Collapse: the fall of the Soviet Union
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New Haven ; London
Yale University Press
[2021]
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| Physical Description: | xix, 535 Seiten, 16 ungezählte Seiten Bildtafeln Illustrationen, Karten |
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CONTENTS List of Illustrations Dramatis Personae Acknowledgments Maps Introduction: A Puzzle ix xi xvi xxi 1 PART I HOPE AND HUBRIS, 1983-90 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Perestroika Release Revolutions Separatism Crossroads Leviathan 13 43 70 98 126 154 PART II DECLINE AND DOWNFALL, 1991 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Standoff Devolution Consensus Conspiracy Junta Demise Cacophony Independence Liquidation 181 206 229 255 279 311 336 365 397
CONTENTS Conclusion 427 List ofAbbreviations Notes Selected Bibliography Index 440 441 502 511 Vill
INDEX Abalkin, Leonid, 62-3, 78-9, 80,108,126, 132, 246 and the “500 Days,” 134 in Andropov’s group of economists, 442 crisis program, 127,134 Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 58, 73, 168, 210 and the military-industrial complex, 167 and republican academies, 57, 263 transformed into Russian academy, 378 Achalov, Vladislav, 141,162-3, 272,297, 301, 302 Adamishin, Anatoly, 142, 279-80, 328, 329, 330, 336, 367, 370 on Russian-Ukrainian conflict, 370 Yeltsins December 1991 visit to Rome, 418 Afanasyev, Yuri as a leader of Democratic Russia, 105, 202,211,348 in the liberal opposition to Gorbachev, 73, 76, 88,101 as a promoter of republics’ independence, 88, 371 and the Union Treaty, 212,267 see also Democratic Russia; MDG Afgantsy see Army, Soviet Afghanistan abolition of Soviet aid to its regime, 119, 344, 345 Soviet occupation of, 14, 15, 285,438 US refusal to compromise on, 238,239 withdrawal of Soviet troops from, 49, 50 Aganbegyan, Abel, 140, 142, 330,442 Ageyev, Genyi, 297, 302 agriculture, Soviet, 63-4, 130 Akhromeyev, Sergey, 95, 110, 118, 215 and the demise of the Soviet Army, 159-60 and Soviet withdrawal from Europe, 238 suicide, 218 support of junta in August 1991, 215, 318 Aleksandrov, Anatoly, 26 Alexyi II, Patriarch, 223-4, 283, 305 “Alfa,” 183, 283, 299, 299, 382, 406 Alferenko, Gennady, 83 Aliev, Geydar, 54 Alksnis, Viktor, 171,177 Allende, Salvador, 300 Allison, Graham, 235, 238, 240, 241, 243, 248-9 on China, 438 as Grand Bargain supporter, 241, 248-9, 343 Andreotti, Giulio, 45, 196, 213 assistance to Gorbachev, 249, 250 Andropov, Yuri, 314 as Brezhnev’s
loyalist, 14 as Gorbachevs mentor, 19, 20, 24, 30 and his followers, 155 illness and death, 18 Jewish roots, 13 on nationalism and Soviet federation, 52-3,112 as a reformer, 13,14, 17-18, 23,42,437 on Western currency wars against the USSR, 17,177 ANT affair, 127-8,169 anti-alcohol campaign (1985), 23-4, 397 Arbatov, Georgy, 186, 207, 442
INDEX Armenia, 153, 176, 198 boycott of Union referendum (1991), 200 earthquake (1988), 55, 95 see also Nagorny Karabagh Army, Soviet Afgantsy (veterans of Afghanistan), 296, 298,299, 302 anti-Gorbachev rallies in Moscow, 163, 204 arms control cuts, 159, 262 attitudes during junta rule, 298-9,301 in the Baltic republics, 183, 318 and the Commonwealth of Independent States, 419 demoralized by Gorbachev’s zigzags, 185 and economic liberalization, 373, 374-5 and ethnic-nationalist conflicts, 104-5, 161-2 fears of anti-Gorbachev coup, 111,114, 141,209 in Moscow during junta rule, 277-8, 282-3,298-9 not fully in control, 183, 403 oath of allegiance to the Soviet Union, 403, 404,407 reactions to its withdrawal from Eastern Europe, 159-60,161,163, 216 retreat from East Germany and Eastern Europe, 124,159-60, 181, 344, 381 and the Soviet Union’s dissolution, 402-3, 404,407, 409 taken over by Yeltsin’s Russia, 358, 389, 407 threat of partitioning, 381 voting for Yeltsin, 283, 449 see also MIC Åslund, Anders, 415 Attali, Jacques, 251-2, 340 Aven, Pyotr, 391 Azerbaijan, 156, 176, 200, 268, 374, 381 Armenian pogroms in, 54, 56 use of Soviet troops in (1990), 104-5 see also Nagorny Karabagh Bagrov, Nikolai, 385, 386 Bakatin, Vadim, 175, 308, 338 as candidate for Russia’s presidency, 216 criticism by Gorbachev, 152 dismissed by Yeltsin, 418-19 as head of the KGB, 314, 316, 346, 407 and Lithuania’s secession, 113 pro-Americanism, 346 Baker, James, 50,110-11,153,161, 236,419 advising Gorbachev, 96, 198-9, 201, 380 on Baltic independence and policies, 199, 347 512 and the coup in Moscow,
