Georgia's foreign policy in the 21st century: challenges for a small state
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London ; New York ; Oxford ; New Delhi ; Sydney
I.B. Tauris
2022
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| Series: | Politics & international relations
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| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Literaturverzeichnis Register // Gemischte Register |
| Physical Description: | xviii, 261 Seiten Diagramme, Karten |
| ISBN: | 9781788313650 |
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CONTENTS vii viii ix xiii xiv xv xvii List of Figures List of Tables List of Contributors Acknowledgements Transliteration List of Abbreviations Maps INTRODUCTION Stephen F. Jones 1 Parti THE USES OF IDENTITY IN GEORGIAN FOREIGN POLICY Chapter 1 ACHIEVING SECURITY AS A SMALL STATE 15 Tracey German and Kornely Kakachia Chapter 2 PUBLIC RELATIONS, INTERNATIONAL POLITICS AND GEORGIAN DEMOCRACY Lincoln A. Mitchell 33 Chapter 3 THE GEORGIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH AS A FOREIGN POLICY ACTOR Salome Minesashvili 53 Part II THE REGIONAL CONTEXT Chapter 4 IN THE CAUCASUS BUT TOWARD THE BLACK SEA: GEORGIA’S REGIONAL IDENTITY IN FLUX David Aprasidze 71 Chapter 5 GEORGIA’S RELATIONS WITH TURKEY AND IRAN George Sanikidze 89
vi Contents Chapter 6 END OF THE POST-SOVIET ERA IN GEORGIA’S FOREIGN POLICY?: GEORGIA’S RELATIONS WITH FORMER SOVIET REPUBLICS 117 Levan Kakhishvili and Alexander Kupatadze Part III GEORGIA AND THE ‘WEST’ Chapter 7 EU-GEORGIA: POLITICS, GEOGRAPHY AND IDENTITY Natalie Sabanadze 139 Chapter 8 SECURITY, SOLIDARITY, SPECIALIZATION: UNDERSTANDING BALTIC AND POLISH SUPPORT FOR GEORGIA’S EURO-ATLANTIC INTEGRATION Bidzina Lebanidze and Renata Skardžiūtė-Kereselidze 159 Chapter 9 GEORGIA’S ALLIANCE WITH ֊ NOT IN ֊ NATO: EXTERNAL BALANCING, AUTONOMY AND COMMUNITY 179 Michael Hikari Cecire Part IV GEORGIA AND THE GREAT POWERS Chapter 10 THE STORY OF TWO TRIANGLES: GEORGIA’S RUSSIA POLICIES Ghia Nodia 197 Chapter 11 US-GEORGIAN RELATIONS: EXPANDING THE CAPACITY OF A SMALL STATE Mamuka Tsereteli 217 AFTERWORD Tracey German, Stephen E Jones and Kornely Kakachia 235 Bibliography Index 241 246
BIBLIOGRAPHY Dmitry Adamsky, ‘From Moscow with Coercion: Russian Deterrence Theory and Strategic Culture’, Journal of Strategic Studies, 41:1-2 (2018), pp. 33-60. Thomas Ambrosio, Authoritarian Backlash: Russian Resistance to the Democratization in the Former Soviet Union (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2009). David Aprasidze, ‘Consolidation in Georgia: Democracy or Power?’, in OSCE Yearbook 2015, ed. IFSH (Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft mbH Co. KG, 2016), pp. 108-15. Bülent Aras and Pinar Akpinar, ‘The Relations between Turkey and the Caucasus in the 2000s’, Perceptions, 16:3 (Autumn 2011), pp. 53-68. Clive Archer and Neill Nugent, ‘Introduction: Small States and the European Union’, in Current Politics and Economics of Europe, 11:1 (2002),pp. 1-10. G.G. Arnakis, ‘Turanism: An Aspect of Turkish Nationalism, Balkan Studies, 1 (1960), pp. 19-32. Ronald Asmus, A Little War that Shook the World: Georgia, Russia, and the Future of the West (London: St. Martin’s Press, 2010). Pavel K. Baev, ‘The Military Dimension of Russia’s Connection with Europe’, European Security, 27:1 (2018), pp. 82-97. Bayram Baici, ‘Strengths and Constraints of Turkish Policy in the South Caucasus’, Insight Turkey, 16:2 (Spring 2014), pp. 43-52. Michael Barnett, Clifford Bob, Nora F. Onar, Anne Jenichen, Michael Leigh and Lucian Leustean Faith (eds), Freedom and Foreign Policy: Challenges for the Transatlantic Community (Washington, DC: Transatlantic Academy, 2015). R.P. Barston (ed.), The Other Powers: Studies in the Foreign Policy of Small States (London: George Allen Unwin, 1973). Burton Benedict
(ed.), Problems of Small Territories (London: Athlone Press, 1967). Tanja Börzei, ‘The Transformative Power of Europe Reloaded: The Limits of External Europeanization’, KFG Working Paper Series. KFG Working Paper Series 11, 2010. Rogers Brubaker, ‘Nationhood and the National Question in the Soviet Union and PostSoviet Eurasia: An Institutionalist Account’, Theory and Society, 23:1 (1994), pp. 47-78. Michael Cecire, ‘Georgia’s 2012 Elections and Lessons for Democracy Promotion’, Orbis, 57:2 (2013), pp. 232-50. Stacy Closson, ‘State Weakness in Perspective: Strong Politico-economic Networks in Georgia’s Energy Sector’, Europe-Asia Studies, 61:5 (2009), pp. 759-78. Kristina Μ. Conroy, ‘Semi-recognised States and Ambiguous Churches: The Orthodox Church in South Ossetia and Abkhazia) Journal of State and Church, 57:4 (2015), pp. 621-39. Andrew E Cooper and Timothy Μ. Shaw (eds), The Diplomacies ofSmall States: Between Vulnerability and Resilience (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013). Bruno Coppieters and Robert Legvoid (eds), Statehood and Security: Georgia after the Rose Revolution (London: MIT Press, 2005). Bruno Coppieters, Alexei Zverev and Dmitri Trenin (eds), Commonwealth and Independence in Post-Soviet Eurasia (London: Frank Cass, 1998).
242 Bibliography Nathaniel Copsey and Karolina Pomorska, ‘The Influence of Newer Member States in the European Union: The Case of Poland and the Eastern Partnership’, Europe-Asia Studies, 66:3 (2014), pp. 421-43. Svante Cornell, Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study ofEthnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus (Abingdon: Routledge, 2005). Svante Cornell and F. Starr (eds), The Guns ofAugust 2008: Russia’s War in Georgia (London: M.E. Sharpe, 2009). Svante Cornell, S. Frederick Starr and Mamuka Tsereteli, ‘A Western Strategy for the South Caucasus’, Silk Road Paper, February 2015, pp. 24-5. Benjamin de Carvalho and Iver B. Neumann (eds), Small State Status Seeking: Norway’s Quest for International Standing (Abingdon: Routledge, 2015). Laure Delcour and Kataryna Wolczuk, ‘The EU’s Unexpected “Ideal Neighbour”? The Perplexing Case of Armenia’s Europeanisation, Journal ofEuropean Integration, 37:4 (2015), pp. 491-507. Rick Fawn, ‘Russia’s Reluctant Retreat from the Caucasus: Abkhazia, Georgia and the US after 11 September 2001’, European Security, 11:4 (2002), pp. 131-50. H. Frazer, A Case ofBandwagonning? Georgian Foreign Policy and Relations with Russia (University of Oxford. MPhil in International Relations, 1997). Andrea Gawrich, Inna Melnykovska and Rainer Schweickert, ‘Neighbourhood Europeanization through ENP: The Case of Ukraine’, JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies, 48:5 (2010), pp. 1209-35. Tracey German, ‘Good Neighbours or Distant Relatives? Regional Identity and Cooperation in the South Caucasus’, Central Asian Survey, 31:2 (2012), pp. 137-51. Tracey German,
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INDEX Abashidze, Aslan 39,209 Abashidze, Zaza 55,66ո9 Abashidze, Zurab 209 Abkhazia (Georgian breakaway territory) 104,126, 149,182 Russian recognition of independence from Georgia 7, 63, 75,125,212, 226 secessionist wars 79, 81 separatism 197,203 Syrian recognition of independence from Georgia 89-90 triangular conflicts and Georgian policies towards Russia 197, 202-205,211 Turkish refusal to recognize independence 9, 96 Ambrosi of Nekresi, Archbishop 56 abuses of power 35 Achara, autonomous republic of 97, 99 Afghanistan coalition activities 180 Georgian troop contribution in 3,21, 23,193n8, 222,228, 230,231 invasion of 1980, Georgian condemnation 59 ISAF mission (2004-14) 3,16, 95,228 NATO- and US-led operations in 21, 22, 33,183, 224 Resolute Support Mission (2015-21) 95 wars in 224 Aghmashenebeli, David IV 56 Agile Spirit military exercise 230 Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Georgia and the Government of the Republic of Turkey on cooperation in the field of security (2012) 96 Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud 103,104,105 Ahvaz oil field, Iranian 104 Alexiev, Alex 218 Aliev, Heydar 82-3, 86n28,221, 222 America-Georgia Business Council 232n5 Amoco 220 Annual National Programme 181 anti-discrimination law 62, 64 Aprasidze, David 5,6,236 Archer, Clive 17, 27n7 Ardahan, Turkey 92 Armenia Armenian Apostolic Church 72 ceasefire agreement with Azerbaijan 85n24 civil society 35 Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement (2017), signing of 75 conflict with Azerbaijan 75-6,78, 94 ethnic minorities in 81 Freedom House scores 41 Georgian perceptions of 80-2 independence
from 1918 to 1921 71 language 72 Nagorno-Karabagh conflict (1990s) 74, 81,83, 97, 110, 111 relation with Georgia 71, 82,84 role in international stabilization 29n33 semi-democratic 74-5 as a small state 17 and the South Caucasus region 79 Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic member 73 Velvet Revolution (2018) 74, 81 Asmus, Ronald 33, 50n4,172nl6 associate membership model (Georgia and NATO) 184-5 limits of 185-90 Association Agreements (AAs) 6,18, 74, 79, 83, 141,154 see also Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (DCFTA); European Union (EU)
Index Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Areas (AA/DCFTAs) 141,142,143, 151 Georgia’s Association Agreement with the EU (2014) 54, 61,75,139,142, 155Ո10,237 Association Councils 143 asymmetric power relationships 17-18, 182 August War see Russo-Georgian War (2008) Azerbaijan Armenia, conflict with 78 autocracy 74,84 ceasefire agreement with Armenia 85n24 civil society 35 conflict with Armenia 75-6, 94 ‘frozen conflicts’ 226 Georgia compared 78 importance for Georgia 15 independence from 1918 to 1921 71 language 72 relation with Georgia 71, 82-4 role in international stabilization 29n33 Shia Muslims 72 as a small state 17 Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic member 73 Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey (AGT) 6 Azerbaijani International Operating Company (AIOC) 222 Bagrat IV, King 56 Baker, James A. Ill 35 Baku-Novorossiisk pipeline 222 Baku-Supsa pipeline 82,222 Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan and South Caucasus (Baku-Tbilisi-Erzurum) 82 Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline (BTC) 94-5,106,119, 221,222 Baku-Tbilisi-Erzurum gas pipeline (BTE) 95 Baku-Tbilisi-Kars railway (ВТК) 82, 96, 97, 120 balance of power 9, 30n45,150,162 and balance of threat llnl3, 30n45 imbalance of power 182 247 regional 182,186 balance of threat 30n45,159,162,171, 186,190 and balance of power 1 lnl3, 30n45 realist 182 Balkans, peacekeeping in 22 Baltic States see also Poland National Fronts 161 relations with Georgia allies to balance Russian threat 164-7 common threat perception and geopolitical understanding 162-4 support for Georgia 160-2 support for Euro-Atlantic integration 6,159-78 ‘bandwagoning’
