Afghan crucible: the Soviet invasion and the making of modern Afghanistan
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| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
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Oxford
Oxford University Press
2022
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| Edition: | First edition |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Register // Gemischte Register |
| Item Description: | Literaturverzeichnis Seite [285]-288 |
| Physical Description: | xxiii, 343 Seiten Illustrationen, Karten |
| ISBN: | 9780198846017 |
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Contents List of Figures List of Maps List ofAbbreviations Prologue Introduction 1. Afghanistan’s Many Pasts xi xiii w xix 1 7 2. Kabul 43 3. Moscow 68 4. Islamabad 107 5. Peshawar-Panjshir 132 6. Washington 170 7. Nasir Bagh 196 8. Geneva 227 9. Back to Kabul 259 Epilogue 277 Appendix Note on Sources Further Reading Notes Index 281 283 285 289 335
Index Afghan army 39,66,76,94 Agreement for Bringing Peace to Afghanistan 278 aid from China 32 Soviet economic aid 38-9,74,83,88-9,102 the Soviet invasion as aid and support 234-5 US covert aid to the resistance 110,170,172, 176,178,183,184,186-7,261-2 US humanitarian aid to refugees 170,172, 183-6,194 Akhtar, General 116,122,124 Amanullah, King 11-12,22,35-6,57 Amin, Hafizullah alliance with Taraki 16,17,73-4 death of 77,79,84 early life 8,16-17 membership of the PDPA 16,17 personality 20 as prime minster 64-5,75-6 Saur Revolution 44 stance on Islam 61 turn to the US 75-6 US knowledge of 174 Andropov, Yuri 70,71,75,76,77,96 Angola 71-2,171,173,178 Balochistan development programs 117 ethnonationalist autonomy movements 30,111, 112,114,115,117,124 Pakistan’s relations with 127,128 refugees in 127-8,198,201,203 Bangladesh 36,111,208 Bhutto, Benazir 261,265 Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali ЗО, 33-4,108,110 Brezhnev, Leonid on the PDPA coup 74 Daouds meeting with 39 death 96 Islam within socialism 84-5 relations with Karmal 84-5 relations with Tarato 55,82-3 Sino-Soviet split and 32 support for worldwide socialist revolution 70,71,84 Brutents, Karen 39,54,71,72-3,87,94,97 Brzezinski, Zbigniew 107,117,172,177-8,179 Bulganin, Nikolai 38 Bush, George H. W. 262 Camp David Accords 172 Carterjimmy 75,112,117,126,172-3,180-1 Chernyaev, Anatoly 97,98 China under Deng Xiaoping 34,108,112,116,126 fear of Soviet expansion/encirclement 32-3, 108,111-12,130 foreign aid to Afghanistan 32 response to the Soviet invasion 112,116, 121-2,235-6 Sino-Pakistan relations 109,111,116,126 Sino-Soviet split
32,70-1,108-9 South-East Asian policies 32-3 support for Afghan resistance 122,125-6, 130,247 civil war Cold-War superpower perspective 1-2,5 early anti-government activity 137-8 following the PDPA coup xix-xx global impact xx-xxii impact on the civilian population xxi impact on the nation state xx-xxi infrastructure targets 95-6 medical facilities and 95 political parties in exile during 140-3,148 three phases of 140-2 violence of 274-6 Cold-War Cold-War imperialism 3 Cold-War superpower perspectives on Afghanistan 1-2,3,5,9,35-42,170-2 impact on the Third World 1 1970s detente 70-1,171 see also Soviet Union (USSR); United States of America (USA) constitution of 1923 11 constitution of 1964 13,14 constitutionalism (Mashruta-khwahan) 9-11 Cordovez, Diego 244-5,253 coup 1973 14,20-1,26,39 coup 1978 Afghan people’s response to 137 death of Mir Akbar Khyber 43,136 international response to 110,172,173-5 Islamists’response to xix-xx, 134 regional influences 33-5,108
336 Index coup 1978 (cont. 'i resistance to the PDPA 136-7 Soviet expansionism and 174-5 Soviet support for 40,70 see abo Saur Revolution Cuba 15,52,65,70,71-2,238 empire, ideology of 2-3 Es’haq, Mohammad 26,27,157-8,159 Ethiopia 53,72,172,173 ethnicity in the Afghan resistance 124,142,147 colonial representations of Afghanistan 39-41 Hazara Shi’a resistance organizations 147-8 historical ethnic map of Afghanistan 31 Karmal’s strategies for ethnic diversification 91-2 and political affiliations 142,147 refugee reaffirmation of tribal/ethnic identities 218-19 Taraki’s ethnic nationality programme 137 US tribal analysis of Afghanistan 40-1,172, 187-9,191,278 see also Pashtuns European Economic Community (EEC) 239 Daoud Khan, Mohammad autocratic regime 12-13,33 coup 1973 14 coup of 1978 and 43-4,46 death of 41 the Islamists under 26-7 Karmal’s support for 20-1 regional views on 110 relations with Pakistan 30-2 Soviet stance on 39 US analysis of 41 Democratic Organization of Afghan Women (DOAW) 58,59 Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA) Afghan-Soviet relations 73-4 Amin’s relations with the Soviets 75-6 flag and anthem 49 formation of 8,46 international trade agreements 89-90 Komsomol workers 93-4 PDPA-Soviet attempts to legitimise 82-94 US recognition of 173,175-6 Democratic Youth Organization of Afghanistan (DOMA) 94 Deng Xiaoping 34,108,112,116,126 Dixit, J. N. 122 Dost, Shah Mohammad 227-8,242,251,254 Dubs, Adolph‘Spike,’ 175-6,177 Durand Line 13,29,36,111,112,113-14,247,248 Durrani, Dr Abdul Samat 153-4 Gailani, Pir Sayyid Ahmad 140,142-4,187 Gandhi, Indira 119,122
Geneva Accords 245-8,253-7,261 Gorbachev, Mikhail on the Geneva Accords 253-4 national reconciliation policy in Afghanistan 100,102 relations with Karmal 98-100 Soviet reforms under 96-7 support for Najibullah 99,100,261 on troop withdrawal 68-9,97-8,102,245,246 US-Soviet relations 246 Great Britain (GB) 15,39-40 Gromyko, Andrei 70,71,74,75,76,77,80,243 Gul, Hamid 124 economics gas industry 89 impact of land reforms 55-6 international trade agreements 89-90 Karmal’s Soviet-led strategies 85-90,95 marriage and dowry systems 57-8,59,137 education Afghan educators in Cairo 25 under Amanullahs modernization 12,14 in the refugee camps 212,217,218 Soviet investment in 91 of women 58,59 see ako Kabul University Egypt 21-2,24,25 Ehot, Theodore 174-5 elites, Afghan Durrani Pashtuns 3,9 intellectual ehtes 12,14 qawm leaders 3,12 visions of modernity 2,3-4,10-11,14 Habibullah, King 9-10,11 Haig, Alexander 182 Haq,Abdul 125 Haqqani, Jalaluddin 167 Harakat-і Inqilab-i Islami-yi Afghanistan 139, 142-4,167 Hazara 22,49,91,128,137,138,147-8,218,268,279 Hekmatyar, Gulbuddin clashes with other parties 146,153-4,261 critique of the West 164-5 cult of personality 164,166 decision not to meet Reagan 164-5 exclusion from Soviet withdrawal negotiations 169 in Mujahideen Monthly 161,164 in Muslim Youth 8,25 1975 revolts 27-8 Pakistani training 125 personal religious interpretations 136 First Anglo-Afghan War 40 foreign aid see aid
Index vision of Islamist Afghanistan 26,134,144 see also Hizb-i Islami-yi Afghanistan; Panjshir Valley Herat rebellion 63,64,74,79,114,138,177 Hizb-i Islami-yi Afghanistan abductions and assassinations by 153-4,223-4 formation of 28,133 international marketing campaigns 160-2,165 of Mawlawi Yunis Khalis 140-1,142-4,167 models of Afghan Islamist state-building 150, 152-3,161-2,164,166,168-9 Mujahideen Monthly 160-2,164 Pakistani support for 150-1 within the refugee populations 162,163 strong party structure 150-1,153-4,158,164 tensions with Jam'iyyat 135-6,139-40,146, 149-50,153-4,165-6,261 vision of Islamist Afghanistan 61,134,135-6 see aho Hekmatyar, Gulbuddin Hizb-i Tauhid 26 India Afghan refugees in 128-9 Indo-Afghan relations 33,118 Indo-Pakistan relations 33,35,111,116, 119-20,122,228 response to the PDPA coup 110 response to the Soviet invasion 118-20,122,130-1 state of emergency, 1975 34 infrastructure gas industry 89 repairs to during the civil war 95-6 Soviet economic support for 38-9,83,88-9,102 Soviet military building of 68 International Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) 39,54,71 Iran Afghan refugees in 128,219 under Ayatollah Khomeini 22,24,34-5,74,108, 114,147-8,172 involvement in the Herat rebellion 114 Iran-Afghan relations 30-2; 114-15 oil reserves 37 response to the PDPA coup 110 response to the Soviet invasion 118,121-2, 235,236 revolutionary political Islam 22,24,34-5,74, 130,172,190-1 support for Islamist Afghan resistance 5,114, 120,122,123,126-7,130,247 support for Shi’a resistance organizations 147-9,261 UN calls for a