284, 292, 300 dangers of Soviet break-up, 342-3 engaged in Soviet politics, 198, 199 and the five principles, 243, 344, 347, 394,412 friendship with Shevardnadze, 143, 258, 284, 346-7, 392,415 on Grand Bargain, 239, 244 and the Gulf crisis, 143 on handling Yeltsin and the Russian factor, 199, 260 at the Moscow summit (July 1991), 258, 261 negotiating Gorbachevs safe retirement, 41 negotiating safety of Soviet nuclear weapons, 411,413 Princeton speech on “post-Soviet Union” (December 1991), 411 private views on Soviet collapse, 415-16 supporting Russian democracy, 347, 392, 415 on Ukraine, 392 on US recognition of post-Soviet states, 413,416,419-20 visits to the collapsing Soviet Union: September 1991, 344-8; December 1991,412-14,415-16 on Yeltsin-Gorbachev rivalry, 345-6 Baklanov, Oleg, 168,169,171 on arms reductions, 251 in junta of August 1991, 270, 277, 301-2, 303 seeing Yeltsin before the emergency, 286 trip to Foros, 306 balance of trade, Soviet, 17-18, 23, 390 Balcerowicz, Leszek, 128,132, 235; see also Poland, economic reforms Baltic republics (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia) as beneficiaries of the Soviet collapse, 438 bloodshed in January 1991,183-5 at the Congress of People’s Deputies, 76 disputed issues, 261, 334 during junta rule in Moscow, 284, 305 fear of independence reversal, 332, 334 gaining sovereignty, 318-19, 334, 342 Gorbachev’s pledge not to use force, 96, 184 and Kaliningrad region, 347 national mobilization, 85 Nazi-Soviet pact (1939) 57, 76, 85 “people’s fronts,” 55, 56, 57, 60,449 rejection of Soviet commitments, 347 and republican “self-accounting,”
56, 59 Russian-speaking minorities, 182-3,186, 200,261,319, 347 Soviet military and assets in, 327, 347, 381
INDEX as a success story after 1991, 436 support from other national movements, 58 support from Russian liberals, 86,115, 184-5, 213, 290 support from Yeltsin, 185-6, 213 Union referendum, 200 and the United States, 84,95,114,197, 199, 341-2, 347 Western attitudes to, 114, 172,195,213, 258-62, 284, 318, 319-20, 341 bankers and stockbrokers in Moscow, 156-7, 296-7, 328-9 ties with KGB, 328 see also entrepreneurs, Russian banks and banking, Soviet, 32-3 appearance of specialized banks (1987), 32 bankruptcy of External Economy Bank of the USSR (Vneshekonombank), 390 bankruptcy of External Trade Bank of the USSR (Vneshtorgbank), 413 bankruptcy of Soviet “people’s banks” abroad, 390 crisis with Western credits, 111, 116, 127, 294, 412 and separatism, 132 see also State Bank Barannikov, Viktor, 390, 413 Batkin, Leonid, 350 BBC, 196,210, 290-1,296 Beissinger, Mark, 4, 52 Belarus see Belorussia Belorussia (since September 1991, Belarus), 98,211,219, 226, 261,266 economic dependence on Russia, 398-9, 400 meeting of Slavic leaders in Viskuli, 398-405 not eager to secede, 191 Supreme Soviet of, 381 Bérégovoy, Pierre, 340 Berlin Wall, fall of see Germany Berastam, Mikhail, 30, 232-3 as an advisor on Gaidars liberalization strategy, 374-6, 377 on dilemmas behind Soviet Union’s dissolution, 372, 375 “reform without shock,” 233, 354-5, 375 as a witness of Gaidar’s first moves, 373-4, 415 Beschloss, Michael, 1 Bessmertnykh, Alexander, 246, 309,312, 336 collaborating with junta in August 1991, 276, 277 as Shevardnadzes successor, 182, 251, 261 Bethell, Nicholas, 291 Blackwill, Robert, 236,