behaviour 16, 30n45,190 Bass, John 106 Batumi (Georgian seaport) 101 Belarus 117,120-3,124,132,164 Bennigsen, Alexander 218 Biden, Joseph 37, 39,45,107,202,212, 231 bilateralism 101,119,121-7,123f, 125f, 198, 231 Action Plans 142 future of 211 Noble Partner exercise 230 triangularization of 201 Black Sea region 5,6, 9, 78, 95,142,182, 191,224,231 see also Caucasus region; South Caucasus Greater Black Sea Area 93-4 Black Sea Economic Cooperation project (BSEC) 6, 78, 92-4,120,122 part of EU’s ‘Greater Black Sea Area’ 93-4 Black Sea Naval Cooperation Task Group (BLACKSEAFOR) 120 Bokeria, Giga 38, 50nl5 Bolshevism/Bolshevik Revolution (1917) 148-9,199, 205 borderization issues 204 British Petroleum 220 Bryza, Matthew 98 Brzezinski, Zbigniew 218, 221, 232n5
248 BSEC see Black Sea Economie Cooperation project (BSEC) BTC see Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline (BTC) BTE see Baku-Tbilisi-Erzurum gas pipeline (BTE) ВТК see Baku-Tbilisi-Kars railway (ВТК) Bush, George H.W. 206,219 Bush, George W. 37,43,45,223,224 Buziashvili, Eto 99 Çabuk, Mustafa 101 Camp Phoenix 22 Carter, Jimmy 218 Caspian oil and gas 76, 94 Caspian Sea 9,122,126,219 ‘Caucasian Eagle’ (military exercises) 96 Caucasus Barometer 80-1, 86n35 Caucasus region 35,71 see also Black Sea region; South Caucasus current challenges for 74 economic links to Russia 76t major trade partners 76t North Caucasus 73 Persian-Ottoman conflict 73 Russian domination 73 trade among countries 76t Caucasus Research Resource Centre (CRRC) 24, 29n40, 64,186,189 Caucasus Barometer 188 Caucasus Stability and Security Platform 98 exclusion of Iran from ПЗпЗЗ Caucasus Working Group 95 Cavanaugh, Carey 219 Çavuşoğlu, Mevlüt 95 Cecire, Michael 4, 5,192nl, 194n22, 237-8 Central African Republic 3,22 Central Asia 7, 35,91,117,121,123,124, 126,128 CFE see Conventional Armed Forces in Europe treaty (CFE) Chaglar educational network, Georgia 100 Chandler, Walter Μ. 217 Charter on Strategic Partnership (2009) 226 Chavchavadze, Ilia 1, lOnl, 198 Index Chechen War (1994-96) 208 Chechen War (1999) 222 Chevron 219 China authoritarianism 9,239 Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) 2, 9,121, 166,238 Free Trade Agreement (2017) 9,238 importance for Georgia 15 China-Central Asia Western Asia Corridor 9 China-Central Asia-West Asia Corridor 121, 238 Churchill, Winston 2 Citizens’ Union of Georgia (CUG) 35,48 civic
nationalism 60 civil society 23,24, 35 civil society organizations (CSOs) 26, 35, 46,64, 99,101 Clinton, Bill 219,220,221, 222 Clinton, Hillary 43, 50n24 Coene, Frederik 20-1, 29n29,193n4 Cold War 45,201,225 Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) 81,184,208 coloured revolution (Tulip Revolution) 118,126, 201 Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, US (Helsinki Commission) 233nl5 Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) 23 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) 35,78,94,118,208 compatriot status 111 Conference of European Churches, withdrawal of GOC from (1997) 60 Connolly, Gerry 229 constructivism 197 Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty (CFE) 221,231,233nl8,233n21 Cooper, Andrew F. 18,28nl4 Coppieters, Bruno 149,156n33 Council for Religious Affairs 58 Council of Europe (CoE) 35, 79, 80,102, 120,141 Parliamentary Assembly (PACE) 239 Countering Russian Influence in Europe and Eurasia Act of 2017, US 229
Index Country Progress Reports 142 COVID-19 pandemic 133,235 Crimea Russian annexation (2014) 94,149-50, 152,166, 170,187,204,226,231 Russian occupation (2014) 228 Tatars 94 CRRC see Caucasus Research Resource Centre (CRRC) CSDP see Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) CSTO see Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) CUG see Citizens’ Union of Georgia (CUG) Daul, Joseph 38 David Gareji Monastery 83 Davies, Norman 146 Davutoglu,Ahmet 101,113n52,113n53 DCFTA see Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (DCFTA) De Carvalho, Benjamin 19 de Waal, Thomas 102,114n58 Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (DCFTA) 5, 18, 75, 83,110,139,141, 149, 238 see also Association Agreements (AAs); Free Trade Area (FTA) Demirel College 100 democracy, Georgian 33-52 cyclical development 48 Economist’s Democracy Index 40 hybrid 39 impact of public relations 36-9 measuring 34-5, 36t paradox of 49 regression in Georgia from 2008-12 44 Russian factor 39-40 ‘sovereign democracy 45 tensions within Georgia 47-9 Western ideas on democracy-making in 45-7 Western perceptions of 40-5 Democratic Republic of Georgia (191821), DRG 2, 3, 4, 5,21,148,160, 199, 217 Development Finance Corporation (DFI) 230 249 Dezful air field, Iranian 104 DFI see Development Finance Corporation (DFI) Didgori, Battle of (2017) 100,113n43 Dositheos of Kutaisi 57 DRG see Democratic Republic of Georgia (1918-21), DRG EaP see Eastern Partnership programme (EaP) Eastern Partnership Index 2017 79t Eastern Partnership programme (EaP) 5, 7, 9,24,150,155n7,164,165, 237 and Baltic States/Poland 159,161,162 establishment (2009)
171n4 and former Soviet states 120,122,125, 132,142 Ecumenical movement 58 Ecumenical Patriarch 63 elites 8,16,23-5,28n28 civic 47 and Georgian democracy 39,47 intellectual 147,197 kleptocratic 83 local 73,74, 152 national 197 political 24,26, 39,47,147,166,197 ruling 24,26, 30n45, 74 Soviet 73 Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic 73,74 Enlightenment 146 ENP see European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) EPP see European Peoples Party (EPP) Epremi, Patriarch 58 Erasmus+ exchange 149 Erdoğan, Recep 98,100,102, 111 Estonia 164,168 Euphemios of Gelati 57 Eurasian Economic Area 156n37 Eurasian Economic Union 72,79,81 Russian-led 60, 74-5,105,147, 211, 212 Euro-Atlantic integration of Georgia 148, 152, 237 Baltic and Polish support 159-78 European identity as main foreign policy objective see European
250 identity, striving of Georgia for and Georgian elites 186 and NATO 180,182 and regionalism 78-9 technical conditionality 189 Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council 180 Euro-Atlantic security 15,17 see also Euro-Atlantic integration of Georgia Europe, lines between centre and periphery within 146 European Commission (EC) 142,161 European identity, striving of Georgia for 18,150 see also Euro-Atlantic integration of Georgia as civilizational’ 54 concept213nl0 and importance of Orthodox Christianity 53, 54 as main foreign policy objective of Georgia 19-21,194n23 recognition of Europeanness 148 Russia seen as threat to 26, 39, 54, 164-7 see also Georgian-Russian relations European Neighbourhood Partnership Instrument (ENPI) 142 European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) 74,142,143,153,155n7, 161 European Parliament (EP) 38 European Peoples Party (EPP) 38 European Security Strategy (ESS) 142 European Union (EU) see also Association Agreements (AAs); Euro-Atlantic integration of Georgia; Euro-Atlantic security Baltic States, membership 172nl4 defining itself as a normative power 152 EU-led mission in 22 and Georgia 139-57 Association Agreement of 2014 54, 61,75,139,142, 155nl0,237 association and non-membership 152-4 cultural identity, as a political choice 146-50 geography, relativity of 144-6 Index Georgia seeking membership 8,19, 24, 60-2, 78-9,107, 152,153, 162,163, 237 phases of approximation 140-4 and ‘return of Realpolitik 150-2 Greater Black Sea Area 93-4 Turkish accession negotiations 94 visions of 145 external balancing 194nl8 Exxon 220 FDI see foreign direct investment (FDI)
Fehtullahçi network 100 ‘Finlandisation 18, 27nl2 Fischer, Heinz 61 foreign direct investment (FDI) 7,90, 95, 118,129,131f Foreign Military Financing (FMF) 228 foreign policy of Georgia see foreign policy of Georgia of small states 16 unit-level triggers 16 foreign policy of Georgia challenges 238 drivers of 25-6 Euro-Atlantic integration see Euro Atlantic integration of Georgia European identity as main objective see European identity, striving of Georgia for Foreign Policy Strategy (2019-22) 3, 6, 78 impact of GOC on 53-4,64-5 international stabilization efforts 23, 25 lack of institutionalization 120 post-Soviet 20, 54 pro-Western 54 risks 238 sovereignty preservation objective 15, 25, 39, 227 structure/system-defiant behaviour 16,24 territorial integrity objective 15, 22, 25, 39,101, 208, 225,227 Former Soviet Union (FSU) Georgia’s relations with post-Soviet countries 117-36 political ties and bilateral relations 121-7
Index post-Soviet countries in Georgia’s strategic documents 3,118-21 fraud 35 Free Trade Area (FTA) 81 Freedom House democracy scores 40,41, 42f, 43,46, 51Ո19 Freedom in the World 50n21 Freud, Sigmund 80, 86n36 Fried, Daniel 20,28n27 FSU see Former Soviet Union (FSU) Fule, Stefan 61 fundamentalism 60 Gamsakhurdia, Zviad 6,78,103, 208, 219, 220 idea of common ‘Caucasian Home’ 77 period of rule (Nov 1990-Jan 1992) 77 removal from power (1992) 59 Round Table Free Georgia 48, 219 ultra-nationalistic radicalism of 77 GD see Georgian Dream (GD) Georgia see also foreign policy of Georgia; small states Azerbaijan compared 78 challenging perception as a ‘postSoviet’ state 21 European status, aspirations for see European identity, striving of Georgia for foreign policy objectives see foreign policy of Georgia geographic location 17, 20 independence (1991) 20 Iranian embassy 109 National Statistics Office 103 Orthodox Christianity 53-5,148,199 Pankisi George 222 regime changes 19 relations with Armenia 71,82, 84 relations with Azerbaijan 71,82-4 relations with the Middle East 89-90 relations with Ukraine 117,124 religious groups 53 self-identity, role in development 20-1 as a small state 17 state modernization 60 as a strategic corridor 17, 25 support from Poland and the Baltic 251 States 159-78 and democracy 39-40 profile-boosting 167-70 seen as allies to balance Russian threat 164-7 support for Georgia 160-2 topography 1 trade relations with FSU countries 130-1 Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic member 73 transit hub between Europe and Asia 17 troop contribution in
Afghanistan 3, 21, 23,198n8, 222, 228, 230, 231 troop contribution to Iraq 23 Western orientation 4-5,106-107 Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova Organization for Democracy and Economic Development (GUAM) 6, 78,119,120, 122, 134n8 Georgia Defence Readiness Program 229 Georgia Support Act, US 229 Georgia Train and Equip programme (GTEP) 180,193n3, 222,224, 228 Georgia Young Lawyers Association 35 Georgian Armed Forces (GAF) 22 Georgian Dream (GD) 118, 210, 211, 237 coalition 124,181, 228 electoral victory 33, 38, 42,43-4,49, 50nl leaders 127 and Poland/Baltic States 167 pre-election programme (2012) 38 replacing the UNM 124, 228 US view of 47 Georgian Military Highway 1 Georgian Orthodox Church (GOC) 3-4, 53-68 see also Patriarchate, Georgian before the Soviet Union 55-7 autocephaly refusal to acknowledge by ROC 58 removal (1811) 56 restoration (1918) 57 Constitutional Agreement with 62 and cultural identity 56 foreign policy since Rose Revolution in 2003 60-4 and Georgian national movement 57