political settlement in Afghanistan 243 US-Iranian relations 173,178-9,181 Iran-Iraq war 118,120,126-7,128,148,238 337 Islam association with feudalism 61 critical role of mullahs ind pirs 60 in Pakistan 110-11,118 under the PDPA 48,59-62,64,84-5,91 Soviet policy towards 60 Islamists within the Afghan resistance 120-7,130,134 as an alternative to Western governance models 4-5 contrasted with the traditionalists 144-6 at Kabul University 21,24,25 models of Afghan Islamist state-building 150, 152-3,161-2,164,166,168-9 1975 revolts 27-8 political parties of 14,133,134,143-6,192-3 reaction to PDPAs Islam policy 61,63 regional support for xx, 108,109,114 response to the PDPA coup xix-xx, 134 ties with Pakistan 28,30 US understanding of 189-91,193 visions of modernity 4-5,61,134,135-6, 268-9,270-1 in the Western media 134-5 see also Hizb-i Islami-yi Afghanistan; Jam'iyyat-i Islami-yi Afghanistan; political Islam Ittihad-i Islami Bara-yi Azadi-yi Afghanistan 140, 142-4,153,167 Jabhah-i Nijat-i Milli-yi Afghanistan 140, 142-4,187 Jam'iyyat-i Islami-yi Afghanistan formation, post-1975 revolts 28 international marketing campaigns 160, 162,165 Mirror ofJehad 160,162,165 models of Afghan Islamist state-building 150, 155-9,162,166,168-9 under Rabbani 135-6,139,154-6 within the refugee populations 163 tensions with Hizb-i Islami 146,149-50,153-4, 165-6,261 ties with Ahmad Shah Massoud 134,157-8 vision of Islamist Afghanistan 134,135-6 see also Massoud, Ahmad Shah; Rabbani, Burhanuddin Jam'iyyat-i ‘Ulama'-i Islam 125,266 Jama'at-i Islami 25,125,151 jirgas 40,64,91,101,147 Junejo, Mohammad
Khan 246,248 Kabul University in the 1960s 7-8 anti-Soviet protests 94 differing political groups at 8-9,14 Islamist movement 21,24,25
338 Index Kabul University (cont.) journalism courses 92 Qutbs teachings and 25 US funding for 8 Karmai, Babrak early life 8,17 economic strategies 85-90 ethnic diversification strategies 91-2 followers of (Parchant faction) 20-1,39,44, 54,73,79 influence of Soviet advisors 86-7,88,91,179 land reforms 86 membership of the PDPA 16 Najibullah’s replacement of 99 PDPA recruitment strategies 90-4 personality 20 regional nonrecognition of the regime of 121-2,130 relations with Brezhnev 84-5 relations with Gorbachev 98-100 Saur Revolution 44 Soviet support for 45,69,70,76-7, 79-80,234-5 Soviet supported state-building under 69-70, 77-9,81-2,83-4,95-6,97-8 stance on Islam 84-5,91 support for Douds coup 20-1 Karzai, Hamid 277 KhAD (State Information Service) 66,94,99 Khalis, Mawlawi Yunis 140,142-4,167 Khan,Yaqub 256 Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhullah al-Musavi 22,24, 34-5,74,108,114,147-8,172 Khrushchev, Nikita 32,37-8,60 Khyber, Mir Akbar 43,136 Komsomol 92-3 Kosygin, Alexei 74,76,79,83 Laden, Osama bin 125,268,269 Lenin, Vladimir 35 Mahaz-i Milli-yi Islami-yi Afghanistan 140, 142-4,187 Majrooh, Sayyid Bahauddin 154 Mao Zedong 13,32,34 Maoist organisations 125-6 Mashruta-khwahan 9-11,12 Massoud, Ahmad Shah death of 269 early life 8,136 in the interim government 264,265 Northern Alliance 267-8 in the Panjshir Valley 134 resistance against the Taliban 268-9 as a resistance fighter 125,134,157,165-6 ties with Jam'iyyat 134,157-8,261 truce with the Soviets 165 in the Ά Valley against an Empire’ documentary 159,165-6 vision of Islamist Afghanistan 134,268-9 wartime state-building
134,150,155, 157-9,165 Western media coverage of 159 Mawdudi, Abu l‘-A"la 22-5,151 Meena 223-4 modernity Afghan elites’vision of 2,3-4,10-11,14 competing conceptualizations of, xxii 42 concept 4 Islamists’vision of 4-5,61,134,135-6, 268-9,270-1 modern international politics 229-30 postcolonial visions of 3-4 refugee concepts of 225-6 socialist vs Islamist visions of 116,122,124, 127,131,270-4 Soviet visions of in Afghanistan 69-70 US visions of 172,187-8,191,194-5 violence of 274-6 modernization under Amanullah 11-12,22 civilians within 197 defined 4 NGO modernization strategies. 213-15 UNHCR modernizing efforts 5,198,208, 212-13,225 Mojadidi, Nahid 170,171 monarchism civilian support for 11 dominance of, mid-twentieth century 13-14 within modernization 11 under the Musahiban family 12-13,14 under the PDPA 49-50 Mujaddidi, Hazrat Sibghatullah 140,142-4, 187,264 Musahiban family 12-13,14,35,133 Muslim Brotherhood 21-2,24,61 Nabi Mohammadi, Mawlawi Mohammad 139,142-4 Nadwi, Abul Hasan "Ali 22,24 Najibullah, Mohammad allied with Karmal 17 early life 17 Gorbachev’s support for 99,100,261 at the KhAD 66,99 leadership of 66-7,96 membership of the PDPA 16,17 national reconciliation policy 100-1,246 replacement of Karmal 99 resignation and death 264 support base 259-60
Index during Taraki’s leadership 99 vision for Afghanistan’s future 100-1 Nasir Bagh 196,199 see aho refugees National Fatherland Front (NFF) 92 nation-building in Afghanistan xx impact of the civil war xx-xxi by Islamist interests 109 in Pakistan 111 the PDPAs concept of 18-19 postcolonial 3-4,10 the refugee camps and 197-9,208 Soviet model of 15 see aho state-building Nehru, Jawaharlal 4,15,33,36 Niazi, Ghulam Mohammad 27 Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) 115,120,228, 232,238 North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) autonomy movements 30,111 development programs 117 education of Afghan fighters 125 Pashtun population 124,133 refugeesin 127-8,198,201,203 Nuristan rebellion 138 Omar, Mullah 125,266 Organization of Muslim Youth as an anti-imperial alternative 21-2 the coup of 1973 and 26-7 formation of 9,25 internal divisions/factions 25-6,27-8 membership base 8,26 Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) 107,238,240 Pakistan Afghan refugees in 112-13,124,127, 138-9,201-3 border tensions with Afghanistan 113-14 coup 1978 33-4 Durand Line dispute 13,29,36,111,112, 113-14,247,248 Geneva Accords 245-8,253-7 Indo-Pakistan relations 33,35,111,116, 119-20,122,228 Islamists’ties with 28,30 Islamization of Pakistan politics 110-11,118 nation-building 111 negotiations for the safe return of Afghan refugees 249-52 non- recognition of the PDPA 240-1,242 nuclear program 110,177 Pakistan-Afghan relations 24-5,28-9, 112-15,201 Pashtun ethnonationalism s threat to 111, 124-5,130 339 regional status of 2 response to the PDPA coup 110 response to the Soviet invasion 107-8,115-16,
117-18,121-2,129,235,240-1 Sino-Pakistan relations 109,111,116,126 support for Afghan resistance 5,18,75,114, 117,118,120-1,122-5,130,150-1,247 UN calls for a political settlement in Afghanistan 240-2 UNHCR relations with 127-8,206,208 UNHCR-Pakistani joint refugee strategy 208-9,210-13 US foreign aid to 117 US-Pakistanrelations 36-7, 111, 112,116-17, 177,182 see aho refugees; Zia-ul-Haq, Mohammad pan-lslamism 10,11,21-2 Panjshir Valley 134,156-7 Pashtun 137 Pashtuns in the Afghan resistance 124-5 anti-government activity 138 around Peshawar 133 dominance of Pashtun identities 9,30,39,147 Pashtun ethnonationalism’s threat to Pakistan 111,124-5,130 Pashtun Islamism 167-8 Pashtunistan dispute 29-30,33,36 Pashtunization of Afghanistan 30,40,137 refugees with 198,201,219 tradition of Pashtunwali 198,201,219,221 People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) Afghan citizenship 49-50 under Amin 64-5,75-6 anti-regime activity 62-3,75 approach to Islam 48,59-62,64,84-5,91 constitution 19 democratic agenda 18 early years of 9,13,42 economic policy 17-18,51,55-6,85-90 Herat rebellion 63,64,74,79 Indo-Afghan relations 118 Iran-Afghan relations 30-2,114-15 under Karmal 65-6 land reforms 51-6,72,74,83,86,137 media strategies 92 under Najibullah 66-7 nation concept 18-19 national reconciliation policy 100-1 at the 1965 elections 20 norms of international governance and 231,233-4 Pakistani-Afghan relations 24-5,28-9, 112-15,201 Parcham-Khaq factions 20-1,39,44,54,64,73, 75,83,91,177