343 Bobkov, Filipp, 73 Bocharov, Mikhail, 132, 232, 327, 355 Boldin, Valery, 35, 148, 165, 193, 265, 268, 277,279,312 biased reporting to Gorbachev, 138 in cahoots with KGB’s Kryuchkov, 165, 270 as Gorbachevs chief of staff, 109 plot of emergency, 273,274, 276 Bonnell, Victoria, 280-1 Bonner, Yelena, 91,150, 211 against the Union Treaty, 212, 267 shocked by news of emergency rule, 280 see also Sakharov, Andrei Boren, David, 204 Borovoy, Konstantin, 328 Boskin, Michael, 121-2, 236,241, 244 Bounkin, Boris, 169 Boxer, Vladimir 211, 212 Brady, Nicholas, 121-2, 239, 353 against Western assistance to the USSR, 239, 249, 343,411 Braithwaite, Jill, 300 Braithwaite, Rodric, 120, 149,153,174,176, 190, 201, 202, 209, 237, 245, 250-1, 355, 367, 372, 432 on Gorbachev’s decline, 204, 209 on junta rule, 289 on legality of Soviet dissolution, 419 on Ukraine’s independence, 387 on the Union Treaty, 258 Brazauskas, Algirdas, 57, 71, 76 Brexit, 438 Brezhnev, Leonid, 14, 17, 31, 33, 81, 375 British Commonwealth, as model for the post-Soviet space, 190, 350,400 Brovikov, Vladimir, 107 Brown, Archie, 5,120 Brzeziński, Zbigniew, 212 Biichi, Hernán, 230 Bukovsky, Vladimir, 212, 348 Burbulis, Gennady, 82-3,135,136,176, 186, 327, 413 against the purge of Soviet bureaucracy, 354 and the American right, 212-13, 220, 222, 354 background and views, 149-50, 291, 317, 327, 353-4, 383 constructing a Russian state, 191, 353-4, 389, 406 and Democratic Russia, 212, 354 on destruction of the Soviet Union, 291, 358,400-1,405,409,410 513
INDEX during junta rule in August 1991,281, 282, 299 on Gorbachev, 282, 311, 317, 365 idea of a union of Slavic republics, 173 and the KGB, 165, 226, 227, 299, 303, 354, 382,407 at meeting of Slavic leaders in Viskuli, 398, 400-1 and Russia’s primacy in the post-Soviet space, 264-7 and Russia’s strategy of reforms, 355-6, 357-8, 372 shutdown of the Party apparatus, 315 and Ukraine, 327, 383,400,401 and the West, 82-3,221, 222,409-10, 436 Western help, 221,222,409-10,415 on Yeltsins grandstanding, 415 and Yeltsin’s presidential campaign, 212, 216-17,218 as Yeltsin’s strategist, 150,186,191, 216-17,353-5 Burns, Nicholas, 377-8,410,425 Bush administration American recognition of Russia and Ukraine, 262 dilemma of Gorbachev vs republics, 181, 433 project “Russia’s freedom,” 433 viewing Soviet Union as an “evil empire,” 425,433 Bush, Barbara, 119 Bush, George H. W, 50, 83 against financial help to Soviet Union, 122, 236-7, 239-41, 244, 245, 343, 353 arms reduction talks, 238,251,261-2,368 and the Baltic case, 95-6, 114,172,195, 213, 258-62, 284, 341-2 and changes in Eastern Europe, 92, 93, 94-5 Christmas 1991 call from Gorbachev, 424-5 contacts with Yeltsin, 214, 222, 260, 293, 311,368 fear of military coup in Moscow, 258-9, 341, 378, 392 and German unification, 110,118 and Gorbachev’s safe retirement, 416,420 humanitarian aid/food assistance to the USSR, 345, 353, 368, 380,415 intelligence on Soviet crisis, 215,258, 262, 378, 378 pressures on inside the US, 341, 360, 393, 394, 395-6 reacting to Soviet Union’s demise, 341, 410, 424, 425 reacting to junta in Moscow, 283-4, 292-3,
307,311 recognition of Russia (RSFSR), 404 sanctions on the USSR (1991), 195,198 and Soviet role in the Gulf crisis, 143-4, 172,195 strategy regarding Soviet collapse, 197, 199-200, 341-4,368 supporting and steering Gorbachev, 111-12,113-14,121, 172,198, 199-200, 221,222, 233-4, 240, 249, 252-3, 259, 261, 285, 338, 342, 393, 394,434 support of the post-Soviet union of republics, 262, 263, 368 and Ukraine’s independence, 262-3, 359, 360-1, 392, 393, 395-6 US leadership in NATO and G-7, 245, 249-50, 251 at the US-Soviet summits: 1989, 95-6; 1990, 118-19,143-4; 1991,258-62 Cabinet of Ministers (USSR), 171,172,205, 211,224 during emergency rule, 294,298, 302, 316 liquidation of, 316, 331, 332, 364 Camdessus, Michel, 368 Carpendale, Andrew, 342, 343,410-11 Castro, Fidel, 238, 399 Ceauşescu, Nicolae, 90, 91, 97 Celeste, Richard, 169 Center for Democracy, Washington DC, 291-2; see aho Weinstein, Allen Central Asia (republics) dependence on Russia, 332, 381,408 and Islamic fundamentalism, 347,408 joins the Commonwealth, 411 Soviet republics of, 114,131,152,158, 208, 257, 315 withdrawal of Soviet weapons, 161 Yeltsin’s attitude towards, 201 CFE (Treaty on the Conventional Forces in Europe), 159, 161,163,250,412 Ratification of, 238, 344 Charter of Paris (1990), 172 Chebrikov, Viktor, 20, 27, 58, 88 Chechnya, 74, 131,208, 389,435, 436,403 Cheney, Richard, 92,220, 221 advocating break-up of Soviet Union, 239, 342, 344, 361, 392 Chernenko, Konstantin, 20 Chernobyl nuclear catastrophe, 25,44, 364, 397,405 financial consequences, 25 Chernomyrdin, Viktor, 157, 327 514