252 Index heterogeneous organization 54,61 historical target of foreign powers 55 history of in Georgian foreign relations 55-60, 65 following independence (19912003) 59-60 resistance against Russification 57 in the Soviet Union 54, 58-9 impact on foreign policy 53-4, 64-5 independent foreign policy player 54-5 indirect involvement in state policy 62 KGB infiltration 58 loss of formal independent status (1811)56 morality and values in conflict with Georgian state policy 54, 59, 62 opposition to anti-discrimination legislation 54 political independence (1918) 57 popularity 53 position of mtsignobartukhutseschkondideli, creation of 56 relations with Russia 54, 57, 58,62-4 and Russo-Georgian War of 2008 61, 62-3 relations with the ROC 62, 63 and the West 60-2 Georgian-EU relations 61,139-57, 217-34 from 2001 to 2008 222-4 association and non-membership 152-4 cultural identity, as a political choice 146-50 early years of independence 218-22 geography, relativity of 144-6 Georgia seeking membership of the EU 8,19,24,60-2,78-9, 107,152, 153,162,163,237 phases of approximation 140-4 and ‘return’ of realpolitik 150-2 triangular conflicts and Georgian policies towards Russia 197, 202-205 Georgian-Iranian relations 89-90, 91, 102-110 see aho Iran context of relationship 103-104 Iranian presence in Georgia 107-110 and Russia 104-107 Georgian-NATO relations 179-94 aspiration of Georgia for NATO membership 20 associate membership model 184-5 limits of 185-90 context of relationship 179-81 Georgia seeking membership of NATO 8,19,23, 60, 62, 152,163,223 and importance of NATO 182-4 mutual
benefits 183-4 and Turkey 95-6 Georgianness, notion of 4, 55,61 Georgian-Russian relations 75 annexation of Georgia (1921) 57 evolution of Georgia’s policy towards Russia 207-210 Georgia’s image of Russia 198-9 and Iran 104-107 reduction in Georgia’s economic dependence on Russia 236 Russia seen as threat to Georgia 26, 39, 54, 164-7, 194Ո16 and Turkey 101-102 war see Russo-Georgian War (2008) Georgian-Turkish relations 89, 90-102 free trade agreement (2008) 96 and NATO 95-6 political significance of Georgia for Turkey 91,92 political significance of Turkey for Georgia 90 primary strategic partners 96 and Russia 101-102 Sarpi checkpoint on border 91 Georgian-US relations see aho United States evolution of partnership (2009-20) 227-31 Georgievsk Treaty, Russo-Georgian (1783) 4 German, Tracey 2, 53,147,156n25,160, 171n6 Gharibashvili, Irakli 61 Ghunia, Lelt lOnl Glaziev, Sergei 156n38 Global Strategy 153 GOC see Georgian Orthodox Church (GOC)
Index Golden Age of Georgia 100 Gorbachev, Mikhail 59,199, 206, 215ո32 Gottemoeller, Rose 102 Gourevitch, Peter 25 Græger, Nina 23,29n36 Graham, Lindsay 44 Great Ayatollah Sistani Institute ‘Al ulBeit, Tbilisi 109 Griffiths, Bill 218 Grigalashvili, Mariam 118,132,134n4, 136n32 Group of Friends of Georgia 168-9, 177n96 GTEP see Georgia Train and Equip programme (GTEP) GUAM see Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova Organization for Democracy and Economic Development (GUAM) Gülen movement 100 Gvalia, Giorgi 24, 27n4,29n28, 30n43, 178Ո109 Hale, William 91,11 ln5 Harriman, Avril 218 Haugevik, Kristin Μ. 19, 28nl9 hedge groups 24 Helsinki Commission, US 233nl5 Hitler, Adolf 163 Holy Synod of Russia, GOC subordinate to 56 Homayounvash, Mohammad 102, 114n60 homosexuality 61 Horizon exchange 149 Howard, Glen# 105 Human Rights Watch 37 identity of Georgia European see European identity, striving of Georgia for regional see regionalism Ilia II, Patriarch 58, 59 imperialism, Russian 199 independence of Georgia (1991) 20, 71 aspiration for Western recognition as a European state 149 early years 50nl, 218-22 EU support for 140 253 and GOC (1991-2003) 59-60 and NATO 179-80 proclamation of 103 referendum (March 1991) 219 infrastructure projects 221 intellectuals (tergdaleulebi) 4,198 International Day Against Homophobia and Transphobia 62 International Monetary Fund 220 International Peace Conference, Genoa 57 International Republican Institute (IRI) 46, 62 International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) 3, 21, 228 Georgia’s military contributions to 181, 228 NATO-led mission 16, 22, 95
International Society for Fair Elections and Democracy (ISFED) 35 Iran see also Georgian-Iranian relations Caucasus Stability and Security Platform, exclusion from ПЗпЗЗ Isfahan Province 107 ‘otherness’ of the Iranians 8 relations with Georgia 89-90, 102-110 context of relationship 103-104 Iranian presence in Georgia 107-110 and Russia 104-107 soft power 109 tourism 89,106,109,110 Iranian Centres 109 Iraq Georgian troop contribution in 23 UN Assistance Mission in 3 US-led war in 33 IRI see International Republican Institute (IRI) ISAF see International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) ISFED see International Society for Fair Elections and Democracy (ISFED) Islam see also Iran Corps of the Islamic Revolutionary Guards 107 Islamic Empires 7,8,198
254 Islamic Republic of Iran 103,107 mistrust of 89 Ivanishvili, Bidzina 8, 50nl, 78,209 Japaridze, Tedo 219 joint defence industry working group (Azerbaijan and Georgia) 95 Jones, Stephen E 66n28, 67n33,149,161, 172nl 1,235,236,239 Jordania, Noe 21,57,147 Judt, Tony 146,148,155nl9 Kakachia, Kornely 2, 53,86n34,87n46, 114n68,136n29,156n26,160,171n6, 182,192,194n26 Kakhishvili, Levan 3, 7,235 Kalistrate, Patriarch 58 Kaljulaid, Kersti 166 Kantaria, Nukri 100 Karasin, Grigory 209 Kars, Turkey 92 Kartl’Kakheti, East Georgian kingdom 4, 56,198 Karumidze, Zurab 33 Kazakhstan 35,121,122,126,127,132, 133 Tengiz oil field 220 KGB 58, 59 Khan, Agha Mohammed 8 Khatami, Mohammad 103 Khelaia, Ambrosi 57 Khrushchev, Nikita 58 Kikodze, Gabriel 57 Kinzinger, Adam 229 Kirill I, Patriarch 63 Kocharian, Robert 86n28 Kohl, Helmut 206 Kosovo 180, 225 Kremlin 18, 203,206, 228 Kumsishvili, Dimitri 96 Kupatadze, Alexander 3,7,235 Kutaisi, Turkish Language Centre in 100 Kvirikashvili, Giorgi 101,103 Kyrgyzastan 118,121,123,126 Laar, Mart 170 Larrabee, Stephen 91 Latvia 164,168 League of Nations 4 Index Lebanidze, Bidzina 6, 7,27n4,118,132, 134n4, 136n32,173n24,236 Lehn, Stefan 153,157n44 Lenin, Vladimir 218 Lesser, Ian 91 Levitsky, Steven 143,155n8 liberalism 33,43 ‘false’ 61 illiberalism 239 neo-liberalism 150 value of liberal international order 201, 202 liberalization 107,199,206 visa liberalization 140,141,142 Liberty Institute 35 Libman, Alexander 18,27nl 1 Lieberman, Joe 44 Liik, Kadri 151,156n36 Lithuania 168-9 National Security Strategy (2016) 164, 165 Lomaia, Kaha 38 Lukashenko, Alexander
124,125 Maarif Foundation 100 McCain, John 44 McDonald, Ramsay 149 MacFarlane, Neil 145 McGuinness, Damien 34, 50n6 Marat, Erica 123,135nl8 Margaryan, Andranik 105 Margvelashvili, Giorgi 20, 28n28,101,127, ІЗбпЗО, 170 Marmara Foundation for Education 99 Marneuli, modernization of military airfield 95-6 Matsaberidze, Malkhaz 148-9,156n31 Mearsheimer, John 30n45,150,156n34, 214nl9 Medvedev, Dimitri 55,64 Melkisedek I (Georgian first Patriarch) 55 Membership Action Plan (MAP) 161,181, 192,209,226 Menon, Anand 145 МЕР see Membership Action Plan (MAP) Merabashvili, Vano 44 Mesbahi, Mohaiddin 102,114n60 MFA see Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) Middle East 89-90
255 Index see also Iran; Iraq; Syria Miles, Richard Μ. 233nl9 military partner, Georgia as 21-3, 25 Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) 223-4,233nl7 Minesashvili, Salome 3,182,192,194n26 Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) 165 Minsk 125-6 Mitchell, Lincoln 3 Mogherini, Federica 144,155nl4 Moldova 119,120,121,123 Association Agreements (AAs) 142,143 ‘frozen conflicts’ 226 PCA with 141 and Ukraine 71, 78, 79,83,117 Morrow, James 182 Mouritzen, Hans 18,27nl2 Mtasmindeli, Giorgi 56 Muhajirs (emigrants) llln7 Mukhtarli, Afgan 83 Mullen, Mark 108 Nagorno-Karabagh conflict (1990s) 74, 81, 83,97,110, 111 national caveats 230 National Democratic Institute (NDI), US 19,46,186 National Military Strategy (NMS) 22 national security concept Estonia, 2017 164 Georgia, 2005 119,120,167,180 Georgia, 2012 121,169 Latvia, 2015 164 National Security Strategy (NSS) 163 nationalism 57, 60, 81,199 aggressive 202 national liberation movements 148 NATO see North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) NATO-Georgia Commission 181 NATO-Russia Commission 228 natural gas 220 NDI see National Democratic Institute (NDI) ‘Near Abroad’ competition 39,117 Neighbourhood Economic Community 142 neoclassical realism 16, 24-5,26n3 neo-realism 147-8,150 Neumann, Iver B. 19 New Group of Friends of Georgia 168-9 niche policies 167-8 Nikoladze, Niko 2,10n5 9/11 terrorist attacks 33,192n2,222 Nixon, Richard 219 NMS see National Military Strategy (NMS) Noble Partner exercise 230 Nodia, Ghia 3,8,28n22,41, 50n22, 115n74,146 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 23, 34, 35,46,100 Western 47 Nordstream and Nordstream II
pipelines 163 normalization policy 127 Normandy Format 152 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 4 associate membership model 184-5 limits of 185-90 Baltic States, membership 172nl4 Georgia seeking membership of 8,19, 23,60,62,152,163, 223 and Georgian independence 179-80 importance of 182-4 Iraqi operations 3 ISAF mission led by 16, 22,95 NATO Response Force (NRF) 22,181 open-door policy 161 operations in the Balkans and Afghanistan 21 Partnership for Peace (PfP) programme 180 peacekeeping missions in Kosovo 180 Polish membership 172nl4 public support for 187 relations with Georgia 179-94 context of relationship 179-81 mutual benefits 183-4 and Turkey 95-6 Summit of 2008 161, 209 Summit of 2014 181 Northern Distribution Network 2-3 NSS see National Security Strategy (NSS) Ó Beacháin, Donnacha 20-1,29n29, 193n4 Obama, Barack 43, 212, 227, 228,229
256 OIC see Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) Okropiridze, Alexander 57 Okropiridze, Leonide 57 Olekas, Juozas 166 Operation Active Endeavour 22 Operation Iraqi Freedom 3, 224 Operation Resolute Support 22 OPIC see Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) Organization for Democracy and Economic Development (OSCE) 119, 120 OSCE-Istanbul Summit (1999) 208, 221,225 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) 72 Orthodox Christianity see Georgia; Georgian Orthodox Church (GOC) OSCE see Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) Ottoman Empire 8,89 Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) 230 parallel vote tabulation (PVT) 46 Paris Peace Conference (1919) 3 Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) 239 Partnership Agreements 74 Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) 141-2 Partnership for Peace (PfP) 180 Patriarchate, Georgian 55, 58, 59,61, 63 see also Georgian Orthodox Church (GOC) Pence, Michael 229, 230-1 PfP see Partnership for Peace (PfP) pipelines Baku-Novorossiisk 222 Baku-Supsa 82, 222 Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline (BTC) 94-5,106,119, 221,222 Baku-Tbilisi-Erzurum gas pipeline (BTE) 95 Nordstream and Nordstream II163 trans-Caspian 122 Pipes, Richard 218 Poland 142 Index Foreign Policy Strategy (2017-21) 163, 165, 168,169 as a medium state 173n25 National Security Strategy (NSS) 163 NATO, joining (1999) 172nl4 relations with Georgia allies to balance Russian threat 164-7 common threat perception and geopolitical understanding 162-4 support for Georgia 160-2 Russia compared 173n25 support for Euro-Atlantic