340 Index Peoples Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) (coni.) party/state leadership drives 91-4 PDPA-Soviet relationship xx, 39,42,48,69-70, 175,177,179 PDPA-US relationship 172,173,175-6 promotion of individual rights 18-19 reform agenda 44-5,46,48-9 reforms to marriage practices 57-8,59,137 socialist intentions xix-xx,4,14-15,19 support base xxi, 8,19-20,50-1,53-4,66,74, 90-2,94,99,100 suppression of resistance to 62-4 universal military service 66 use of violence 62,63,76,137 women in government 58-9 womens rights 56-8 Perez de Cuellar, Javier 169,238,239-40,242,243, 244,247,250,262 Permanent Intergovernmental Commission on Economic Cooperation 88-9 Peshawar as an alternate Afghan capital 132 as a base of Afghan resistance 25,26-7,28,30, 112,113,122,132-3 Pashtun people and 133 political parties in exile in xix, 28,123-4,126, 127,133,139,148-9 refugees in 109,112-13,127,133 political Islam anti-American sentiments 108 as an anti-imperial alternative 3,21-4 Hizb-i Islami and Jam'iyyat differences 149-50 intellectual thought in 22-4 models of Afghan Islamist state-building 150, 152-3,155-9 regional iterations of 108,114 Western media coverage of 160 political parties after the Soviet withdrawal 259-63 coalition government, post-Geneva Accords 255-6,257 divisions and alliances 140-3,166-7 in exile in Peshawar xix, 28,123-4,126,127, 133,139,148-9 failure to form a unified resistance alliance 146-50 interim government 263-5 Interim Islamic Government of Afghanistan (IIG) 260-1 intra-Afghan negotiations 278-9 Islamists 143-6,192-3 Loya Jirga (Grand Assembly) 147 models of
Afghan Islamist state-building 150, 152-3,161-2,164,166,168-9 of 1960s Afghanistan 7 Pashtun dominance of 9,147 political groups at Kabul University 8-9 reform agenda, post WWII 12 refugee registration with 127,133,139,197, 210,217 seven main political parties of the resistance 139-42,146,167,192 Shi’a political organizations 148 student activism, 1960s 8-9 Taliban 265-9,277-9 traditionalist parties 143-6,192-3 in the twenty-first century 277-80 see also Hizb-i Islami-yi Afghanistan; Jam'iyyat-i Islami-yi Afghanistan; People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) Ponomarev, Boris 74,75,86 postcolonialism land reform agendas 52-3 political Islams critique of 23 socialist models of alliance-building 71-3 socialist potential of states 40 state-formation 3-4,10 Puzanov, Aleksandr Mikhailovich 73-4,83 Qutb, Sayyid 22-4,25 Rabbani, Burhanuddin in the interim government 264-5 Islamist background 27 Jam'iyyat-i Islami under 135-6,139,154-6 the mujahedeen as freedom fighters 191 1975 revolts 27-8 personal religious interpretations 136,155 vision of Islamist Afghanistan 134,144 Ratebzad, Anahita 20,58,59 Reagan, Ronald on the Geneva Accords 253-4 Hekmatyar s decision not to meet 164-5 meeting with Nahid Mojadidi 170,171 with resistance fighters 183,191-2 on the Soviet invasion 181 US-Soviet relations 246 refugee, term 205,220 refugees Afghan leadership structures 215-17 in Balochistan 127-8,198,201,203 camps as nations in exile 208 camps as sites of modernity 225-6 camps in Pakistan by district 204 camps in Pakistan by province 202 as a challenge to the Afghan nation-state 197-9 of
decolonization 207 education 212,217,218 to escape the PDPA state 199-200,215,218, 219-20,221 in India 128-9
Index international response to 209-10 in Iran 128,219 Islamic identities 218-20 mohajir (exile) identity 220,221 Nasir Bagh camp 196,199 negotiations for the safe return of 249-52,259 NGO modernization strategies 213-15 in Pakistan 112-13,124,127,138-9,201-3 with the Pashtuns 198,201,219 personal experiences of exile 5,221-2,224-5 politicization of 138-9,162-4,217 reaffirmation of tribal/ethnic identities 218-19 as rebels 201,206 registration with political parties 127,133,139, 197,210,217 resistance groups’political humanitarian language 162-4 resistance movement in 113,217-18,222, 249-50,251-2 scale of the crises 196-7,209,250-1 self-identification as‘refugees’ 219-21 shift to Refugee Tentage Villages (RTVs) 203-5,210-11 social and physical well-being of 212-13,217-18 from the Taliban 268 UNHCR aid to Pakistan 127-8 UNHCR involvement 203 UNHCR modernizing efforts 5,198,208, 212-13,225 UNHCR-Pakistani joint strategy towards 208-9,210-13 US humanitarian aid for 170,172,183-6,194 women in 214,222-4 resistance movements Chinese support for 122,125-6,130,247 dominance of Afghan Islamists 120-7,130,134 early anti-government activity 137-8 exclusion from Soviet withdrawal negotiations 169 fighters in the refugee camps 113,217-18,222, 249-50,251-2 fighting on the Afghan-Pakistan borderlands 247-8 foreign fighters in 168 as freedom fighters 181-2,191-2 international support for the Islamization of 125 involvement in opium production 167 Iranian support for 5,114,120,122,123,126-7, 130,247 map of major resistance groups 141 Pakistani control of weapons and aid to 123-4 Pakistan’s
support for 5,18,75,114,117,118, 120-1,122-5,130,150-1,247 in the Panjshir Valley 134,156-7 341 Pashtun ethnonationalism and 124-5 Peshawar base for 25,26-7,28,30,112,113, 122,132-3 political cartoons 145,149,163 political groupings of 139-42,146,167,192 political humanitarian language of 162-4 questions of ethnicity 124,142,147 Reagan’s support for 181-2,183,191-2 Shi’a resistance organizations 147-9,261 Soviet tactics against 80-1 against the Taliban 267-8,280 US covert aid to Afghanistan 110,170,172,176, 178,183,184,186-7 US support for 122,123,142,146,177-9,180, 181-2,193-4,247 weaponry and supplies 142,150 in the Western media 134-5 see also Massoud, Ahmad Shah Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (RAWA) 223-4 Saudi Arabia 108 Saur Revolution affinity with the October Revolution 44,61 events of 43-4 PDPAcoup 5,9 PDPA statement of intent 45-8 propaganda films 92 Sayyaf, Abdur Rasul 140,142-4,153,167 Shahi,Agha 110, 111, 112,122,228,240,242, 243,249 Shulah-i Javid (Eternal Flame) 13 Shulman, Marshall 172,173 Shura-yi Inqilab-i Ittifaq-i Islami-yi Afghanistan 137-8 Sick, Gary 178-9,191 socialism of the PDPA xix-xx,4,14-15,19 socialist models of alliance-building 71-3 socialist vs Islamist visions of modernity 116, 122,124,127,131,270-4 Soviet socialist state-building 69-70,77-9, 81-2,83-4,95-6,97-8,103,105-6 Soviet army humanitarian work by 68 Komsomol workers 94 presence in Afghanistan 68-9 tactics against the guerrillas 80-1 traumatic effect of the occupation 70,103-5 see also Soviet withdrawal Soviet invasion/occupation China’s response to
112,116,121-2,235-6 civilian forces 69,70,96 as Cold-War imperialism 3 European Economic Community (EEC) stance on 239