INDEX Chernovol, Vyacheslav, 385 Chernyaev, Anatoly, 21, 34,40, 66, 87, ПО, 135, 149, 157,165, 261 attempting to resign as Gorbachevs aide, 185 attitude to Yeltsins “Russia,” 103,224 connections to democratic opposition, 207 in Crimea with Gorbachev, August 1991, 273, 274, 275, 287, 293, 309 on demise of Gorbachevs leadership, 148,177, 188, 224,370 and dismantling of Soviet statehood, 309, 334 estimate of Soviet collapse, 423 and German unification, 110,116,118, 124 on Gorbachevs clinging to the Party and Soviet system, 155, 237, 317 and Gorbachev’s last days in power, 378, 406 on Gorbachev’s place in history, 193 as Gorbachevs speechwriter, 225,237, 245, 266 on Lithuania crisis, 112 on nationalism and separatism, 59, 74 radicalization, 87 on Russian attitudes to Gorbachev, 201, 224 on Russian democracy and statehood, 203 on Ukraine and Crimea, 367 and the Union Treaty, 190, 257 on US attitudes to Gorbachev, 197, 198-9, 23 on US conduct, 143, 235,254 Westernism and reliance on the United States, 116, 118-19, 144, 254 China, People’s Republic of, 60, 408, 420 impact on Soviet reforms, 41,61, 229 recognition of Russia, 420 reforms as a possible road for the USSR, 158,175 Sino-Soviet summit (May 1989), 60 Tiananmen Square crackdown, 61, 84-5, 90, 93,96,108, 152, 184, 204, 292,438 Western investments, 434,438 in US-Soviet relations, 261 CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) analysis of the Soviet crisis, 93,182,215, 245, 378 and the August 1991 coup, 271, 283-4, 292 briefing Bush and Scowcroft on Soviet affairs, 215, 258, 259, 262, 378 intelligence sources in Moscow, 245, 377 as a
model for the reformed KGB, 346, 382 in Soviet officials’ imagination, 165 pro-Yeltsin bias in, 292, 378 CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States), 400, 406,407, 408,409, 425 Alma-Ata conference, 416, 417,419-20 borders between members, 405 as cover for Soviet Union’s dissolution, 436 declaration of, 401-2, 404 extra-legal nature of, 400, 405-6, 419 fictional joint control over Soviet nukes, 220 nuclear controls, 401, 404, 413 and the Soviet Army, 404 see abo Viskuli civil war, specter/fear of, 108, 113, 147, 149, 151,153, 154, 164, 174,195-6, 269, 276, 282, 301, 314, 333,405, 406, 416, 430 prospect in Ukraine, 320, 393, 405 see also Yugoslavia Clinton, Bill, 426, 434 CMEA (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance), 47 crisis and dissolution, 246 CNN, 121,143, 152,196,204 covering Gorbachev’s farewell speech, 422-3 during emergency rule, 283, 288 invited to fly to Crimea to rescue Gorbachev, 306 COCOM (Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls), 45,159 Colby, William, 169 Cold War “defeat” of the Soviet Union, 411,433 perceived end of, 43-4, 50, 92, 95-6, 143, 148, 252, 405,433 Western policies in, 44-5, 158, 259 Collins, James, 283, 289, 290 Colton, Timothy, 244 “Common European Home” (Gorbachev’s vision of Europe), 48, 50, 89, 94,97, 109, 110, 173, 249, 275 Commonwealth of Independent States see CIS Communist Party see Party, the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe see CSCE Congress of Peoples Deputies (RSFSR): May-June 1990, 116-18; March 1991, 203-5; May 1991, 216; October 1991, 373 approving the RSFSR presidency, 191, 205,216 515
INDEX granting Yeltsin extraordinary powers for Kravchuks diplomacy towards, 385-6, reforms, 373 389 standoff between Yeltsin and Gorbachev, and Ukraine referendum (December 203-5 1991), 395 Congress of People’s Deputies (USSR), 36 and Ukraine’s insecurity, 363 electing Gorbachev as President, 107-8 Ukrainian-Russian dispute over, 324, 325, election and convocation of, 70 326, 327, 351, 384, 394,400 last straw for Gorbachev to stay in power, CSCE (Conference on Security and 406,421 Cooperation in Europe), 172 reformed out of existence, 256, 331, Cuadra, Sergio de la, 230, 415 332-4, 348 Cuba, 96,119,239 sessions: May-June 1989, 74-8; abrogation of Soviet assistance to, 344, December 1989,175-8; March 1990, 345 107-8; September 1991, 332-4 Czechoslovakia, 48, 93 Constitution of the Soviet Union plans to join NATO, 161 breached by Yeltsin during emergency “Prague