integration 6,159-78 support for Georgia 160-2 political elites see elites populism 202,211, 212,237 Poroshenko, Petro 121,151,157n42 post-Soviet countries 118-21 relations with Georgia 117-36 trade 130-1 strategic documents in 3,118-21 vulnerable to external pressure 18 privatization programmes 97 Prodi, Romano 145,154n5 public opinion 23-5 public relations 36-9 Putin, Vladimir 40,45,64,65,156n38, 157n40,157n42,163, 209,212,222, 228 Realpolitik 150-2 Red Army 149 regionalism ceasefire agreement between Armenia and Azerbaijan 85n24 concept of regional cooperation 78 defining 72 forms of regionalization 72 and geographic proximity 72 Georgian perceptions of Armenia and Azerbaijan 80-3 Georgia’s impulses against 78-80 language 72 macro and micro regions 84 numbers of regions 72 regional identity of Georgia 71-88 lack of modern identity in South Caucasus 71,72-7
Index regional security 5-7 regionalization 72, 74 South Caucasus, regional conception of 77 Resolute Support Mission (2015-21) 95, 181,228 ‘returning to Europe’ objective of Georgia see European identity, striving of Georgia for Review of Neighbourhood policy 153 revolutionary nationalism 60 Risch, James 44,229 ROC see Russian Orthodox Church (ROC) Rondeli, Alexandre 147,156n30 Rood, Elizabeth 23 Rose Revolution (2003-4) 20,24, 25, 33, 83,142,182 early years 43 and Georgian democracy 36, 37, 39, 42,43, 46-7,49 and Iran 107 ousting Shevardnadze from power 50nl pro-Western foreign policy 54 roots of 223 Rouhani, Hassan 103,105,109 ruling elites see elites Russian Arms (RA) 99 Russian Empire 4, 59,73,148,160,198, 199,213n4,217 nineteenth century 21, 55, 56, 78,89 Russian Federation/Russia see also Russian Empire ‘aggressive foreign policy’ 22 annexation of Crimea (2014) 94, 149-50,152, 166,170,187, 204, 228,231 annexation of Georgia (1921) 57 Bolshevism/Bolshevik Revolution (1917) 148-9, 199, 205 dominance in Caucasus region 18 economic embargo (2005-12) 26 Georgia’s refusal to accept as a hegemonic power 30n45 and the GOC 62-4 Kremlin 18, 203, 206,228 managed legislature 39 model of a super-presidency 39 257 and the Muslim South 7-9 PCA with 141 Poland compared 173n25 recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia as independent from Georgia 7,63, 75,125, 212, 226 relations with Georgia evolution of Georgia’s policy to wards Russia 207-210 Georgia’s image of Russia 198-9 and Iran 104-107 reduction in Georgia’s economic dependence on Russia 236 Russia seen as threat 26, 39,164-7,
194Ո16 and Turkey 101-102 war see Russo-Georgian War (2008) see also triangular conflicts and Georgian policies towards Russia revisionist policy 165, 202 trade barriers for European goods (2014) 96 visit by Georgian Patriarch 54-5 Russian Orthodox Church (ROC) 53, 54, 57, 58 relations with the GOC 62, 63 Russian World (Russkii Mir) project 62 Russian-Georgian Georgievsk Treaty (1783) 56 Russo-Georgian War (2008) 75, 98,126, 151,155n7,170,172nl6, 235 and the GOC 61, 62-3 and Iran 104 and NATO 181 and Poland/Baltic States 165,166 Russian invasion of Georgia (August 2008) 200, 225-7, 228 and Sweden 161 and US-Georgian relations 224 Saakashvili, Mikheil 3, 6, 20,23-5,45, 50nl8, 55, 86n29, 96, 97,118,120-1, 170,210, 223, 224, 225 see also United National Movement (UNM) becoming Georgia’s leader 180, 209 Chair of Tbilisi City Council 36 declining years of administration 43
258 Index and Georgian democracy 36-40,43,44 on Georgias role in standing up to Russian aggression 39,40 national security and foreign policy documents 181 and Poland/Baltic States 166,167 and regional interests 78, 79 resignation (2007) 225 and Russia’s belligerence towards Georgia 39 speech to Parliamentary Assembly (2013) 193n6 Sabanadze, Natalie 4, 5,237-8 Sadzaglishvili, Kirion 57 Said, Kurban, AU and Nino 71,84n2 Samadashvili, Salome 38 Sanikidze, George 8 Sarkisian, Serzh 156n37 Schengen Area 75 Schröder, Gerhard 163 Schulz, Evelina 141,143,151,154n2, 156n35 Schweller, Randall L. 30n45 SDR2017-2020 strategic defence review 22 Shah, Nadir 8 Shaheen, Jeanne 44,229 Shalikashvili, Dmitri 160 Shalikashvili, John Malkhaz 160 Shaw, Timothy Μ. 18,28nl4 Shevardnadze, Eduard 6,8,20, 24, 79, 82, 83,86n28, 94,118,119, 170, 207-210, 223, 232n8 anti-religious campaign 58 becoming Georgia’s leader 50nl, 59, 180 Citizens’ Union of Georgia (CUG) 35, 48 and Georgian accession to the CoE 80 and Georgian democracy 35, 36,41,46 ‘Peaceful Caucasus’ concept 77 resignation (2003) 50n3 and the US 219, 220 Shiolashvili, Ilia (Patriarch Ilia II) see Ilia II, Patriarch Shiriyev, Zaur 87n46 Sierakowski, Sławomir 165,174ո40, 174ո51,176ո86 Silk Road Economic Belt (SREB) 121 Simes, Dimitri 232n6 Skardžiūtė-Kereselidze, Renata 6, 7,236 small states 2,15-31,150 asymmetric power relationships 17-18 ‘balancing’ against great powers 16 ‘bandwagoning’ with great powers 16, 30n45,190 defining 17-19,27nl0 domestic drivers of foreign policy 25 Georgia’s status as 15 resilience and resourcefulness 18 status-
seeking of 19 as ‘trusted partners’ 16,25 vulnerable to external pressure 18 social constructivism 16,26n2 South Caucasus 20 see also Armenia; Azerbaijan; Black Sea region; Caucasus; Georgia Georgian geographical connection to 71 Georgian lack of modern identity in 71, 72-7 Georgia’s role in 77-80 incorporation into the Russian Empire (nineteenth century) 89 physical features 72 problems as a region 72, 84 regional conception of 77 states located outside 71 states of 17,18t, 21, 35,102, 236 transit strategy 221 South Ossetia (Georgian breakaway territory) conflicts leading to Georgia’s territorial fragmentation 182 contribution of Gamsakhurdia to conflict 77 dangers of countries recognizing independence of 126 ethnic minorities in 81 and Iran 104 Russian occupation 149 Russian recognition of independence from Georgia 7,63,75,125,212,226 secessionist wars 79,81 separatism 197,203 Syrian recognition of independence from Georgia 89-90 triangular conflicts and Georgian
Index policies towards Russia 197, 202-205,211 Turkish refusal to recognize independence 9,96 South Stream plan (2014) 95 Southern Corridor 120,126 sovereignty preservation foreign policy objective 15, 25, 39, 200,227 Soviet Union (USSR) see also Former Soviet Union (FSU); Russian Federation/Russia demise of (1991) 38, 72,102,103 fragmentation (1980s) 218 Georgian Orthodox Church prior to 54, 55-7 Georgian Orthodox Church in 58-9 SREB see Silk Road Economic Belt (SREB) Stalin, Josef 58,163 status see also small states defining 19 democratic, of Georgia 35 European, Georgias aspirations for 21 of small states Georgia as 15 as ‘trusted partners’ 16, 25 status-seeking behaviour 19 Steinbeck, John 218, 232n4 strategic documents, in post-Soviet countries 3,118-21 Süleymancı (religious organization) 100 Sustainment and Stability Operations Program 224 Sweden 142,161 Syria 89-90 refugee crisis 102 Tagliavini, Heidi 181 Tajikistan 121,122,126 TANAP see Trans-Anatolian Natural Gas Pipeline (TANAP) Tarkhan-Mouravi, Gia 21 Tatars (Georgian Muslims) 94,99 Tbilisi and Batumi airports (TAV) 97-8 TAV Airports Holding, Georgia 98 tergdaleulebi (intellectuals) 4,198 territorial integrity foreign policy objective 15,22, 25, 39,101, 200, 208, 225, 227 259 Total Defence concept 22 tourism 7, 9,90, 108, 118,127,129,130, 133,230, 235, 236 Iranian 89,106,109,110 Russian 210 Turkish 97 Ukrainian 130,132,133 TRACECA see Transport Corridor Europe-Caucasus-Asia (TRACECA) Trans-Anatolian Natural Gas Pipeline (TANAP) 95 Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic 5,73 Transcaucasian Socialist
Federative Republic 73-5 see also Armenia; Azerbaijan; Georgia political differences 75-6 Transparency International 235 Transport Corridor Europe-CaucasusAsia (TRACECA) 2,119 Treaty between Georgia and the Republic of Turkey on mutual legal assistance in civil, trade and criminal matters (1998) 96 Treaty Establishing the European Union (TEU) 173n22 Treaty of Berlin (1878) 97 Treaty of Kars (1921) 99 Trebizond, Turkey 92 triangular conflicts and Georgian policies towards Russia 197-216 see also Abkhazia (Georgian breakaway territory) alternatives and prospects 210-13 evolution of Georgias Russia policy 207-210 Georgia/Russia and Abkhazia/South Ossetia triangle 202-205 see also South Ossetia (Georgian breakaway territory) Georgias image of Russia 198-9 interrelations between conflicts 205-206 Russia/Georgia/West triangle 200-202 trilateralism/trilateral cooperation 96-8, 110 Trump, Donald 33,153, 202, 212,229 Tsarist Russia 7-8 see also Russian Empire
260 Tsereteli, Mamuka 2 Tsintsadze, Kalistrate 57 Tunahan, Hilmi 100 Turkey see also Georgian-Turkish relations Abkhazian minority 101 accession negotiations to the EU 94 Anatolian regions 92 Diyanet (religious administration) 100 Georgian citizens in 92,11 ln7 importance for Georgia 15 OSCE-Istanbul Summit (1999) 208, 221, 225 ‘otherness’ of the Turks 8 Pan-Turanian movement 91 relations with Georgia 89,90-102 free trade agreement (2008) 96 and NATO 95-6 primary strategic partners 96 and Russia 101-102 Turkmenistan 121,122,126,127,132 Turkophobia 8, 98-101 Tusk, Donald 163,165 Ukraine 5, 7, 61,63,105,157n41 Association Agreements (AAs) 6, 88n53, 142,143 and BSEC 92,94 coloured revolution 118 crisis of 2014 186 Euromaidan revolution (2014) 201 geographic location 6,83 and Moldova 71, 78, 79, 83,117 PCA with 141 and Poland/Baltic States 165 proximity to Georgia 133 relations with Georgia 117,124 war in 149-50 and the West 151 Ukraine-Moldova-Georgia trio (DCFATrio) 79 United Arab Emirates (UAE) 90 United National Movement (UNM) 40, 42,101,126,224 Georgian Dream replacing 124,228 governments of 2003-12 181 leaders 37, 38,45,47 United States American Relief Mission 217 Index bilateralism 45 bipartisan Congressional support to Georgia 229 Congressional Research Service 45 energy partnership with 2 on the GD 47 humanitarian assistance from 220 Marine Corps 233nl3 Multiple Pipeline Strategy 2 National Democratic Institute (NDI) 19,46,186 operations in the Balkans and Afghanistan 21 relations with Georgia see GeorgianUS relations support for Rose Revolution 25 Ways and Means
Committee 217 UNM see United National Movement (UNM) US Agency for International Development (USAID) 34 USAID see US Agency for International Development (USAID) US-Georgian Strategic Partnership Commission (2009) 226 Uzbekistan 121,128 Vakhtang VI, Georgian king 4 Vaziani and Kojori Special Forces 95 Velvet Revolution (2018), Armenia 74, 81 Vienna Congress 202 Visa Liberalization Action Plans (VLAP) 142 Voice of America 218 Walt, Stephen llnl3, 30n45,159,170, 171,171Ո2,182 see also balance of threat War on Terror 192n2, 222 Waszczykowski, Witold 164,166,168 Way, Lucan 143,155n8 Wertsch, James 33 Western Balkans 144 Western powers see also United States and the GOC 60-2 ideas about democracy-making in Georgia 45-7
Index perceptions of Georgian democracy 40-5 Russia/Georgia/West triangle 200-202 search for Western patronage 4-5 and the Ukraine 151 valuing Georgia as a bulwark against Russian aggression 39 Wiegand, Gunnar 141,143,151,154n2, 156n35 Wimbush, S. Enders 218 Wivel, Anders 182,193nl3 Wohlforth, William C. 19,28nl7 World Bank 27nl0,49,219, 220 World Council of Churches (WCC) 58, 59 261 withdrawal of GOC from (1997) 60 World Economic Forum (WEF), Davos meeting (2020) 95 World Health Organization 236 Yanukovich, Viktor Fedorovych 151 Yeltsin, Boris 206 Yerevan 74-5 Young Turks 91 Zedania, Giga 60, 67n39 Zhvania, Zurab 20, 36,141 zones of influence 200-201,212 zones of responsibility 201 Zurabishvili, Salome 170 Bayerische StartabłbHothak München |