342 Index Soviet invasion/occupation (cont.) Gorbachevs policies towards 97-103 Indias response to 118-20,122,130-1 influence of Soviet advisors 86-7,88,91,179 initial reason for 68-9,76-7 international response to 107-8,180, 229-30,238-9 Irans response to 118,121-2,235,236 killing of Amin 77,79 knowledge of Afghanistan 83-4 map of Soviet military movements 78 Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) stance on 238 norms of international governance and 230, 234-5,241 Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) stance on 238,240 Pakistan’s response to 107-8,115-16,117-18, 121-2,129,235,240-1 phases of the war 80 regional responses to 109-10,116-17,121-7, 129-31,228-9,235-6 for socialist state-building 69-70,77-9,81-2, 83-4,95-6,97-8,103,105-6 Soviet international standing and 68,87-8 UN calls for a political settlement in Afghanistan 239-43 at the UN Security Council 236-7 UNGA emergency session following 227-9, 230,235-6 US political solution to 182,192 US response to 170-2,179-81,235 Soviet Union (USSR) Amins relations with 75-6 economic aid to Afghanistan 38-9,74,83, 88-9,102 foreign policy in the 1970s 70-3 the Geneva Accords 253-4,261 as inspiration for the PDPA 15 involvement in Angola 71-2 involvement in Ethiopia 72 KGB involvement with KhAD 94 model of statehood 15 PDPA-Soviet relationship xx, 39,42,48,69-70, 175,177,179 policy towards Islam 60 political settlement in Afghanistan 262 relations with the DRA 73-4 Sino-Soviet split 15,32,70-1 socialist models of alliance-building 71-3,92 socialist potential of Afghanistan 40,41,69-70 Soviet-Afghan relations 35-6,37-9,40,82-3 support
for Karmal 45,69,70,76,79-80 US-Soviet relations 76,246 see also Gorbachev, Mikhail Soviet withdrawal defensive role of the army 142 under the Geneva Accords 253-4 Gorbachev’s support for 68-9,97-8,102, 245,246 negotiations 120-1,169,246 political situation following 259-63 UN-led negotiations 121,169,243,244-6,257 state-building Ahmad Massoud’s wartime state-building 134, 150,155,157-9,165 models of Afghan Islamist state-building 150, 152-3,161-2,164,166,168-9 socialist models of alliance-building 71-3,92 Soviet supported socialist state-building 69-70, 77-9,81-2,83-4,95-6,97-8,103,105-6 see also nation-building Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty 76 Suslov, Mikhail 76 Taliban 168,265-9,277-9 Tapper, Nancy 57 Taraki, Nur Mohammad alliance with Amin 16,17,73-4 communications with the UN 231,233-4 cult of personality 20,50 death 65,75 early life 8,16,50 ethnic nationality programme 137 followers of (Khalq faction) 20-1,39,44,54,73 on land reforms 52 leadership of 54,73,173 meeting with Brezhnev 55 membership of the PDPA 16 Pakistani-Afghan relations 112 PDPA statement of intent 45-8 policy towards Islam 60-1 Saur Revolution 44,45-6 Soviet aid 74,175 treaty of friendship with Brezhnev 82-3 US knowledge of 174 Tarzi, Mahmud 10,11,58 Tarzi, Soraya 11,12 Third Anglo-Afghan War 11,35 Thornton, Tom 177 Turner, Stansfield 178,187,191 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Afghan refugee strategy 208-9 aid to Pakistan 127-8 concerns over Hizb-i Islami violence 153-4 definition of refugee 205,220 early Eurocentrism 205-6 establishment of 205-6 in India 127-8 involvement
in the refugee crisis 203 in Iran 127
Index modernization strategies 5,198,208, 212-13,225 as‘non-politicaľ 206-8 Pakistan’s tensions with 206,208,212-13 UNHCR-Pakistani joint refugee strategy 208-9,210-13 US support for the Afghan refugees and 184 United Nations (UN) Afghan politics at 230-1,262 Afghanistan’s membership 13 declaration on decolonization 232 Geneva Accords 245-8,253-7 imperial legacies and 231-3 international politics and global governance 231,233,237-8 negotiations for the safe return of Afghan refugees 249-52,259 negotiations for the Soviet withdrawal 121,169, 243,244-6,257 Palais des Nations, Geneva 229 political settlement to the Soviet invasion 239-43 sixth emergency session on the Soviet invasion 227-9,230,235-6 Soviet invasion and the UN Security Council 236-7 women’s rights 56 United States of America (USA) in Afghanistan 278,279 Afghanistan and US regional interests 174-5, 178-9,180-1 Amiris turn to 75-6 analysis of Islam and the Iranian revolution 190-1 analysis of political Islam in Afghanistan 189-91,193 anti-American sentiments of political Islam 108 the Carter doctrine 172-3 CIA analysis of Afghanistan 187-90 CIA and Cold-War strategy 178 covert aid to Afghan resistance 110,170,172, 176,178,183,184,186-7,261-2 fears over Soviet expansionism 174-5,177, 179,181-2 funding for Kabul University 7-8 on the Geneva Accords 253-4,261 humanitarian aid to Afghan refugees 170,172, 183-6,194 media coverage of the Soviet occupation 80 343 political solution to Afghanistan 182,192,262 Reagan doctrine 181-2 response to the 1978 coup 172,173-5 response to the Soviet invasion 170-2, 179-81,235
stance on the PDPA 172 strategy of keeping the Soviets in Afghanistan 172,177-8 support for Afghan resistance 75,122,123,142, 146,177-9,180,181-2,193-4,247 tribal analysis of Afghanistan 40-1,172,187-9, 191,278 UN calls for a political settlement in Afghanistan 243 US-Afghan relations 36-7,40-1,176-7 US-Iranian relations 173,178-9,181 US-Pakistan relations 36-7, 111, 112,116-17, 177,182 US-Soviet relations 76,246 visions of Afghan modernity 172,187-8,191, 194-5 see also Cold War Ustinov, Dmitry 71,74,75,76,77,80 Vietnam 32,52,71,74,126 Waldheim, Kurt 231,234,238,244 Wish Zalmayan (Awakened Youth) 12,16,17 women under Amanullahs modernization 12 education of 58,59 in government 58-9 marriage laws 57-8,59,137 in refugee camps 214,222-4 Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (RAWA) 223-4 rights under the PDPA 56-8 Young Afghans movement 10,11,12 Yousaf, Mohammad 123-4 Zahir Shah, Mohammed 11,12,13,16,57,120, 133,140,143,154 Zarif, Μ. Farid 240,247-8,250 Zia-uI-Haq, Mohammad military dictatorship 33-4,110,246 relations with Afghanistan 114-15 response to the PDPA coup 110 response to the Soviet invasion 107-8,117 threat of PDPA-Soviet socialism 116,122,124 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek München |
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Contents List of Figures List of Maps List ofAbbreviations Prologue Introduction 1. Afghanistan’s Many Pasts xi xiii w xix 1 7 2. Kabul 43 3. Moscow 68 4. Islamabad 107 5. Peshawar-Panjshir 132 6. Washington 170 7. Nasir Bagh 196 8. Geneva 227 9. Back to Kabul 259 Epilogue 277 Appendix Note on Sources Further Reading Notes Index 281 283 285 289 335
Index Afghan army 39,66,76,94 Agreement for Bringing Peace to Afghanistan 278 aid from China 32 Soviet economic aid 38-9,74,83,88-9,102 the Soviet invasion as aid and support 234-5 US covert aid to the resistance 110,170,172, 176,178,183,184,186-7,261-2 US humanitarian aid to refugees 170,172, 183-6,194 Akhtar, General 116,122,124 Amanullah, King 11-12,22,35-6,57 Amin, Hafizullah alliance with Taraki 16,17,73-4 death of 77,79,84 early life 8,16-17 membership of the PDPA 16,17 personality 20 as prime minster 64-5,75-6 Saur Revolution 44 stance on Islam 61 turn to the US 75-6 US knowledge of 174 Andropov, Yuri 70,71,75,76,77,96 Angola 71-2,171,173,178 Balochistan development programs 117 ethnonationalist autonomy movements 30,111, 112,114,115,117,124 Pakistan’s relations with 127,128 refugees in 127-8,198,201,203 Bangladesh 36,111,208 Bhutto, Benazir 261,265 Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali ЗО, 33-4,108,110 Brezhnev, Leonid on the PDPA coup 74 Daouds meeting with 39 death 96 Islam within socialism 84-5 relations with Karmal 84-5 relations with Tarato 55,82-3 Sino-Soviet split and 32 support for worldwide socialist revolution 70,71,84 Brutents, Karen 39,54,71,72-3,87,94,97 Brzezinski, Zbigniew 107,117,172,177-8,179 Bulganin, Nikolai 38 Bush, George H. W. 262 Camp David Accords 172 Carterjimmy 75,112,117,126,172-3,180-1 Chernyaev, Anatoly 97,98 China under Deng Xiaoping 34,108,112,116,126 fear of Soviet expansion/encirclement 32-3, 108,111-12,130 foreign aid to Afghanistan 32 response to the Soviet invasion 112,116, 121-2,235-6 Sino-Pakistan relations 109,111,116,126 Sino-Soviet split