Spring” (1968), 34 rule, 306,311-12 Soviet invasion of (1968), 47, 59, 97, 112, and Commonwealth accords, 400, 410 115, 184 debates on confederation, 59, 99,120, 134, 135,429 Darman, Richard, 239 defended by Yeltsin and Russian De Michelis, Gianni, 145 democrats, 283 Delors, Jacques, 133, 249, 410 defied by RSFSR Congress, 204 Dementey, Nikolai, 266, 315 eroded and abrogated, 264, 332, 333-4, Demirchan, Karen, 54 348, 370 Democratic Russia (DR), 101,115,140,164, Novo-Ogaryovo Joint Declaration, 208, 189 209 absence of economic strategy, 348, and reforms of political system (1988), 349-50,354 35-6 against Gorbachev and the Soviet and reforms of ruling structures (1990), government, 105,152,176,184, 234 107, 108
against the Union Treaty, 201, 267 respected by hardliners and junta backing Baltic independence, 86,115, (1990-91), 156,270, 277, 288 184-5, 213, 290 and “socialist democracy,” 33 backing Ukraine’s sovereignty, 117, 211 troika deals with Yeltsin and Nazarbayev: “common democratic space,” 333, 343, July 1991, 256-7; September 1991, 331 351 Constitutional Assembly, Russian (1918), “dark forces” of reaction, 140-1, 243 333, 379 declarations of human rights, 333, 339 Cooperatives, Law on, 32, 63, 397 and economic liberalization, 150-1, 229 cooperatives, Soviet, 18,113, 129,130,166, gatherings and rallies, 150,153,184,194, 168 202,210-11,317, 348-5 as profiteers, 79, 80, 81, 111, 126, 189 mass base, 211 taxation of, 127,189 pro-Western moods, 339, 348-50 see also Cooperatives, Law on and RSFSR parliament, 117,131 Coordinating Committee for Multilateral and shutdown of the Party in Moscow, 315 Export Controls supported by American NGOs, 202, Cossiga, Francesco, 418, 422 212-13 Council for Mutual Economic Assistance supporting and criticizing Yeltsin, 202-3, see CMEA 216, 333, 349, 371 Council of Federation (1990-91), 108, unprepared for state work, 348, 350 Crimea weakness of, 430 annexed by Russia (2014), 2,437 “democrats of the first wave,” 9, 73, 76,117, autonomy within Ukrainian republic, 70, 348, 350; see also intelligentsia 385 Deng Xiaoping, 16,60, 61,295,434 Gorbachev on vacation in, 34, 38,40,41, diamonds, Soviet, 111, 127,137, 330, 370, 87,134, 265-6, 273, 306 376, 388, 390, 391 516
INDEX Dienstbier, Jiří, 340 Diuk, Nadia, 212 Doguzhiev, Vitaly, 295, 302, 304 Dole, Robert, 220 Dornbusch, Rudiger, 231, 356,414 Dudayev, Dzhokhar, 389 Dumas, Roland, 340, 419 Durdinets, Valery, 392 East Germany (German Democratic Republic), 49, 91,92, 93 Eastern Europe, 3, 15, 18,43,47-8, 89,433 collapse of trade with the USSR, 246, 247 illiberal trend in, 438s nationalism in, 52 and neoliberal economics, 230 peaceful revolutions in, 94, 306 plans to join NATO, 161, 246-7 as priority for the West over Russia, 433, 434 prospect of violence in, 48-9 rejection of “Finlandization,” 247 as US strategic priority after 1989,239, 245, 284 withdrawal of Soviet forces from, 159-61, 327 see also Soviet bloc; Warsaw Treaty Organization; CMEA EBRD (European Bank for Reconstruction and Development), 249, 251, 340 economic treaty among post-Soviet republics talks on, 346, 357, 367-8, 369, 370 and Ukraine, 367, 370, 373, 383, 386, 400 Yeltsin’s zigzags on, 357, 369, 370, 373 economy, Soviet, 16, 23 blows to, 24,25, 26 collapse of the central state, 327, 329-30 crisis, 4,126 crisis of supply, 62,424 de-centralization of, 27-8, 30 IMF-World Bank study of, 231 joint-stock companies, 157 loss of state control over export, 111,113, 166, 207, 374-5 “nationalization” by RSFSR, 120, political liberalization, 78-9 populist policies, 126,129,146, 201, 231, 232, 327 price liberalization, 128, 132,373, 374-6, 383 privatization, 129,132,156-7, 234, 326-9 protectionist reaction to crisis of, 207 reform programs in 1991, 348 subsidies, 18, 99, 201, 327, 372, 377, 357, 367, 395,419 and Western