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CONTENTS vii viii ix xiii xiv xv xvii List of Figures List of Tables List of Contributors Acknowledgements Transliteration List of Abbreviations Maps INTRODUCTION Stephen F. Jones 1 Parti THE USES OF IDENTITY IN GEORGIAN FOREIGN POLICY Chapter 1 ACHIEVING SECURITY AS A SMALL STATE 15 Tracey German and Kornely Kakachia Chapter 2 PUBLIC RELATIONS, INTERNATIONAL POLITICS AND GEORGIAN DEMOCRACY Lincoln A. Mitchell 33 Chapter 3 THE GEORGIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH AS A FOREIGN POLICY ACTOR Salome Minesashvili 53 Part II THE REGIONAL CONTEXT Chapter 4 IN THE CAUCASUS BUT TOWARD THE BLACK SEA: GEORGIA’S REGIONAL IDENTITY IN FLUX David Aprasidze 71 Chapter 5 GEORGIA’S RELATIONS WITH TURKEY AND IRAN George Sanikidze 89
vi Contents Chapter 6 END OF THE POST-SOVIET ERA IN GEORGIA’S FOREIGN POLICY?: GEORGIA’S RELATIONS WITH FORMER SOVIET REPUBLICS 117 Levan Kakhishvili and Alexander Kupatadze Part III GEORGIA AND THE ‘WEST’ Chapter 7 EU-GEORGIA: POLITICS, GEOGRAPHY AND IDENTITY Natalie Sabanadze 139 Chapter 8 SECURITY, SOLIDARITY, SPECIALIZATION: UNDERSTANDING BALTIC AND POLISH SUPPORT FOR GEORGIA’S EURO-ATLANTIC INTEGRATION Bidzina Lebanidze and Renata Skardžiūtė-Kereselidze 159 Chapter 9 GEORGIA’S ALLIANCE WITH ֊ NOT IN ֊ NATO: EXTERNAL BALANCING, AUTONOMY AND COMMUNITY 179 Michael Hikari Cecire Part IV GEORGIA AND THE GREAT POWERS Chapter 10 THE STORY OF TWO TRIANGLES: GEORGIA’S RUSSIA POLICIES Ghia Nodia 197 Chapter 11 US-GEORGIAN RELATIONS: EXPANDING THE CAPACITY OF A SMALL STATE Mamuka Tsereteli 217 AFTERWORD Tracey German, Stephen E Jones and Kornely Kakachia 235 Bibliography Index 241 246
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INDEX Abashidze, Aslan 39,209 Abashidze, Zaza 55,66ո9 Abashidze, Zurab 209 Abkhazia (Georgian breakaway territory) 104,126, 149,182 Russian recognition of independence from Georgia 7, 63, 75,125,212, 226 secessionist wars 79, 81 separatism 197,203 Syrian recognition of independence from Georgia 89-90 triangular conflicts and Georgian policies towards Russia 197, 202-205,211 Turkish refusal to recognize independence 9, 96 Ambrosi of Nekresi, Archbishop 56 abuses of power 35 Achara, autonomous republic of 97, 99 Afghanistan coalition activities 180 Georgian troop contribution in 3,21, 23,193n8, 222,228, 230,231 invasion of 1980, Georgian condemnation 59 ISAF mission (2004-14) 3,16, 95,228 NATO- and US-led operations in 21, 22, 33,183, 224 Resolute Support Mission (2015-21) 95 wars in 224 Aghmashenebeli, David IV 56 Agile Spirit military exercise 230 Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Georgia and the Government of the Republic of Turkey on cooperation in the field of security (2012) 96 Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud 103,104,105 Ahvaz oil field, Iranian 104 Alexiev, Alex 218 Aliev, Heydar 82-3, 86n28,221, 222 America-Georgia Business Council 232n5 Amoco 220 Annual National Programme 181 anti-discrimination law 62, 64 Aprasidze, David 5,6,236 Archer, Clive 17, 27n7 Ardahan, Turkey 92 Armenia Armenian Apostolic Church 72 ceasefire agreement with Azerbaijan 85n24 civil society 35 Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement (2017), signing of 75 conflict with Azerbaijan 75-6,78, 94 ethnic minorities in 81 Freedom House scores 41 Georgian perceptions of 80-2 independence
from 1918 to 1921 71 language 72 Nagorno-Karabagh conflict (1990s) 74, 81,83, 97, 110, 111 relation with Georgia 71, 82,84 role in international stabilization 29n33 semi-democratic 74-5 as a small state 17 and the South Caucasus region 79 Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic member 73 Velvet Revolution (2018) 74, 81 Asmus, Ronald 33, 50n4,172nl6 associate membership model (Georgia and NATO) 184-5 limits of 185-90 Association Agreements (AAs) 6,18, 74, 79, 83, 141,154 see also Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (DCFTA); European Union (EU)
Index Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Areas (AA/DCFTAs) 141,142,143, 151 Georgia’s Association Agreement with the EU (2014) 54, 61,75,139,142, 155Ո10,237 Association Councils 143 asymmetric power relationships 17-18, 182 August War see Russo-Georgian War (2008) Azerbaijan Armenia, conflict with 78 autocracy 74,84 ceasefire agreement with Armenia 85n24 civil society 35 conflict with Armenia 75-6, 94 ‘frozen conflicts’ 226 Georgia compared 78 importance for Georgia 15 independence from 1918 to 1921 71 language 72 relation with Georgia 71, 82-4 role in international stabilization 29n33 Shia Muslims 72 as a small state 17 Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic member 73 Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey (AGT) 6 Azerbaijani International Operating Company (AIOC) 222 Bagrat IV, King 56 Baker, James A. Ill 35 Baku-Novorossiisk pipeline 222 Baku-Supsa pipeline 82,222 Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan and South Caucasus (Baku-Tbilisi-Erzurum) 82 Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline (BTC) 94-5,106,119, 221,222 Baku-Tbilisi-Erzurum gas pipeline (BTE) 95 Baku-Tbilisi-Kars railway (ВТК) 82, 96, 97, 120 balance of power 9, 30n45,150,162 and balance of threat llnl3, 30n45 imbalance of power 182 247 regional 182,186 balance of threat 30n45,159,162,171, 186,190 and balance of power 1 lnl3, 30n45 realist 182 Balkans, peacekeeping in 22 Baltic States see also Poland National Fronts 161 relations with Georgia allies to balance Russian threat 164-7 common threat perception and geopolitical understanding 162-4 support for Georgia 160-2 support for Euro-Atlantic integration 6,159-78 ‘bandwagoning’
behaviour 16, 30n45,190 Bass, John 106 Batumi (Georgian seaport) 101 Belarus 117,120-3,124,132,164 Bennigsen, Alexander 218 Biden, Joseph 37, 39,45,107,202,212, 231 bilateralism 101,119,121-7,123f, 125f, 198, 231 Action Plans 142 future of 211 Noble Partner exercise 230 triangularization of 201 Black Sea region 5,6, 9, 78, 95,142,182, 191,224,231 see also Caucasus region; South Caucasus Greater Black Sea Area 93-4 Black Sea Economic Cooperation project (BSEC) 6, 78, 92-4,120,122 part of EU’s ‘Greater Black Sea Area’ 93-4 Black Sea Naval Cooperation Task Group (BLACKSEAFOR) 120 Bokeria, Giga 38, 50nl5 Bolshevism/Bolshevik Revolution (1917) 148-9,199, 205 borderization issues 204 British Petroleum 220 Bryza, Matthew 98 Brzezinski, Zbigniew 218, 221, 232n5
248 BSEC see Black Sea Economie Cooperation project (BSEC) BTC see Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline (BTC) BTE see Baku-Tbilisi-Erzurum gas pipeline (BTE) ВТК see Baku-Tbilisi-Kars railway (ВТК) Bush, George H.W. 206,219 Bush, George W. 37,43,45,223,224 Buziashvili, Eto 99 Çabuk, Mustafa 101 Camp Phoenix 22 Carter, Jimmy 218 Caspian oil and gas 76, 94 Caspian Sea 9,122,126,219 ‘Caucasian Eagle’ (military exercises) 96 Caucasus Barometer 80-1, 86n35 Caucasus region 35,71 see also Black Sea region; South Caucasus current challenges for 74 economic links to Russia 76t major trade partners 76t North Caucasus 73 Persian-Ottoman conflict 73 Russian domination 73 trade among countries 76t Caucasus Research Resource Centre (CRRC) 24, 29n40, 64,186,189 Caucasus Barometer 188 Caucasus Stability and Security Platform 98 exclusion of Iran from ПЗпЗЗ Caucasus Working Group 95 Cavanaugh, Carey 219 Çavuşoğlu, Mevlüt 95 Cecire, Michael 4, 5,192nl, 194n22, 237-8 Central African Republic 3,22 Central Asia 7, 35,91,117,121,123,124, 126,128 CFE see Conventional Armed Forces in Europe treaty (CFE) Chaglar educational network, Georgia 100 Chandler, Walter Μ. 217 Charter on Strategic Partnership (2009) 226 Chavchavadze, Ilia 1, lOnl, 198 Index Chechen War (1994-96) 208 Chechen War (1999) 222 Chevron 219 China authoritarianism 9,239 Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) 2, 9,121, 166,238 Free Trade Agreement (2017) 9,238 importance for Georgia 15 China-Central Asia Western Asia Corridor 9 China-Central Asia-West Asia Corridor 121, 238 Churchill, Winston 2 Citizens’ Union of Georgia (CUG) 35,48 civic
nationalism 60 civil society 23,24, 35 civil society organizations (CSOs) 26, 35, 46,64, 99,101 Clinton, Bill 219,220,221, 222 Clinton, Hillary 43, 50n24 Coene, Frederik 20-1, 29n29,193n4 Cold War 45,201,225 Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) 81,184,208 coloured revolution (Tulip Revolution) 118,126, 201 Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, US (Helsinki Commission) 233nl5 Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) 23 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) 35,78,94,118,208 compatriot status 111 Conference of European Churches, withdrawal of GOC from (1997) 60 Connolly, Gerry 229 constructivism 197 Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty (CFE) 221,231,233nl8,233n21 Cooper, Andrew F. 18,28nl4 Coppieters, Bruno 149,156n33 Council for Religious Affairs 58 Council of Europe (CoE) 35, 79, 80,102, 120,141 Parliamentary Assembly (PACE) 239 Countering Russian Influence in Europe and Eurasia Act of 2017, US 229
Index Country Progress Reports 142 COVID-19 pandemic 133,235 Crimea Russian annexation (2014) 94,149-50, 152,166, 170,187,204,226,231 Russian occupation (2014) 228 Tatars 94 CRRC see Caucasus Research Resource Centre (CRRC) CSDP see Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) CSTO see Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) CUG see Citizens’ Union of Georgia (CUG) Daul, Joseph 38 David Gareji Monastery 83 Davies, Norman 146 Davutoglu,Ahmet 101,113n52,113n53 DCFTA see Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (DCFTA) De Carvalho, Benjamin 19 de Waal, Thomas 102,114n58 Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (DCFTA) 5, 18, 75, 83,110,139,141, 149, 238 see also Association Agreements (AAs); Free Trade Area (FTA) Demirel College 100 democracy, Georgian 33-52 cyclical development 48 Economist’s Democracy Index 40 hybrid 39 impact of public relations 36-9 measuring 34-5, 36t paradox of 49 regression in Georgia from 2008-12 44 Russian factor 39-40 ‘sovereign democracy 45 tensions within Georgia 47-9 Western ideas on democracy-making in 45-7 Western perceptions of 40-5 Democratic Republic of Georgia (191821), DRG 2, 3, 4, 5,21,148,160, 199, 217 Development Finance Corporation (DFI) 230 249 Dezful air field, Iranian 104 DFI see Development Finance Corporation (DFI) Didgori, Battle of (2017) 100,113n43 Dositheos of Kutaisi 57 DRG see Democratic Republic of Georgia (1918-21), DRG EaP see Eastern Partnership programme (EaP) Eastern Partnership Index 2017 79t Eastern Partnership programme (EaP) 5, 7, 9,24,150,155n7,164,165, 237 and Baltic States/Poland 159,161,162 establishment (2009)