32,70-1,108-9 South-East Asian policies 32-3 support for Afghan resistance 122,125-6, 130,247 civil war Cold-War superpower perspective 1-2,5 early anti-government activity 137-8 following the PDPA coup xix-xx global impact xx-xxii impact on the civilian population xxi impact on the nation state xx-xxi infrastructure targets 95-6 medical facilities and 95 political parties in exile during 140-3,148 three phases of 140-2 violence of 274-6 Cold-War Cold-War imperialism 3 Cold-War superpower perspectives on Afghanistan 1-2,3,5,9,35-42,170-2 impact on the Third World 1 1970s detente 70-1,171 see also Soviet Union (USSR); United States of America (USA) constitution of 1923 11 constitution of 1964 13,14 constitutionalism (Mashruta-khwahan) 9-11 Cordovez, Diego 244-5,253 coup 1973 14,20-1,26,39 coup 1978 Afghan people’s response to 137 death of Mir Akbar Khyber 43,136 international response to 110,172,173-5 Islamists’response to xix-xx, 134 regional influences 33-5,108
336 Index coup 1978 (cont. 'i resistance to the PDPA 136-7 Soviet expansionism and 174-5 Soviet support for 40,70 see abo Saur Revolution Cuba 15,52,65,70,71-2,238 empire, ideology of 2-3 Es’haq, Mohammad 26,27,157-8,159 Ethiopia 53,72,172,173 ethnicity in the Afghan resistance 124,142,147 colonial representations of Afghanistan 39-41 Hazara Shi’a resistance organizations 147-8 historical ethnic map of Afghanistan 31 Karmal’s strategies for ethnic diversification 91-2 and political affiliations 142,147 refugee reaffirmation of tribal/ethnic identities 218-19 Taraki’s ethnic nationality programme 137 US tribal analysis of Afghanistan 40-1,172, 187-9,191,278 see also Pashtuns European Economic Community (EEC) 239 Daoud Khan, Mohammad autocratic regime 12-13,33 coup 1973 14 coup of 1978 and 43-4,46 death of 41 the Islamists under 26-7 Karmal’s support for 20-1 regional views on 110 relations with Pakistan 30-2 Soviet stance on 39 US analysis of 41 Democratic Organization of Afghan Women (DOAW) 58,59 Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA) Afghan-Soviet relations 73-4 Amin’s relations with the Soviets 75-6 flag and anthem 49 formation of 8,46 international trade agreements 89-90 Komsomol workers 93-4 PDPA-Soviet attempts to legitimise 82-94 US recognition of 173,175-6 Democratic Youth Organization of Afghanistan (DOMA) 94 Deng Xiaoping 34,108,112,116,126 Dixit, J. N. 122 Dost, Shah Mohammad 227-8,242,251,254 Dubs, Adolph‘Spike,’ 175-6,177 Durand Line 13,29,36,111,112,113-14,247,248 Durrani, Dr Abdul Samat 153-4 Gailani, Pir Sayyid Ahmad 140,142-4,187 Gandhi, Indira 119,122
Geneva Accords 245-8,253-7,261 Gorbachev, Mikhail on the Geneva Accords 253-4 national reconciliation policy in Afghanistan 100,102 relations with Karmal 98-100 Soviet reforms under 96-7 support for Najibullah 99,100,261 on troop withdrawal 68-9,97-8,102,245,246 US-Soviet relations 246 Great Britain (GB) 15,39-40 Gromyko, Andrei 70,71,74,75,76,77,80,243 Gul, Hamid 124 economics gas industry 89 impact of land reforms 55-6 international trade agreements 89-90 Karmal’s Soviet-led strategies 85-90,95 marriage and dowry systems 57-8,59,137 education Afghan educators in Cairo 25 under Amanullahs modernization 12,14 in the refugee camps 212,217,218 Soviet investment in 91 of women 58,59 see ako Kabul University Egypt 21-2,24,25 Ehot, Theodore 174-5 elites, Afghan Durrani Pashtuns 3,9 intellectual ehtes 12,14 qawm leaders 3,12 visions of modernity 2,3-4,10-11,14 Habibullah, King 9-10,11 Haig, Alexander 182 Haq,Abdul 125 Haqqani, Jalaluddin 167 Harakat-і Inqilab-i Islami-yi Afghanistan 139, 142-4,167 Hazara 22,49,91,128,137,138,147-8,218,268,279 Hekmatyar, Gulbuddin clashes with other parties 146,153-4,261 critique of the West 164-5 cult of personality 164,166 decision not to meet Reagan 164-5 exclusion from Soviet withdrawal negotiations 169 in Mujahideen Monthly 161,164 in Muslim Youth 8,25 1975 revolts 27-8 Pakistani training 125 personal religious interpretations 136 First Anglo-Afghan War 40 foreign aid see aid
Index vision of Islamist Afghanistan 26,134,144 see also Hizb-i Islami-yi Afghanistan; Panjshir Valley Herat rebellion 63,64,74,79,114,138,177 Hizb-i Islami-yi Afghanistan abductions and assassinations by 153-4,223-4 formation of 28,133 international marketing campaigns 160-2,165 of Mawlawi Yunis Khalis 140-1,142-4,167 models of Afghan Islamist state-building 150, 152-3,161-2,164,166,168-9 Mujahideen Monthly 160-2,164 Pakistani support for 150-1 within the refugee populations 162,163 strong party structure 150-1,153-4,158,164 tensions with Jam'iyyat 135-6,139-40,146, 149-50,153-4,165-6,261 vision of Islamist Afghanistan 61,134,135-6 see aho Hekmatyar, Gulbuddin Hizb-i Tauhid 26 India Afghan refugees in 128-9 Indo-Afghan relations 33,118 Indo-Pakistan relations 33,35,111,116, 119-20,122,228 response to the PDPA coup 110 response to the Soviet invasion 118-20,122,130-1 state of emergency, 1975 34 infrastructure gas industry 89 repairs to during the civil war 95-6 Soviet economic support for 38-9,83,88-9,102 Soviet military building of 68 International Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) 39,54,71 Iran Afghan refugees in 128,219 under Ayatollah Khomeini 22,24,34-5,74,108, 114,147-8,172 involvement in the Herat rebellion 114 Iran-Afghan relations 30-2; 114-15 oil reserves 37 response to the PDPA coup 110 response to the Soviet invasion 118,121-2, 235,236 revolutionary political Islam 22,24,34-5,74, 130,172,190-1 support for Islamist Afghan resistance 5,114, 120,122,123,126-7,130,247 support for Shi’a resistance organizations 147-9,261 UN calls for a
political settlement in Afghanistan 243 US-Iranian relations 173,178-9,181 Iran-Iraq war 118,120,126-7,128,148,238 337 Islam association with feudalism 61 critical role of mullahs ind pirs 60 in Pakistan 110-11,118 under the PDPA 48,59-62,64,84-5,91 Soviet policy towards 60 Islamists within the Afghan resistance 120-7,130,134 as an alternative to Western governance models 4-5 contrasted with the traditionalists 144-6 at Kabul University 21,24,25 models of Afghan Islamist state-building 150, 152-3,161-2,164,166,168-9 1975 revolts 27-8 political parties of 14,133,134,143-6,192-3 reaction to PDPAs Islam policy 61,63 regional support for xx, 108,109,114 response to the PDPA coup xix-xx, 134 ties with Pakistan 28,30 US understanding of 189-91,193 visions of modernity 4-5,61,134,135-6, 268-9,270-1 in the Western media 134-5 see also Hizb-i Islami-yi Afghanistan; Jam'iyyat-i Islami-yi Afghanistan; political Islam Ittihad-i Islami Bara-yi Azadi-yi Afghanistan 140, 142-4,153,167 Jabhah-i Nijat-i Milli-yi Afghanistan 140, 142-4,187 Jam'iyyat-i Islami-yi Afghanistan formation, post-1975 revolts 28 international marketing campaigns 160, 162,165 Mirror ofJehad 160,162,165 models of Afghan Islamist state-building 150, 155-9,162,166,168-9 under Rabbani 135-6,139,154-6 within the refugee populations 163 tensions with Hizb-i Islami 146,149-50,153-4, 165-6,261 ties with Ahmad Shah Massoud 134,157-8 vision of Islamist Afghanistan 134,135-6 see also Massoud, Ahmad Shah; Rabbani, Burhanuddin Jam'iyyat-i ‘Ulama'-i Islam 125,266 Jama'at-i Islami 25,125,151 jirgas 40,64,91,101,147 Junejo, Mohammad
Khan 246,248 Kabul University in the 1960s 7-8 anti-Soviet protests 94 differing political groups at 8-9,14 Islamist movement 21,24,25