economists, 126, 231, 233, 235, 356, 372, 354-5, 373, 374-8,415 see also finances, Soviet; inflation EEC see European Economic Community elites, Russia’s (after 1991), and decline of liberal Westernism, 435-6 Emergency Committee (State Committee for the State of Emergency; GKChP; junta) assurances to the West, 276, 277, 292 and bureaucratic class, 294, 295, 296, 297, 304 consequences of its failure, 303-4, 320 and curfew in Moscow, 298 delegation to Crimea, 273-4,275,276, 303 disagreement and disintegration, 297, 301-3,307 economic crisis, 272, 280, 294, 302 and Gorbachev’s absence, 275, 287, 290 and Gorbachev’s “treason” 318 lack of economic strategy, 294 lack of legitimacy, 273, 275, 285, 286-8, 290, 291, 293, 294, 295-6, 304, 305 logistics, 269-72 and the media, 279-80, 286, 287, 287-8, 297, 298 Operation Thunder,” 297, 301, 302 and the Party, 276-7 plans for Yeltsin, 286, 288-9 popular resistance to, 289, 296, 297, 300, 302 popular initial acceptance of, 1, 320 reactions in the West, 272, 274, 280-1, 287, 289, 292 repentance of members, 303 and republican/regional elites, 283,286, 297, 306 shock effect of, 278, 280-1 tipping point for, 294, 302 unready to use violence, 285 emergency legislation, 108,146, 259 wasted by Gorbachev, 171-3,174, 201 entrepreneurs, Russian against the junta, 296-7,296, 328 and the collapse of the Soviet state, 327-9 and Party money, 157, 326 as promoters of liberalization, 204, 225, 327, 328, 349 Erb, Richard, 414 Ermarth, Fritz, 182, 214 Estonia, 77, 389 Russia’s recognition of sovereignty, 318-19 and Russian democrats, 291 separatism of,
59,112-13 see also Baltic republics 517
INDEX EU see European Union European Bank for Reconstruction and Development see EBRD European Economic Community, 47,102, 122, 190, 249, 340 European Union, 133, 340 exclusion of Russia, 436 Friedman, Milton, 229, 232 Frolov, Ivan, 35 Fukuyama, Francis, 410 Furman, Dmitry, 45, 81 Fyodorov, Boris, 457 Fyodorov, Svyatoslav 73 Fahd bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, King of Saudi Arabia, 145 Falin, Valentin, 118 Federal Reserve System, 188, 222, 229, 351, 353 Filshin, Gennady, 189 finances, Soviet, 17, 30-1, 111 budget deficit, 62, 63, 80, 242 debts and dependence on Western credits, 111, 116,139, 161,170, 194, 233, 234, 294 dualism of, 30-1, 32, 128, 129, 130 fear of Western sanctions, 272, 274,285, 293, 295, 304 food imports (as a Soviet problem), 18 gold reserves, 111, 127, 338, 353, 412 loss of revenues, 126-7, 412 manipulations with cashless money, 129 printing money, 237, 330, 358, 370, 376, 387, 397 ruble zone during the collapse, 358, 369-70,405, 419 Soviet bankruptcy, 110, 237, 242, 246, 293, 294, 327, 338, 390 taken under Russia’s control, 376-7, 387-8 see also foreign debts and credits, Soviet; Goznak; inflation; Ministry of Finance Fischer, Stanley, 235 Fisunenko, Igor, 218, 219 Fokin, Vitold, 263, 351, 369, 370, 399 at meeting of Slavic leaders in Viskuli, 399,400,401,405 foreign debts and credits, Eastern European, 15-16, 17,48, 93, 340 foreign debts and credits, Soviet, 17, 25,48 denial of credits, 111, 242, 294, 338, 340, 353 restructuring of, 249, 340 Russia takes over, 390-1,404 Western pressure to pay, 353 foreign investments in the USSR, 246 Foreign Ministry, Russian
226, 380,418, 426; see aho Kozyrev, Andrei foreign trade, Soviet collateralized by gold, 353 halted for lack of credit, 111, 294 impact of de-centralization, 90 518 G-7 competition among Soviet actors to get money from, 352 internal coordination, 343 and Soviet debts/financial chaos, 390-1 summits: Houston, 1990,122, 231, 232; London, 1991, 234, 238, 246, 248, 249-54 and Western Sherpas, 247, 338, 340, 353 Gaidar, Masha, 295 Gaidar, Yegor, 231, 371,406 and the “500 Days,” 231 abolition of state monopoly on currency regulation, 374 absence of financial reserves, 390-1, 414 decree on price liberalization, 373, 374-6; other decrees, 398 drafting the Commonwealth accords, 400, 405 and failing central governance, 356, 375, 376 IMF-World Bank study of Soviet economy, 232 macroeconomic theory, 231, 355, 356, 371, 373 at meeting of Slavic leaders in Viskuli, 398-402 partnership with Burbulis, 355-6 on preventing war with Ukraine, 405 produces strategy of reforms for Yeltsin, 355-8 reactions to emergency rule, 231, 288, 295, 300, 303 reforms postponed, 383 in the Russian “government of reforms,” 376, 377 on seizing financial and economic assets and controls, 376, 398 social consequences of reforms, 435 his team of economists, 295, 398 Western lack of assistance, 390-1, 414, 434 and Yeltsin, 295, 371-2, 431 Gamsakhurdia, Zviad, 91, 198,283, 415 Gandhi, Rajiv, 63 Garcelon, Marc, 210 Garrison, Jim, 83 Gates, Robert, 50, 92,163-4, 181, 245 and the coup in Moscow, 283, 292