171n4 and former Soviet states 120,122,125, 132,142 Ecumenical movement 58 Ecumenical Patriarch 63 elites 8,16,23-5,28n28 civic 47 and Georgian democracy 39,47 intellectual 147,197 kleptocratic 83 local 73,74, 152 national 197 political 24,26, 39,47,147,166,197 ruling 24,26, 30n45, 74 Soviet 73 Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic 73,74 Enlightenment 146 ENP see European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) EPP see European Peoples Party (EPP) Epremi, Patriarch 58 Erasmus+ exchange 149 Erdoğan, Recep 98,100,102, 111 Estonia 164,168 Euphemios of Gelati 57 Eurasian Economic Area 156n37 Eurasian Economic Union 72,79,81 Russian-led 60, 74-5,105,147, 211, 212 Euro-Atlantic integration of Georgia 148, 152, 237 Baltic and Polish support 159-78 European identity as main foreign policy objective see European
250 identity, striving of Georgia for and Georgian elites 186 and NATO 180,182 and regionalism 78-9 technical conditionality 189 Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council 180 Euro-Atlantic security 15,17 see also Euro-Atlantic integration of Georgia Europe, lines between centre and periphery within 146 European Commission (EC) 142,161 European identity, striving of Georgia for 18,150 see also Euro-Atlantic integration of Georgia as civilizational’ 54 concept213nl0 and importance of Orthodox Christianity 53, 54 as main foreign policy objective of Georgia 19-21,194n23 recognition of Europeanness 148 Russia seen as threat to 26, 39, 54, 164-7 see also Georgian-Russian relations European Neighbourhood Partnership Instrument (ENPI) 142 European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) 74,142,143,153,155n7, 161 European Parliament (EP) 38 European Peoples Party (EPP) 38 European Security Strategy (ESS) 142 European Union (EU) see also Association Agreements (AAs); Euro-Atlantic integration of Georgia; Euro-Atlantic security Baltic States, membership 172nl4 defining itself as a normative power 152 EU-led mission in 22 and Georgia 139-57 Association Agreement of 2014 54, 61,75,139,142, 155nl0,237 association and non-membership 152-4 cultural identity, as a political choice 146-50 geography, relativity of 144-6 Index Georgia seeking membership 8,19, 24, 60-2, 78-9,107, 152,153, 162,163, 237 phases of approximation 140-4 and ‘return of Realpolitik 150-2 Greater Black Sea Area 93-4 Turkish accession negotiations 94 visions of 145 external balancing 194nl8 Exxon 220 FDI see foreign direct investment (FDI)
Fehtullahçi network 100 ‘Finlandisation 18, 27nl2 Fischer, Heinz 61 foreign direct investment (FDI) 7,90, 95, 118,129,131f Foreign Military Financing (FMF) 228 foreign policy of Georgia see foreign policy of Georgia of small states 16 unit-level triggers 16 foreign policy of Georgia challenges 238 drivers of 25-6 Euro-Atlantic integration see Euro Atlantic integration of Georgia European identity as main objective see European identity, striving of Georgia for Foreign Policy Strategy (2019-22) 3, 6, 78 impact of GOC on 53-4,64-5 international stabilization efforts 23, 25 lack of institutionalization 120 post-Soviet 20, 54 pro-Western 54 risks 238 sovereignty preservation objective 15, 25, 39, 227 structure/system-defiant behaviour 16,24 territorial integrity objective 15, 22, 25, 39,101, 208, 225,227 Former Soviet Union (FSU) Georgia’s relations with post-Soviet countries 117-36 political ties and bilateral relations 121-7
Index post-Soviet countries in Georgia’s strategic documents 3,118-21 fraud 35 Free Trade Area (FTA) 81 Freedom House democracy scores 40,41, 42f, 43,46, 51Ո19 Freedom in the World 50n21 Freud, Sigmund 80, 86n36 Fried, Daniel 20,28n27 FSU see Former Soviet Union (FSU) Fule, Stefan 61 fundamentalism 60 Gamsakhurdia, Zviad 6,78,103, 208, 219, 220 idea of common ‘Caucasian Home’ 77 period of rule (Nov 1990-Jan 1992) 77 removal from power (1992) 59 Round Table Free Georgia 48, 219 ultra-nationalistic radicalism of 77 GD see Georgian Dream (GD) Georgia see also foreign policy of Georgia; small states Azerbaijan compared 78 challenging perception as a ‘postSoviet’ state 21 European status, aspirations for see European identity, striving of Georgia for foreign policy objectives see foreign policy of Georgia geographic location 17, 20 independence (1991) 20 Iranian embassy 109 National Statistics Office 103 Orthodox Christianity 53-5,148,199 Pankisi George 222 regime changes 19 relations with Armenia 71,82, 84 relations with Azerbaijan 71,82-4 relations with the Middle East 89-90 relations with Ukraine 117,124 religious groups 53 self-identity, role in development 20-1 as a small state 17 state modernization 60 as a strategic corridor 17, 25 support from Poland and the Baltic 251 States 159-78 and democracy 39-40 profile-boosting 167-70 seen as allies to balance Russian threat 164-7 support for Georgia 160-2 topography 1 trade relations with FSU countries 130-1 Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic member 73 transit hub between Europe and Asia 17 troop contribution in
Afghanistan 3, 21, 23,198n8, 222, 228, 230, 231 troop contribution to Iraq 23 Western orientation 4-5,106-107 Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova Organization for Democracy and Economic Development (GUAM) 6, 78,119,120, 122, 134n8 Georgia Defence Readiness Program 229 Georgia Support Act, US 229 Georgia Train and Equip programme (GTEP) 180,193n3, 222,224, 228 Georgia Young Lawyers Association 35 Georgian Armed Forces (GAF) 22 Georgian Dream (GD) 118, 210, 211, 237 coalition 124,181, 228 electoral victory 33, 38, 42,43-4,49, 50nl leaders 127 and Poland/Baltic States 167 pre-election programme (2012) 38 replacing the UNM 124, 228 US view of 47 Georgian Military Highway 1 Georgian Orthodox Church (GOC) 3-4, 53-68 see also Patriarchate, Georgian before the Soviet Union 55-7 autocephaly refusal to acknowledge by ROC 58 removal (1811) 56 restoration (1918) 57 Constitutional Agreement with 62 and cultural identity 56 foreign policy since Rose Revolution in 2003 60-4 and Georgian national movement 57
252 Index heterogeneous organization 54,61 historical target of foreign powers 55 history of in Georgian foreign relations 55-60, 65 following independence (19912003) 59-60 resistance against Russification 57 in the Soviet Union 54, 58-9 impact on foreign policy 53-4, 64-5 independent foreign policy player 54-5 indirect involvement in state policy 62 KGB infiltration 58 loss of formal independent status (1811)56 morality and values in conflict with Georgian state policy 54, 59, 62 opposition to anti-discrimination legislation 54 political independence (1918) 57 popularity 53 position of mtsignobartukhutseschkondideli, creation of 56 relations with Russia 54, 57, 58,62-4 and Russo-Georgian War of 2008 61, 62-3 relations with the ROC 62, 63 and the West 60-2 Georgian-EU relations 61,139-57, 217-34 from 2001 to 2008 222-4 association and non-membership 152-4 cultural identity, as a political choice 146-50 early years of independence 218-22 geography, relativity of 144-6 Georgia seeking membership of the EU 8,19,24,60-2,78-9, 107,152, 153,162,163,237 phases of approximation 140-4 and ‘return’ of realpolitik 150-2 triangular conflicts and Georgian policies towards Russia 197, 202-205 Georgian-Iranian relations 89-90, 91, 102-110 see aho Iran context of relationship 103-104 Iranian presence in Georgia 107-110 and Russia 104-107 Georgian-NATO relations 179-94 aspiration of Georgia for NATO membership 20 associate membership model 184-5 limits of 185-90 context of relationship 179-81 Georgia seeking membership of NATO 8,19,23, 60, 62, 152,163,223 and importance of NATO 182-4 mutual
benefits 183-4 and Turkey 95-6 Georgianness, notion of 4, 55,61 Georgian-Russian relations 75 annexation of Georgia (1921) 57 evolution of Georgia’s policy towards Russia 207-210 Georgia’s image of Russia 198-9 and Iran 104-107 reduction in Georgia’s economic dependence on Russia 236 Russia seen as threat to Georgia 26, 39, 54, 164-7, 194Ո16 and Turkey 101-102 war see Russo-Georgian War (2008) Georgian-Turkish relations 89, 90-102 free trade agreement (2008) 96 and NATO 95-6 political significance of Georgia for Turkey 91,92 political significance of Turkey for Georgia 90 primary strategic partners 96 and Russia 101-102 Sarpi checkpoint on border 91 Georgian-US relations see aho United States evolution of partnership (2009-20) 227-31 Georgievsk Treaty, Russo-Georgian (1783) 4 German, Tracey 2, 53,147,156n25,160, 171n6 Gharibashvili, Irakli 61 Ghunia, Lelt lOnl Glaziev, Sergei 156n38 Global Strategy 153 GOC see Georgian Orthodox Church (GOC)
Index Golden Age of Georgia 100 Gorbachev, Mikhail 59,199, 206, 215ո32 Gottemoeller, Rose 102 Gourevitch, Peter 25 Græger, Nina 23,29n36 Graham, Lindsay 44 Great Ayatollah Sistani Institute ‘Al ulBeit, Tbilisi 109 Griffiths, Bill 218 Grigalashvili, Mariam 118,132,134n4, 136n32 Group of Friends of Georgia 168-9, 177n96 GTEP see Georgia Train and Equip programme (GTEP) GUAM see Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova Organization for Democracy and Economic Development (GUAM) Gülen movement 100 Gvalia, Giorgi 24, 27n4,29n28, 30n43, 178Ո109 Hale, William 91,11 ln5 Harriman, Avril 218 Haugevik, Kristin Μ. 19, 28nl9 hedge groups 24 Helsinki Commission, US 233nl5 Hitler, Adolf 163 Holy Synod of Russia, GOC subordinate to 56 Homayounvash, Mohammad 102, 114n60 homosexuality 61 Horizon exchange 149 Howard, Glen# 105 Human Rights Watch 37 identity of Georgia European see European identity, striving of Georgia for regional see regionalism Ilia II, Patriarch 58, 59 imperialism, Russian 199 independence of Georgia (1991) 20, 71 aspiration for Western recognition as a European state 149 early years 50nl, 218-22 EU support for 140 253 and GOC (1991-2003) 59-60 and NATO 179-80 proclamation of 103 referendum (March 1991) 219 infrastructure projects 221 intellectuals (tergdaleulebi) 4,198 International Day Against Homophobia and Transphobia 62 International Monetary Fund 220 International Peace Conference, Genoa 57 International Republican Institute (IRI) 46, 62 International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) 3, 21, 228 Georgia’s military contributions to 181, 228 NATO-led mission 16, 22, 95
International Society for Fair Elections and Democracy (ISFED) 35 Iran see also Georgian-Iranian relations Caucasus Stability and Security Platform, exclusion from ПЗпЗЗ Isfahan Province 107 ‘otherness’ of the Iranians 8 relations with Georgia 89-90, 102-110 context of relationship 103-104 Iranian presence in Georgia 107-110 and Russia 104-107 soft power 109 tourism 89,106,109,110 Iranian Centres 109 Iraq Georgian troop contribution in 23 UN Assistance Mission in 3 US-led war in 33 IRI see International Republican Institute (IRI) ISAF see International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) ISFED see International Society for Fair Elections and Democracy (ISFED) Islam see also Iran Corps of the Islamic Revolutionary Guards 107 Islamic Empires 7,8,198