338 Index Kabul University (cont.) journalism courses 92 Qutbs teachings and 25 US funding for 8 Karmai, Babrak early life 8,17 economic strategies 85-90 ethnic diversification strategies 91-2 followers of (Parchant faction) 20-1,39,44, 54,73,79 influence of Soviet advisors 86-7,88,91,179 land reforms 86 membership of the PDPA 16 Najibullah’s replacement of 99 PDPA recruitment strategies 90-4 personality 20 regional nonrecognition of the regime of 121-2,130 relations with Brezhnev 84-5 relations with Gorbachev 98-100 Saur Revolution 44 Soviet support for 45,69,70,76-7, 79-80,234-5 Soviet supported state-building under 69-70, 77-9,81-2,83-4,95-6,97-8 stance on Islam 84-5,91 support for Douds coup 20-1 Karzai, Hamid 277 KhAD (State Information Service) 66,94,99 Khalis, Mawlawi Yunis 140,142-4,167 Khan,Yaqub 256 Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhullah al-Musavi 22,24, 34-5,74,108,114,147-8,172 Khrushchev, Nikita 32,37-8,60 Khyber, Mir Akbar 43,136 Komsomol 92-3 Kosygin, Alexei 74,76,79,83 Laden, Osama bin 125,268,269 Lenin, Vladimir 35 Mahaz-i Milli-yi Islami-yi Afghanistan 140, 142-4,187 Majrooh, Sayyid Bahauddin 154 Mao Zedong 13,32,34 Maoist organisations 125-6 Mashruta-khwahan 9-11,12 Massoud, Ahmad Shah death of 269 early life 8,136 in the interim government 264,265 Northern Alliance 267-8 in the Panjshir Valley 134 resistance against the Taliban 268-9 as a resistance fighter 125,134,157,165-6 ties with Jam'iyyat 134,157-8,261 truce with the Soviets 165 in the Ά Valley against an Empire’ documentary 159,165-6 vision of Islamist Afghanistan 134,268-9 wartime state-building
134,150,155, 157-9,165 Western media coverage of 159 Mawdudi, Abu l‘-A"la 22-5,151 Meena 223-4 modernity Afghan elites’vision of 2,3-4,10-11,14 competing conceptualizations of, xxii 42 concept 4 Islamists’vision of 4-5,61,134,135-6, 268-9,270-1 modern international politics 229-30 postcolonial visions of 3-4 refugee concepts of 225-6 socialist vs Islamist visions of 116,122,124, 127,131,270-4 Soviet visions of in Afghanistan 69-70 US visions of 172,187-8,191,194-5 violence of 274-6 modernization under Amanullah 11-12,22 civilians within 197 defined 4 NGO modernization strategies. 213-15 UNHCR modernizing efforts 5,198,208, 212-13,225 Mojadidi, Nahid 170,171 monarchism civilian support for 11 dominance of, mid-twentieth century 13-14 within modernization 11 under the Musahiban family 12-13,14 under the PDPA 49-50 Mujaddidi, Hazrat Sibghatullah 140,142-4, 187,264 Musahiban family 12-13,14,35,133 Muslim Brotherhood 21-2,24,61 Nabi Mohammadi, Mawlawi Mohammad 139,142-4 Nadwi, Abul Hasan "Ali 22,24 Najibullah, Mohammad allied with Karmal 17 early life 17 Gorbachev’s support for 99,100,261 at the KhAD 66,99 leadership of 66-7,96 membership of the PDPA 16,17 national reconciliation policy 100-1,246 replacement of Karmal 99 resignation and death 264 support base 259-60
Index during Taraki’s leadership 99 vision for Afghanistan’s future 100-1 Nasir Bagh 196,199 see aho refugees National Fatherland Front (NFF) 92 nation-building in Afghanistan xx impact of the civil war xx-xxi by Islamist interests 109 in Pakistan 111 the PDPAs concept of 18-19 postcolonial 3-4,10 the refugee camps and 197-9,208 Soviet model of 15 see aho state-building Nehru, Jawaharlal 4,15,33,36 Niazi, Ghulam Mohammad 27 Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) 115,120,228, 232,238 North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) autonomy movements 30,111 development programs 117 education of Afghan fighters 125 Pashtun population 124,133 refugeesin 127-8,198,201,203 Nuristan rebellion 138 Omar, Mullah 125,266 Organization of Muslim Youth as an anti-imperial alternative 21-2 the coup of 1973 and 26-7 formation of 9,25 internal divisions/factions 25-6,27-8 membership base 8,26 Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) 107,238,240 Pakistan Afghan refugees in 112-13,124,127, 138-9,201-3 border tensions with Afghanistan 113-14 coup 1978 33-4 Durand Line dispute 13,29,36,111,112, 113-14,247,248 Geneva Accords 245-8,253-7 Indo-Pakistan relations 33,35,111,116, 119-20,122,228 Islamists’ties with 28,30 Islamization of Pakistan politics 110-11,118 nation-building 111 negotiations for the safe return of Afghan refugees 249-52 non- recognition of the PDPA 240-1,242 nuclear program 110,177 Pakistan-Afghan relations 24-5,28-9, 112-15,201 Pashtun ethnonationalism s threat to 111, 124-5,130 339 regional status of 2 response to the PDPA coup 110 response to the Soviet invasion 107-8,115-16,
117-18,121-2,129,235,240-1 Sino-Pakistan relations 109,111,116,126 support for Afghan resistance 5,18,75,114, 117,118,120-1,122-5,130,150-1,247 UN calls for a political settlement in Afghanistan 240-2 UNHCR relations with 127-8,206,208 UNHCR-Pakistani joint refugee strategy 208-9,210-13 US foreign aid to 117 US-Pakistanrelations 36-7, 111, 112,116-17, 177,182 see aho refugees; Zia-ul-Haq, Mohammad pan-lslamism 10,11,21-2 Panjshir Valley 134,156-7 Pashtun 137 Pashtuns in the Afghan resistance 124-5 anti-government activity 138 around Peshawar 133 dominance of Pashtun identities 9,30,39,147 Pashtun ethnonationalism’s threat to Pakistan 111,124-5,130 Pashtun Islamism 167-8 Pashtunistan dispute 29-30,33,36 Pashtunization of Afghanistan 30,40,137 refugees with 198,201,219 tradition of Pashtunwali 198,201,219,221 People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) Afghan citizenship 49-50 under Amin 64-5,75-6 anti-regime activity 62-3,75 approach to Islam 48,59-62,64,84-5,91 constitution 19 democratic agenda 18 early years of 9,13,42 economic policy 17-18,51,55-6,85-90 Herat rebellion 63,64,74,79 Indo-Afghan relations 118 Iran-Afghan relations 30-2,114-15 under Karmal 65-6 land reforms 51-6,72,74,83,86,137 media strategies 92 under Najibullah 66-7 nation concept 18-19 national reconciliation policy 100-1 at the 1965 elections 20 norms of international governance and 231,233-4 Pakistani-Afghan relations 24-5,28-9, 112-15,201 Parcham-Khaq factions 20-1,39,44,54,64,73, 75,83,91,177
340 Index Peoples Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) (coni.) party/state leadership drives 91-4 PDPA-Soviet relationship xx, 39,42,48,69-70, 175,177,179 PDPA-US relationship 172,173,175-6 promotion of individual rights 18-19 reform agenda 44-5,46,48-9 reforms to marriage practices 57-8,59,137 socialist intentions xix-xx,4,14-15,19 support base xxi, 8,19-20,50-1,53-4,66,74, 90-2,94,99,100 suppression of resistance to 62-4 universal military service 66 use of violence 62,63,76,137 women in government 58-9 womens rights 56-8 Perez de Cuellar, Javier 169,238,239-40,242,243, 244,247,250,262 Permanent Intergovernmental Commission on Economic Cooperation 88-9 Peshawar as an alternate Afghan capital 132 as a base of Afghan resistance 25,26-7,28,30, 112,113,122,132-3 Pashtun people and 133 political parties in exile in xix, 28,123-4,126, 127,133,139,148-9 refugees in 109,112-13,127,133 political Islam anti-American sentiments 108 as an anti-imperial alternative 3,21-4 Hizb-i Islami and Jam'iyyat differences 149-50 intellectual thought in 22-4 models of Afghan Islamist state-building 150, 152-3,155-9 regional iterations of 108,114 Western media coverage of 160 political parties after the Soviet withdrawal 259-63 coalition government, post-Geneva Accords 255-6,257 divisions and alliances 140-3,166-7 in exile in Peshawar xix, 28,123-4,126,127, 133,139,148-9 failure to form a unified resistance alliance 146-50 interim government 263-5 Interim Islamic Government of Afghanistan (IIG) 260-1 intra-Afghan negotiations 278-9 Islamists 143-6,192-3 Loya Jirga (Grand Assembly) 147 models of