INDEX Gazprom, 157, 327, 330, 375, 388 Gdlyan, Telman, 74, 75, 76,152,164 General Staff, Soviet, 176,177, 238, 247, 251, 297, 298, 303, 362, 378,411,419 Genscher, Hans-Dietrich, 114,124, 293, 319, 339-40, 422 Georgia bloodshed in Tbilisi (April 1989), 74, 75, 162 conflict with Russia (2008), 437 separatism and violence in, 92, 350 stays out of the Commonwealth, 416 Gerashchenko, Viktor, 79,108,132, 235, 330 German Democratic Republic see East Germany Germany Berlin Wall, fall of, 93 foreign assistance to Gorbachev, 121, 339-40 German reunification, 109-12 monetary union with East Germany, 111-12 and NATO, 110-12 nuclear arms, 362 Soviet rapprochement with West Germany, 89, 90 Soviet troops in, 124, 284, 381 see aho East Germany Gidaspov, Boris, 209, 296 GKChP see Emergency Committee glasnost, 4, 22, 37, 67, 71, 75, 88 gold reserves, Soviet as collateral for the West, 95,290,412 “disappearance” of, 390-1 seized by Russia’s authorities, 388 see also Finances Golikov, Vyacheslav, 193 Golovatov, Mikhail, 183 Golovkov, Alexei, 231, 355,491 Gonzalez, Felipe, 45,145, 225 Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich and the “500 Days,” 133,134,135,136, 135-7, 140, 150 against privatization, 28, 245 alliance with Yeltsin and Nazarbayev: July 1991, 256-7, 258, 263-4; September 1991, 331-2, 333-4 background, 19-20 and Baltic separatism, 85, 87,104, 112-13, 115, 195-6, 261 birthday (1991), 193 calls for his resignation, 176, 184, 192-3, 194, 201, 203, 211, 243, 274,290, 310, 311,333 as chairman of the Supreme Soviet, 75-8 and the Chernobyl catastrophe, 26 519 and collectivized agriculture, 64 as
commander-in-chief, 161, 162-3, 183, 238, 251,262-3, 381,407-8 “Common European Home” vision, 48, 50, 89, 97, 109, 173 conducting State Council and provisional government, 331, 334, 335, 337, 338, 351-2, 356, 357, 369, 381, 382, 387, 388, 391,406 as crucial driver of Soviet collapse, 5, 397, 427, 428 in denial of political realities, 94,105-6, 312-13,416-17, 422 on the destruction of the Union, 394, 406,409,436 destruction of the Unions state structures, 333-4 devolution/delegation of power, 8, 69, 107, 206, 208, 224, 256-7, 264, 268, 314, 322, 331 and the economy, 23-5, 28-9, 63,129, 201,224,316 and the Emergency Committee, 272-3, 271,274, 308 eroding authority, 100, 103, 104,105, 148, 283 farewell address and resignation, 422-4 fearing civil war, 195-6, 269, 314 fearing for family’s life, 265-6, 274, 275, 293 and finances, 30, 31,129,130-1,206 foreign travel, 82,119,172 fundraising abroad, 116,144-5, 337, 338, 339-40, 363, 380 G-7 summit in London, 245, 246, 247, 251-4, 255 and German money, 116,121,144, 339 and German reunification, 92, 94, 109-11,116, 118,124 and Grand Bargain, 235, 237, 240, 241, 254-5 and Gulf War, 172,183, 196, 197 health, 273, 275, 292, 293, 295-6, 307 hubris, 37, 38, 68, 80,104, 222, 243, 264, 353 indecision and temporizing of, 54,117, 138,140,142, 172,185, 188-9, 203, 206, 210, 245, 279,429 isolated in Crimea, 272, 273-4 lack of interest in executive power, 36, 109, 172,314 lack of strategy, 22, 26-7, 66,67,117,130, 142, 337,427 left without money, 383,406 as Lenin’s emulator, 21-2, 24, 26, 27, 37, 46, 66-7, 106, 135, 269, 422, 427
INDEX lionized by the West, 95,119, 148, 340, 415 losing popularity at home, 2, 24, 80, 88, 105,125,205,310 loss of power instruments, 314-15, 407-8,417 and military industries, 64-6,167-9, 251 and NATO, 110-12,118,124, 247 Nine Plus One talks, 206-10, 218, 234-5, 240,241, 255-7,258, 266, 315; see also Union Treaty Nobel Peace Prize, 148,173,184 non-use of force and legalism, 43,47, 54, 55, 61,105, 183-5,196, 203,322, 406, 428 and nuclear arms, 44, 262 and nuclear controls, 275, 314-15, 378, 413-14,408, 417, 419,421, 424 and the Party apparatus, 27,40-1, 66-7, 71, 72, 107, 123, 135, 155, 157-8, 209, 225, 255 and the Party’s destruction, 315, 316 place in history, 193, 422 political isolation, 378, 379, 387,417 