254 Islamic Republic of Iran 103,107 mistrust of 89 Ivanishvili, Bidzina 8, 50nl, 78,209 Japaridze, Tedo 219 joint defence industry working group (Azerbaijan and Georgia) 95 Jones, Stephen E 66n28, 67n33,149,161, 172nl 1,235,236,239 Jordania, Noe 21,57,147 Judt, Tony 146,148,155nl9 Kakachia, Kornely 2, 53,86n34,87n46, 114n68,136n29,156n26,160,171n6, 182,192,194n26 Kakhishvili, Levan 3, 7,235 Kalistrate, Patriarch 58 Kaljulaid, Kersti 166 Kantaria, Nukri 100 Karasin, Grigory 209 Kars, Turkey 92 Kartl’Kakheti, East Georgian kingdom 4, 56,198 Karumidze, Zurab 33 Kazakhstan 35,121,122,126,127,132, 133 Tengiz oil field 220 KGB 58, 59 Khan, Agha Mohammed 8 Khatami, Mohammad 103 Khelaia, Ambrosi 57 Khrushchev, Nikita 58 Kikodze, Gabriel 57 Kinzinger, Adam 229 Kirill I, Patriarch 63 Kocharian, Robert 86n28 Kohl, Helmut 206 Kosovo 180, 225 Kremlin 18, 203,206, 228 Kumsishvili, Dimitri 96 Kupatadze, Alexander 3,7,235 Kutaisi, Turkish Language Centre in 100 Kvirikashvili, Giorgi 101,103 Kyrgyzastan 118,121,123,126 Laar, Mart 170 Larrabee, Stephen 91 Latvia 164,168 League of Nations 4 Index Lebanidze, Bidzina 6, 7,27n4,118,132, 134n4, 136n32,173n24,236 Lehn, Stefan 153,157n44 Lenin, Vladimir 218 Lesser, Ian 91 Levitsky, Steven 143,155n8 liberalism 33,43 ‘false’ 61 illiberalism 239 neo-liberalism 150 value of liberal international order 201, 202 liberalization 107,199,206 visa liberalization 140,141,142 Liberty Institute 35 Libman, Alexander 18,27nl 1 Lieberman, Joe 44 Liik, Kadri 151,156n36 Lithuania 168-9 National Security Strategy (2016) 164, 165 Lomaia, Kaha 38 Lukashenko, Alexander
124,125 Maarif Foundation 100 McCain, John 44 McDonald, Ramsay 149 MacFarlane, Neil 145 McGuinness, Damien 34, 50n6 Marat, Erica 123,135nl8 Margaryan, Andranik 105 Margvelashvili, Giorgi 20, 28n28,101,127, ІЗбпЗО, 170 Marmara Foundation for Education 99 Marneuli, modernization of military airfield 95-6 Matsaberidze, Malkhaz 148-9,156n31 Mearsheimer, John 30n45,150,156n34, 214nl9 Medvedev, Dimitri 55,64 Melkisedek I (Georgian first Patriarch) 55 Membership Action Plan (MAP) 161,181, 192,209,226 Menon, Anand 145 МЕР see Membership Action Plan (MAP) Merabashvili, Vano 44 Mesbahi, Mohaiddin 102,114n60 MFA see Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) Middle East 89-90
255 Index see also Iran; Iraq; Syria Miles, Richard Μ. 233nl9 military partner, Georgia as 21-3, 25 Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) 223-4,233nl7 Minesashvili, Salome 3,182,192,194n26 Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) 165 Minsk 125-6 Mitchell, Lincoln 3 Mogherini, Federica 144,155nl4 Moldova 119,120,121,123 Association Agreements (AAs) 142,143 ‘frozen conflicts’ 226 PCA with 141 and Ukraine 71, 78, 79,83,117 Morrow, James 182 Mouritzen, Hans 18,27nl2 Mtasmindeli, Giorgi 56 Muhajirs (emigrants) llln7 Mukhtarli, Afgan 83 Mullen, Mark 108 Nagorno-Karabagh conflict (1990s) 74, 81, 83,97,110, 111 national caveats 230 National Democratic Institute (NDI), US 19,46,186 National Military Strategy (NMS) 22 national security concept Estonia, 2017 164 Georgia, 2005 119,120,167,180 Georgia, 2012 121,169 Latvia, 2015 164 National Security Strategy (NSS) 163 nationalism 57, 60, 81,199 aggressive 202 national liberation movements 148 NATO see North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) NATO-Georgia Commission 181 NATO-Russia Commission 228 natural gas 220 NDI see National Democratic Institute (NDI) ‘Near Abroad’ competition 39,117 Neighbourhood Economic Community 142 neoclassical realism 16, 24-5,26n3 neo-realism 147-8,150 Neumann, Iver B. 19 New Group of Friends of Georgia 168-9 niche policies 167-8 Nikoladze, Niko 2,10n5 9/11 terrorist attacks 33,192n2,222 Nixon, Richard 219 NMS see National Military Strategy (NMS) Noble Partner exercise 230 Nodia, Ghia 3,8,28n22,41, 50n22, 115n74,146 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 23, 34, 35,46,100 Western 47 Nordstream and Nordstream II
pipelines 163 normalization policy 127 Normandy Format 152 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 4 associate membership model 184-5 limits of 185-90 Baltic States, membership 172nl4 Georgia seeking membership of 8,19, 23,60,62,152,163, 223 and Georgian independence 179-80 importance of 182-4 Iraqi operations 3 ISAF mission led by 16, 22,95 NATO Response Force (NRF) 22,181 open-door policy 161 operations in the Balkans and Afghanistan 21 Partnership for Peace (PfP) programme 180 peacekeeping missions in Kosovo 180 Polish membership 172nl4 public support for 187 relations with Georgia 179-94 context of relationship 179-81 mutual benefits 183-4 and Turkey 95-6 Summit of 2008 161, 209 Summit of 2014 181 Northern Distribution Network 2-3 NSS see National Security Strategy (NSS) Ó Beacháin, Donnacha 20-1,29n29, 193n4 Obama, Barack 43, 212, 227, 228,229
256 OIC see Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) Okropiridze, Alexander 57 Okropiridze, Leonide 57 Olekas, Juozas 166 Operation Active Endeavour 22 Operation Iraqi Freedom 3, 224 Operation Resolute Support 22 OPIC see Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) Organization for Democracy and Economic Development (OSCE) 119, 120 OSCE-Istanbul Summit (1999) 208, 221,225 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) 72 Orthodox Christianity see Georgia; Georgian Orthodox Church (GOC) OSCE see Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) Ottoman Empire 8,89 Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) 230 parallel vote tabulation (PVT) 46 Paris Peace Conference (1919) 3 Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) 239 Partnership Agreements 74 Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) 141-2 Partnership for Peace (PfP) 180 Patriarchate, Georgian 55, 58, 59,61, 63 see also Georgian Orthodox Church (GOC) Pence, Michael 229, 230-1 PfP see Partnership for Peace (PfP) pipelines Baku-Novorossiisk 222 Baku-Supsa 82, 222 Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline (BTC) 94-5,106,119, 221,222 Baku-Tbilisi-Erzurum gas pipeline (BTE) 95 Nordstream and Nordstream II163 trans-Caspian 122 Pipes, Richard 218 Poland 142 Index Foreign Policy Strategy (2017-21) 163, 165, 168,169 as a medium state 173n25 National Security Strategy (NSS) 163 NATO, joining (1999) 172nl4 relations with Georgia allies to balance Russian threat 164-7 common threat perception and geopolitical understanding 162-4 support for Georgia 160-2 Russia compared 173n25 support for Euro-Atlantic
integration 6,159-78 support for Georgia 160-2 political elites see elites populism 202,211, 212,237 Poroshenko, Petro 121,151,157n42 post-Soviet countries 118-21 relations with Georgia 117-36 trade 130-1 strategic documents in 3,118-21 vulnerable to external pressure 18 privatization programmes 97 Prodi, Romano 145,154n5 public opinion 23-5 public relations 36-9 Putin, Vladimir 40,45,64,65,156n38, 157n40,157n42,163, 209,212,222, 228 Realpolitik 150-2 Red Army 149 regionalism ceasefire agreement between Armenia and Azerbaijan 85n24 concept of regional cooperation 78 defining 72 forms of regionalization 72 and geographic proximity 72 Georgian perceptions of Armenia and Azerbaijan 80-3 Georgia’s impulses against 78-80 language 72 macro and micro regions 84 numbers of regions 72 regional identity of Georgia 71-88 lack of modern identity in South Caucasus 71,72-7
Index regional security 5-7 regionalization 72, 74 South Caucasus, regional conception of 77 Resolute Support Mission (2015-21) 95, 181,228 ‘returning to Europe’ objective of Georgia see European identity, striving of Georgia for Review of Neighbourhood policy 153 revolutionary nationalism 60 Risch, James 44,229 ROC see Russian Orthodox Church (ROC) Rondeli, Alexandre 147,156n30 Rood, Elizabeth 23 Rose Revolution (2003-4) 20,24, 25, 33, 83,142,182 early years 43 and Georgian democracy 36, 37, 39, 42,43, 46-7,49 and Iran 107 ousting Shevardnadze from power 50nl pro-Western foreign policy 54 roots of 223 Rouhani, Hassan 103,105,109 ruling elites see elites Russian Arms (RA) 99 Russian Empire 4, 59,73,148,160,198, 199,213n4,217 nineteenth century 21, 55, 56, 78,89 Russian Federation/Russia see also Russian Empire ‘aggressive foreign policy’ 22 annexation of Crimea (2014) 94, 149-50,152, 166,170,187, 204, 228,231 annexation of Georgia (1921) 57 Bolshevism/Bolshevik Revolution (1917) 148-9, 199, 205 dominance in Caucasus region 18 economic embargo (2005-12) 26 Georgia’s refusal to accept as a hegemonic power 30n45 and the GOC 62-4 Kremlin 18, 203, 206,228 managed legislature 39 model of a super-presidency 39 257 and the Muslim South 7-9 PCA with 141 Poland compared 173n25 recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia as independent from Georgia 7,63, 75,125, 212, 226 relations with Georgia evolution of Georgia’s policy to wards Russia 207-210 Georgia’s image of Russia 198-9 and Iran 104-107 reduction in Georgia’s economic dependence on Russia 236 Russia seen as threat 26, 39,164-7,
194Ո16 and Turkey 101-102 war see Russo-Georgian War (2008) see also triangular conflicts and Georgian policies towards Russia revisionist policy 165, 202 trade barriers for European goods (2014) 96 visit by Georgian Patriarch 54-5 Russian Orthodox Church (ROC) 53, 54, 57, 58 relations with the GOC 62, 63 Russian World (Russkii Mir) project 62 Russian-Georgian Georgievsk Treaty (1783) 56 Russo-Georgian War (2008) 75, 98,126, 151,155n7,170,172nl6, 235 and the GOC 61, 62-3 and Iran 104 and NATO 181 and Poland/Baltic States 165,166 Russian invasion of Georgia (August 2008) 200, 225-7, 228 and Sweden 161 and US-Georgian relations 224 Saakashvili, Mikheil 3, 6, 20,23-5,45, 50nl8, 55, 86n29, 96, 97,118,120-1, 170,210, 223, 224, 225 see also United National Movement (UNM) becoming Georgia’s leader 180, 209 Chair of Tbilisi City Council 36 declining years of administration 43
258 Index and Georgian democracy 36-40,43,44 on Georgias role in standing up to Russian aggression 39,40 national security and foreign policy documents 181 and Poland/Baltic States 166,167 and regional interests 78, 79 resignation (2007) 225 and Russia’s belligerence towards Georgia 39 speech to Parliamentary Assembly (2013) 193n6 Sabanadze, Natalie 4, 5,237-8 Sadzaglishvili, Kirion 57 Said, Kurban, AU and Nino 71,84n2 Samadashvili, Salome 38 Sanikidze, George 8 Sarkisian, Serzh 156n37 Schengen Area 75 Schröder, Gerhard 163 Schulz, Evelina 141,143,151,154n2, 156n35 Schweller, Randall L. 30n45 SDR2017-2020 strategic defence review 22 Shah, Nadir 8 Shaheen, Jeanne 44,229 Shalikashvili, Dmitri 160 Shalikashvili, John Malkhaz 160 Shaw, Timothy Μ. 18,28nl4 Shevardnadze, Eduard 6,8,20, 24, 79, 82, 83,86n28, 94,118,119, 170, 207-210, 223, 232n8 anti-religious campaign 58 becoming Georgia’s leader 50nl, 59, 180 Citizens’ Union of Georgia (CUG) 35, 48 and Georgian accession to the CoE 80 and Georgian democracy 35, 36,41,46 ‘Peaceful Caucasus’ concept 77 resignation (2003) 50n3 and the US 219, 220 Shiolashvili, Ilia (Patriarch Ilia II) see Ilia II, Patriarch Shiriyev, Zaur 87n46 Sierakowski, Sławomir 165,174ո40, 174ո51,176ո86 Silk Road Economic Belt (SREB) 121 Simes, Dimitri 232n6 Skardžiūtė-Kereselidze, Renata 6, 7,236 small states 2,15-31,150 asymmetric power relationships 17-18 ‘balancing’ against great powers 16 ‘bandwagoning’ with great powers 16, 30n45,190 defining 17-19,27nl0 domestic drivers of foreign policy 25 Georgia’s status as 15 resilience and resourcefulness 18 status-
