of the USSR and the nuclear disarmament of Ukraine |
| title_exact_search | Inheriting the bomb the collapse of the USSR and the nuclear disarmament of Ukraine |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Inheriting the bomb the collapse of the USSR and the nuclear disarmament of Ukraine |
| title_full | Inheriting the bomb the collapse of the USSR and the nuclear disarmament of Ukraine Mariana Budjeryn |
| title_fullStr | Inheriting the bomb the collapse of the USSR and the nuclear disarmament of Ukraine Mariana Budjeryn |
| title_full_unstemmed | Inheriting the bomb the collapse of the USSR and the nuclear disarmament of Ukraine Mariana Budjeryn |
| title_short | Inheriting the bomb |
| title_sort | inheriting the bomb the collapse of the ussr and the nuclear disarmament of ukraine |
| title_sub | the collapse of the USSR and the nuclear disarmament of Ukraine |
| topic | Atomare Abrüstung (DE-588)4332988-3 gnd Kernwaffe (DE-588)4003434-3 gnd |
| topic_facet | Atomare Abrüstung Kernwaffe Kasachstan Belarus Ukraine Hochschulschrift |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033844511&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033844511&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033844511&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT budjerynmariana inheritingthebombthecollapseoftheussrandthenucleardisarmamentofukraine |