Afghan Islamist state-building 150, 152-3,161-2,164,166,168-9 of 1960s Afghanistan 7 Pashtun dominance of 9,147 political groups at Kabul University 8-9 reform agenda, post WWII 12 refugee registration with 127,133,139,197, 210,217 seven main political parties of the resistance 139-42,146,167,192 Shi’a political organizations 148 student activism, 1960s 8-9 Taliban 265-9,277-9 traditionalist parties 143-6,192-3 in the twenty-first century 277-80 see also Hizb-i Islami-yi Afghanistan; Jam'iyyat-i Islami-yi Afghanistan; People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) Ponomarev, Boris 74,75,86 postcolonialism land reform agendas 52-3 political Islams critique of 23 socialist models of alliance-building 71-3 socialist potential of states 40 state-formation 3-4,10 Puzanov, Aleksandr Mikhailovich 73-4,83 Qutb, Sayyid 22-4,25 Rabbani, Burhanuddin in the interim government 264-5 Islamist background 27 Jam'iyyat-i Islami under 135-6,139,154-6 the mujahedeen as freedom fighters 191 1975 revolts 27-8 personal religious interpretations 136,155 vision of Islamist Afghanistan 134,144 Ratebzad, Anahita 20,58,59 Reagan, Ronald on the Geneva Accords 253-4 Hekmatyar s decision not to meet 164-5 meeting with Nahid Mojadidi 170,171 with resistance fighters 183,191-2 on the Soviet invasion 181 US-Soviet relations 246 refugee, term 205,220 refugees Afghan leadership structures 215-17 in Balochistan 127-8,198,201,203 camps as nations in exile 208 camps as sites of modernity 225-6 camps in Pakistan by district 204 camps in Pakistan by province 202 as a challenge to the Afghan nation-state 197-9 of
decolonization 207 education 212,217,218 to escape the PDPA state 199-200,215,218, 219-20,221 in India 128-9
Index international response to 209-10 in Iran 128,219 Islamic identities 218-20 mohajir (exile) identity 220,221 Nasir Bagh camp 196,199 negotiations for the safe return of 249-52,259 NGO modernization strategies 213-15 in Pakistan 112-13,124,127,138-9,201-3 with the Pashtuns 198,201,219 personal experiences of exile 5,221-2,224-5 politicization of 138-9,162-4,217 reaffirmation of tribal/ethnic identities 218-19 as rebels 201,206 registration with political parties 127,133,139, 197,210,217 resistance groups’political humanitarian language 162-4 resistance movement in 113,217-18,222, 249-50,251-2 scale of the crises 196-7,209,250-1 self-identification as‘refugees’ 219-21 shift to Refugee Tentage Villages (RTVs) 203-5,210-11 social and physical well-being of 212-13,217-18 from the Taliban 268 UNHCR aid to Pakistan 127-8 UNHCR involvement 203 UNHCR modernizing efforts 5,198,208, 212-13,225 UNHCR-Pakistani joint strategy towards 208-9,210-13 US humanitarian aid for 170,172,183-6,194 women in 214,222-4 resistance movements Chinese support for 122,125-6,130,247 dominance of Afghan Islamists 120-7,130,134 early anti-government activity 137-8 exclusion from Soviet withdrawal negotiations 169 fighters in the refugee camps 113,217-18,222, 249-50,251-2 fighting on the Afghan-Pakistan borderlands 247-8 foreign fighters in 168 as freedom fighters 181-2,191-2 international support for the Islamization of 125 involvement in opium production 167 Iranian support for 5,114,120,122,123,126-7, 130,247 map of major resistance groups 141 Pakistani control of weapons and aid to 123-4 Pakistan’s
support for 5,18,75,114,117,118, 120-1,122-5,130,150-1,247 in the Panjshir Valley 134,156-7 341 Pashtun ethnonationalism and 124-5 Peshawar base for 25,26-7,28,30,112,113, 122,132-3 political cartoons 145,149,163 political groupings of 139-42,146,167,192 political humanitarian language of 162-4 questions of ethnicity 124,142,147 Reagan’s support for 181-2,183,191-2 Shi’a resistance organizations 147-9,261 Soviet tactics against 80-1 against the Taliban 267-8,280 US covert aid to Afghanistan 110,170,172,176, 178,183,184,186-7 US support for 122,123,142,146,177-9,180, 181-2,193-4,247 weaponry and supplies 142,150 in the Western media 134-5 see also Massoud, Ahmad Shah Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (RAWA) 223-4 Saudi Arabia 108 Saur Revolution affinity with the October Revolution 44,61 events of 43-4 PDPAcoup 5,9 PDPA statement of intent 45-8 propaganda films 92 Sayyaf, Abdur Rasul 140,142-4,153,167 Shahi,Agha 110, 111, 112,122,228,240,242, 243,249 Shulah-i Javid (Eternal Flame) 13 Shulman, Marshall 172,173 Shura-yi Inqilab-i Ittifaq-i Islami-yi Afghanistan 137-8 Sick, Gary 178-9,191 socialism of the PDPA xix-xx,4,14-15,19 socialist models of alliance-building 71-3 socialist vs Islamist visions of modernity 116, 122,124,127,131,270-4 Soviet socialist state-building 69-70,77-9, 81-2,83-4,95-6,97-8,103,105-6 Soviet army humanitarian work by 68 Komsomol workers 94 presence in Afghanistan 68-9 tactics against the guerrillas 80-1 traumatic effect of the occupation 70,103-5 see also Soviet withdrawal Soviet invasion/occupation China’s response to
112,116,121-2,235-6 civilian forces 69,70,96 as Cold-War imperialism 3 European Economic Community (EEC) stance on 239
342 Index Soviet invasion/occupation (cont.) Gorbachevs policies towards 97-103 Indias response to 118-20,122,130-1 influence of Soviet advisors 86-7,88,91,179 initial reason for 68-9,76-7 international response to 107-8,180, 229-30,238-9 Irans response to 118,121-2,235,236 killing of Amin 77,79 knowledge of Afghanistan 83-4 map of Soviet military movements 78 Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) stance on 238 norms of international governance and 230, 234-5,241 Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) stance on 238,240 Pakistan’s response to 107-8,115-16,117-18, 121-2,129,235,240-1 phases of the war 80 regional responses to 109-10,116-17,121-7, 129-31,228-9,235-6 for socialist state-building 69-70,77-9,81-2, 83-4,95-6,97-8,103,105-6 Soviet international standing and 68,87-8 UN calls for a political settlement in Afghanistan 239-43 at the UN Security Council 236-7 UNGA emergency session following 227-9, 230,235-6 US political solution to 182,192 US response to 170-2,179-81,235 Soviet Union (USSR) Amins relations with 75-6 economic aid to Afghanistan 38-9,74,83, 88-9,102 foreign policy in the 1970s 70-3 the Geneva Accords 253-4,261 as inspiration for the PDPA 15 involvement in Angola 71-2 involvement in Ethiopia 72 KGB involvement with KhAD 94 model of statehood 15 PDPA-Soviet relationship xx, 39,42,48,69-70, 175,177,179 policy towards Islam 60 political settlement in Afghanistan 262 relations with the DRA 73-4 Sino-Soviet split 15,32,70-1 socialist models of alliance-building 71-3,92 socialist potential of Afghanistan 40,41,69-70 Soviet-Afghan relations 35-6,37-9,40,82-3 support
for Karmal 45,69,70,76,79-80 US-Soviet relations 76,246 see also Gorbachev, Mikhail Soviet withdrawal defensive role of the army 142 under the Geneva Accords 253-4 Gorbachev’s support for 68-9,97-8,102, 245,246 negotiations 120-1,169,246 political situation following 259-63 UN-led negotiations 121,169,243,244-6,257 state-building Ahmad Massoud’s wartime state-building 134, 150,155,157-9,165 models of Afghan Islamist state-building 150, 152-3,161-2,164,166,168-9 socialist models of alliance-building 71-3,92 Soviet supported socialist state-building 69-70, 77-9,81-2,83-4,95-6,97-8,103,105-6 see also nation-building Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty 76 Suslov, Mikhail 76 Taliban 168,265-9,277-9 Tapper, Nancy 57 Taraki, Nur Mohammad alliance with Amin 16,17,73-4 communications with the UN 231,233-4 cult of personality 20,50 death 65,75 early life 8,16,50 ethnic nationality programme 137 followers of (Khalq faction) 20-1,39,44,54,73 on land reforms 52 leadership of 54,73,173 meeting with Brezhnev 55 membership of the PDPA 16 Pakistani-Afghan relations 112 PDPA statement of intent 45-8 policy towards Islam 60-1 Saur Revolution 44,45-6 Soviet aid 74,175 treaty of friendship with Brezhnev 82-3 US knowledge of 174 Tarzi, Mahmud 10,11,58 Tarzi, Soraya 11,12 Third Anglo-Afghan War 11,35 Thornton, Tom 177 Turner, Stansfield 178,187,191 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Afghan refugee strategy 208-9 aid to Pakistan 127-8 concerns over Hizb-i Islami violence 153-4 definition of refugee 205,220 early Eurocentrism 205-6 establishment of 205-6 in India 127-8 involvement