seeking of 19 as ‘trusted partners’ 16,25 vulnerable to external pressure 18 social constructivism 16,26n2 South Caucasus 20 see also Armenia; Azerbaijan; Black Sea region; Caucasus; Georgia Georgian geographical connection to 71 Georgian lack of modern identity in 71, 72-7 Georgia’s role in 77-80 incorporation into the Russian Empire (nineteenth century) 89 physical features 72 problems as a region 72, 84 regional conception of 77 states located outside 71 states of 17,18t, 21, 35,102, 236 transit strategy 221 South Ossetia (Georgian breakaway territory) conflicts leading to Georgia’s territorial fragmentation 182 contribution of Gamsakhurdia to conflict 77 dangers of countries recognizing independence of 126 ethnic minorities in 81 and Iran 104 Russian occupation 149 Russian recognition of independence from Georgia 7,63,75,125,212,226 secessionist wars 79,81 separatism 197,203 Syrian recognition of independence from Georgia 89-90 triangular conflicts and Georgian
Index policies towards Russia 197, 202-205,211 Turkish refusal to recognize independence 9,96 South Stream plan (2014) 95 Southern Corridor 120,126 sovereignty preservation foreign policy objective 15, 25, 39, 200,227 Soviet Union (USSR) see also Former Soviet Union (FSU); Russian Federation/Russia demise of (1991) 38, 72,102,103 fragmentation (1980s) 218 Georgian Orthodox Church prior to 54, 55-7 Georgian Orthodox Church in 58-9 SREB see Silk Road Economic Belt (SREB) Stalin, Josef 58,163 status see also small states defining 19 democratic, of Georgia 35 European, Georgias aspirations for 21 of small states Georgia as 15 as ‘trusted partners’ 16, 25 status-seeking behaviour 19 Steinbeck, John 218, 232n4 strategic documents, in post-Soviet countries 3,118-21 Süleymancı (religious organization) 100 Sustainment and Stability Operations Program 224 Sweden 142,161 Syria 89-90 refugee crisis 102 Tagliavini, Heidi 181 Tajikistan 121,122,126 TANAP see Trans-Anatolian Natural Gas Pipeline (TANAP) Tarkhan-Mouravi, Gia 21 Tatars (Georgian Muslims) 94,99 Tbilisi and Batumi airports (TAV) 97-8 TAV Airports Holding, Georgia 98 tergdaleulebi (intellectuals) 4,198 territorial integrity foreign policy objective 15,22, 25, 39,101, 200, 208, 225, 227 259 Total Defence concept 22 tourism 7, 9,90, 108, 118,127,129,130, 133,230, 235, 236 Iranian 89,106,109,110 Russian 210 Turkish 97 Ukrainian 130,132,133 TRACECA see Transport Corridor Europe-Caucasus-Asia (TRACECA) Trans-Anatolian Natural Gas Pipeline (TANAP) 95 Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic 5,73 Transcaucasian Socialist
Federative Republic 73-5 see also Armenia; Azerbaijan; Georgia political differences 75-6 Transparency International 235 Transport Corridor Europe-CaucasusAsia (TRACECA) 2,119 Treaty between Georgia and the Republic of Turkey on mutual legal assistance in civil, trade and criminal matters (1998) 96 Treaty Establishing the European Union (TEU) 173n22 Treaty of Berlin (1878) 97 Treaty of Kars (1921) 99 Trebizond, Turkey 92 triangular conflicts and Georgian policies towards Russia 197-216 see also Abkhazia (Georgian breakaway territory) alternatives and prospects 210-13 evolution of Georgias Russia policy 207-210 Georgia/Russia and Abkhazia/South Ossetia triangle 202-205 see also South Ossetia (Georgian breakaway territory) Georgias image of Russia 198-9 interrelations between conflicts 205-206 Russia/Georgia/West triangle 200-202 trilateralism/trilateral cooperation 96-8, 110 Trump, Donald 33,153, 202, 212,229 Tsarist Russia 7-8 see also Russian Empire
260 Tsereteli, Mamuka 2 Tsintsadze, Kalistrate 57 Tunahan, Hilmi 100 Turkey see also Georgian-Turkish relations Abkhazian minority 101 accession negotiations to the EU 94 Anatolian regions 92 Diyanet (religious administration) 100 Georgian citizens in 92,11 ln7 importance for Georgia 15 OSCE-Istanbul Summit (1999) 208, 221, 225 ‘otherness’ of the Turks 8 Pan-Turanian movement 91 relations with Georgia 89,90-102 free trade agreement (2008) 96 and NATO 95-6 primary strategic partners 96 and Russia 101-102 Turkmenistan 121,122,126,127,132 Turkophobia 8, 98-101 Tusk, Donald 163,165 Ukraine 5, 7, 61,63,105,157n41 Association Agreements (AAs) 6, 88n53, 142,143 and BSEC 92,94 coloured revolution 118 crisis of 2014 186 Euromaidan revolution (2014) 201 geographic location 6,83 and Moldova 71, 78, 79, 83,117 PCA with 141 and Poland/Baltic States 165 proximity to Georgia 133 relations with Georgia 117,124 war in 149-50 and the West 151 Ukraine-Moldova-Georgia trio (DCFATrio) 79 United Arab Emirates (UAE) 90 United National Movement (UNM) 40, 42,101,126,224 Georgian Dream replacing 124,228 governments of 2003-12 181 leaders 37, 38,45,47 United States American Relief Mission 217 Index bilateralism 45 bipartisan Congressional support to Georgia 229 Congressional Research Service 45 energy partnership with 2 on the GD 47 humanitarian assistance from 220 Marine Corps 233nl3 Multiple Pipeline Strategy 2 National Democratic Institute (NDI) 19,46,186 operations in the Balkans and Afghanistan 21 relations with Georgia see GeorgianUS relations support for Rose Revolution 25 Ways and Means
Committee 217 UNM see United National Movement (UNM) US Agency for International Development (USAID) 34 USAID see US Agency for International Development (USAID) US-Georgian Strategic Partnership Commission (2009) 226 Uzbekistan 121,128 Vakhtang VI, Georgian king 4 Vaziani and Kojori Special Forces 95 Velvet Revolution (2018), Armenia 74, 81 Vienna Congress 202 Visa Liberalization Action Plans (VLAP) 142 Voice of America 218 Walt, Stephen llnl3, 30n45,159,170, 171,171Ո2,182 see also balance of threat War on Terror 192n2, 222 Waszczykowski, Witold 164,166,168 Way, Lucan 143,155n8 Wertsch, James 33 Western Balkans 144 Western powers see also United States and the GOC 60-2 ideas about democracy-making in Georgia 45-7
Index perceptions of Georgian democracy 40-5 Russia/Georgia/West triangle 200-202 search for Western patronage 4-5 and the Ukraine 151 valuing Georgia as a bulwark against Russian aggression 39 Wiegand, Gunnar 141,143,151,154n2, 156n35 Wimbush, S. Enders 218 Wivel, Anders 182,193nl3 Wohlforth, William C. 19,28nl7 World Bank 27nl0,49,219, 220 World Council of Churches (WCC) 58, 59 261 withdrawal of GOC from (1997) 60 World Economic Forum (WEF), Davos meeting (2020) 95 World Health Organization 236 Yanukovich, Viktor Fedorovych 151 Yeltsin, Boris 206 Yerevan 74-5 Young Turks 91 Zedania, Giga 60, 67n39 Zhvania, Zurab 20, 36,141 zones of influence 200-201,212 zones of responsibility 201 Zurabishvili, Salome 170 Bayerische StartabłbHothak München |
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| any_adam_object_boolean | 1 |
| author2 | German, Tracey C. 1971- Jones, Stephen F. 1953- Kakachia, Kornely 1971- |
| author2_role | edt edt edt |
| author2_variant | t c g tc tcg s f j sf sfj k k kk |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1026902630 (DE-588)138985863 (DE-588)1140662929 |
| author_facet | German, Tracey C. 1971- Jones, Stephen F. 1953- Kakachia, Kornely 1971- |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV047847375 |
| classification_rvk | ML 7278 MG 83900 MG 83080 MG 83070 MG 83086 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1302315619 (DE-599)BVBBV047847375 |
| discipline | Politologie |
| discipline_str_mv | Politologie |
| era | Geschichte 2000-2022 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 2000-2022 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Georgien (DE-588)4022406-5 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Georgien |
| id | DE-604.BV047847375 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-03T19:13:56Z |
| indexdate | 2024-11-21T11:03:32Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9781788313650 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-033230258 |
| oclc_num | 1302315619 |
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| physical | xviii, 261 Seiten Diagramme, Karten |
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| publishDate | 2022 |
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| series2 | Politics & international relations |
| spelling | Georgia's foreign policy in the 21st century challenges for a small state edited by Tracey German, Stephen F. Jones & Kornely Kakachia Georgia's foreign policy in the twenty-first century London ; New York ; Oxford ; New Delhi ; Sydney I.B. Tauris 2022 xviii, 261 Seiten Diagramme, Karten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Politics & international relations Geschichte 2000-2022 gnd rswk-swf Außenpolitik (DE-588)4003846-4 gnd rswk-swf Sicherheitspolitik (DE-588)4116489-1 gnd rswk-swf Georgien (DE-588)4022406-5 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4143413-4 Aufsatzsammlung gnd-content Georgien (DE-588)4022406-5 g Außenpolitik (DE-588)4003846-4 s Sicherheitspolitik (DE-588)4116489-1 s Geschichte 2000-2022 z DE-604 German, Tracey C. 1971- (DE-588)1026902630 edt Jones, Stephen F. 1953- (DE-588)138985863 edt Kakachia, Kornely 1971- (DE-588)1140662929 edt Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe 978-0-7556-4534-3 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, PDF 978-0-7556-4533-6 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033230258&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033230258&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Literaturverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033230258&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Georgia's foreign policy in the 21st century challenges for a small state Außenpolitik (DE-588)4003846-4 gnd Sicherheitspolitik (DE-588)4116489-1 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4003846-4 (DE-588)4116489-1 (DE-588)4022406-5 (DE-588)4143413-4 |
| title | Georgia's foreign policy in the 21st century challenges for a small state |
| title_alt | Georgia's foreign policy in the twenty-first century |
| title_auth | Georgia's foreign policy in the 21st century challenges for a small state |
| title_exact_search | Georgia's foreign policy in the 21st century challenges for a small state |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Georgia's foreign policy in the 21st century challenges for a small state |
| title_full | Georgia's foreign policy in the 21st century challenges for a small state edited by Tracey German, Stephen F. Jones & Kornely Kakachia |
| title_fullStr | Georgia's foreign policy in the 21st century challenges for a small state edited by Tracey German, Stephen F. Jones & Kornely Kakachia |
| title_full_unstemmed | Georgia's foreign policy in the 21st century challenges for a small state edited by Tracey German, Stephen F. Jones & Kornely Kakachia |
| title_short | Georgia's foreign policy in the 21st century |
| title_sort | georgia s foreign policy in the 21st century challenges for a small state |
| title_sub | challenges for a small state |
| topic | Außenpolitik (DE-588)4003846-4 gnd Sicherheitspolitik (DE-588)4116489-1 gnd |
| topic_facet | Außenpolitik Sicherheitspolitik Georgien Aufsatzsammlung |
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