in the refugee crisis 203 in Iran 127
Index modernization strategies 5,198,208, 212-13,225 as‘non-politicaľ 206-8 Pakistan’s tensions with 206,208,212-13 UNHCR-Pakistani joint refugee strategy 208-9,210-13 US support for the Afghan refugees and 184 United Nations (UN) Afghan politics at 230-1,262 Afghanistan’s membership 13 declaration on decolonization 232 Geneva Accords 245-8,253-7 imperial legacies and 231-3 international politics and global governance 231,233,237-8 negotiations for the safe return of Afghan refugees 249-52,259 negotiations for the Soviet withdrawal 121,169, 243,244-6,257 Palais des Nations, Geneva 229 political settlement to the Soviet invasion 239-43 sixth emergency session on the Soviet invasion 227-9,230,235-6 Soviet invasion and the UN Security Council 236-7 women’s rights 56 United States of America (USA) in Afghanistan 278,279 Afghanistan and US regional interests 174-5, 178-9,180-1 Amiris turn to 75-6 analysis of Islam and the Iranian revolution 190-1 analysis of political Islam in Afghanistan 189-91,193 anti-American sentiments of political Islam 108 the Carter doctrine 172-3 CIA analysis of Afghanistan 187-90 CIA and Cold-War strategy 178 covert aid to Afghan resistance 110,170,172, 176,178,183,184,186-7,261-2 fears over Soviet expansionism 174-5,177, 179,181-2 funding for Kabul University 7-8 on the Geneva Accords 253-4,261 humanitarian aid to Afghan refugees 170,172, 183-6,194 media coverage of the Soviet occupation 80 343 political solution to Afghanistan 182,192,262 Reagan doctrine 181-2 response to the 1978 coup 172,173-5 response to the Soviet invasion 170-2, 179-81,235
stance on the PDPA 172 strategy of keeping the Soviets in Afghanistan 172,177-8 support for Afghan resistance 75,122,123,142, 146,177-9,180,181-2,193-4,247 tribal analysis of Afghanistan 40-1,172,187-9, 191,278 UN calls for a political settlement in Afghanistan 243 US-Afghan relations 36-7,40-1,176-7 US-Iranian relations 173,178-9,181 US-Pakistan relations 36-7, 111, 112,116-17, 177,182 US-Soviet relations 76,246 visions of Afghan modernity 172,187-8,191, 194-5 see also Cold War Ustinov, Dmitry 71,74,75,76,77,80 Vietnam 32,52,71,74,126 Waldheim, Kurt 231,234,238,244 Wish Zalmayan (Awakened Youth) 12,16,17 women under Amanullahs modernization 12 education of 58,59 in government 58-9 marriage laws 57-8,59,137 in refugee camps 214,222-4 Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (RAWA) 223-4 rights under the PDPA 56-8 Young Afghans movement 10,11,12 Yousaf, Mohammad 123-4 Zahir Shah, Mohammed 11,12,13,16,57,120, 133,140,143,154 Zarif, Μ. Farid 240,247-8,250 Zia-uI-Haq, Mohammad military dictatorship 33-4,110,246 relations with Afghanistan 114-15 response to the PDPA coup 110 response to the Soviet invasion 107-8,117 threat of PDPA-Soviet socialism 116,122,124 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek München |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| any_adam_object_boolean | 1 |
| author | Leake, Elisabeth |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1106358155 |
| author_facet | Leake, Elisabeth |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Leake, Elisabeth |
| author_variant | e l el |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV047960224 |
| classification_rvk | NQ 8814 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1334050651 (DE-599)KXP1789708648 |
| discipline | Geschichte |
| discipline_str_mv | Geschichte |
| edition | First edition |
| era | Geschichte 1978-1989 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1978-1989 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Afghanistan (DE-588)4000687-6 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Afghanistan |
| id | DE-604.BV047960224 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-03T19:40:17Z |
| indexdate | 2024-08-10T00:22:22Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9780198846017 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-033341429 |
| oclc_num | 1334050651 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-188 DE-12 DE-473 DE-BY-UBG DE-11 DE-M352 |
| owner_facet | DE-188 DE-12 DE-473 DE-BY-UBG DE-11 DE-M352 |
| physical | xxiii, 343 Seiten Illustrationen, Karten |
| psigel | BSB_NED_20221010 |
| publishDate | 2022 |
| publishDateSearch | 2022 |
| publishDateSort | 2022 |
| publisher | Oxford University Press |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Leake, Elisabeth Verfasser (DE-588)1106358155 aut Afghan crucible the Soviet invasion and the making of modern Afghanistan Elisabeth Leake First edition Oxford Oxford University Press 2022 xxiii, 343 Seiten Illustrationen, Karten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Literaturverzeichnis Seite [285]-288 Geschichte 1978-1989 gnd rswk-swf Internationale Politik (DE-588)4072885-7 gnd rswk-swf Saurrevolution (DE-588)1082260134 gnd rswk-swf Afghanistan-Konflikt 1979-1989 (DE-588)4141580-2 gnd rswk-swf Bürgerkrieg (DE-588)4008784-0 gnd rswk-swf Afghanistan (DE-588)4000687-6 gnd rswk-swf Afghanistan (DE-588)4000687-6 g Saurrevolution (DE-588)1082260134 s Bürgerkrieg (DE-588)4008784-0 s Afghanistan-Konflikt 1979-1989 (DE-588)4141580-2 s Internationale Politik (DE-588)4072885-7 s Geschichte 1978-1989 z DE-604 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033341429&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033341429&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Leake, Elisabeth Afghan crucible the Soviet invasion and the making of modern Afghanistan Internationale Politik (DE-588)4072885-7 gnd Saurrevolution (DE-588)1082260134 gnd Afghanistan-Konflikt 1979-1989 (DE-588)4141580-2 gnd Bürgerkrieg (DE-588)4008784-0 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4072885-7 (DE-588)1082260134 (DE-588)4141580-2 (DE-588)4008784-0 (DE-588)4000687-6 |
| title | Afghan crucible the Soviet invasion and the making of modern Afghanistan |
| title_auth | Afghan crucible the Soviet invasion and the making of modern Afghanistan |
| title_exact_search | Afghan crucible the Soviet invasion and the making of modern Afghanistan |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Afghan crucible the Soviet invasion and the making of modern Afghanistan |
| title_full | Afghan crucible the Soviet invasion and the making of modern Afghanistan Elisabeth Leake |
| title_fullStr | Afghan crucible the Soviet invasion and the making of modern Afghanistan Elisabeth Leake |
| title_full_unstemmed | Afghan crucible the Soviet invasion and the making of modern Afghanistan Elisabeth Leake |
| title_short | Afghan crucible |
| title_sort | afghan crucible the soviet invasion and the making of modern afghanistan |
| title_sub | the Soviet invasion and the making of modern Afghanistan |
| topic | Internationale Politik (DE-588)4072885-7 gnd Saurrevolution (DE-588)1082260134 gnd Afghanistan-Konflikt 1979-1989 (DE-588)4141580-2 gnd Bürgerkrieg (DE-588)4008784-0 gnd |
| topic_facet | Internationale Politik Saurrevolution Afghanistan-Konflikt 1979-1989 Bürgerkrieg Afghanistan |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033341429&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033341429&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT leakeelisabeth afghancruciblethesovietinvasionandthemakingofmodernafghanistan |