popular anger against, 115,121,191, 193-4 and the post-August 1991 provisional government, 312, 322, 331; see also State Council reading and theorizing by, 34, 38,66-7, 68,106,135, 266 rejection of junta members, 274, 306, 307-8 reliance on intelligentsia, 46, 54, 55, 56, 72 reliance on KGB, 165,166,197,199, 222, 243, 265,268, 269 reliance on US leadership, 45-6,196,197, 198-9,233,252,258, 260 resigns as Party head, 318 return to Moscow after junta’s collapse, 309-10 and Russia’s economic reform, 378-9 and Russia’s sovereignty, 99,117-18 and the Russian Communist Party, 100, 124,136,155,193, 225 and Russian liberals, 105,150,152,184, 217, 234,378,417 and Russian opposition and separatism, 100, 204-5, 417 and the Russian presidency, 219, 224 and the Ryzhkov government, 134,136, 140 and Shevardnadze’s resignation, 177 and “socialist democracy,” 27,28, 35-6, 60, 61, 67,
225,428 on Soviet nationalities, 51, 53-4 on Stalin and terror, 34-5, 57 as a struggling world statesman, 247, 248, 255, 260-1,262, 337, 339-40, 379-80 terms of retirement, 420-2 “turn to the right,” 154, 171-3, 174, 192, 260, on Ukrainian independence and sovereignty, 321, 370, 393-4, 395 and Ukrainian separatism, 256, 257,258, 263, 393-4, 395 Union presidency, 106-8, 171, 174, 257, 266, 282 Union Treaty, 85,135,138,170-1 US-Soviet summits, 44, 96, 118-19,182, 253 US economic support, 119,144, 235 vacation in August 1991,265-6 verbosity, 1, 105-6, 202, 261, 353 and Vilnius bloodshed (January 1991), 183-4, 185 and Yeltsin, 39, 117-18, 119,133, 137-8, 148-9, 201, 223, 357, 379, 382, 387 and Yeltsin’s anti-Party decrees, 265 Gorbacheva, Irina, 265, 307,310 Gorbacheva, Raisa, 26,104,105,109,118, 119, 177, 251,264, 270,410 decision to go on vacation in August 1991, 265 her fear and breakdown, 307,308, 309, 310, 378 as an intellectual partner of Mikhail, 19-20, 34 during isolation in Zaria, 273, 274, 293, 307 and the Soviet Cultural Foundation, 100 on the Union Treaty, 266-7 Gorbunovs, Anatolijs, 57,185, 319 Gosnell, Jack, 296 Gosplan, 18,28,31, 88, 175, 230 Gospriemka see State Inspection Goznak, 330, 376, 387-8 Grachev, Andrei, 267, 335 Grachev, Pavel, 281,298,407,413 Grand Bargain (private proposal of Western assistąnce to Soviet reforms, 1991), 235, 236,238, 239-40, 241, 243-4, 245, 248 compared to the Marshall Plan of 1947, 235,240, 340 Granin, Daniil, 316 Greenspan, Alan, 353 Grinev, Vladimir, 321, 322, 331 Gromov, Boris, 175, 216, 267 Gromyko, Andrei, 20, 27,28,45 GRU,
92, 253, 299 520
INDEX Gubenko, Nikolai, 147, 279 Gusak, Gustav, 47 Hadjiev, Salambek, 329 Hannah, John, 342 Havel, Vaclav, 161, 216, 239, 337,246-7 Helms, Jesse, 220 Helsinki Final Act (1975), 33, 48, 319 as a model for the post-Soviet environment, 332, 343 Hewett, Ed, 244, 343-4, 425 Hobbes, Thomas, 154 Honecker, Erich, 90, 93, 399 Hoover Institution, Stanford University, 231 Horelick, Arnold, 244 Hroch, Miroslav, 52 Hungary, 1956 invasion of, 14, 92,184,271, 284, 285, 326 Hurd, Douglas, 149, 338,419 Hurenko, Stanislav, 265, 286 Hussein, Saddam, 142,143,196 ideology, and Soviet collapse, 4, 9, 430-1, 432 Ilyushin, Viktor, 398 IMF (International Monetary Fund), 92, 229, 338 and the “500 Days,” 147 Gorbachev’s defiance of, 234,247 pessimism about Soviet economy and Gorbachev, 368 and Polish reforms, 128,129 political support for Gaidar, 414-15 and reduction of Soviet military, 373 Soviet membership in, 95,175, 234, 235, 248, 259, 343, 368, 390 and Soviet reforms, 129,147,165,230, 249, 345 study on the Soviet economy, 231-2, 233 as a surrogate Western actor, 122,137, 345 technical assistance to the USSR, 122, 137 see also World Bank and Washington Consensus inflation in Soviet economy, 128,148,177, 201, 210, 374, 422 accumulation of cash, 30-1 cashless crediting, 129 and Gaidar’s reforms, 383,405, 414 and Pavlov’s reforms, 202, 234-5 policies of state enterprises, 126-7 and populist politics, 130,146,177, 201, 232, 327 intelligentsia, Soviet base of Russian counterelite, 101, 430 calling for a strong arm, 146-7 decamping from Gorbachev to Yeltsin, 150,217,317, 378 ethos, 210, 348, 350
fearing the KGB, 140-1, 350 fearing a military coup, 216 fearing a Stalinist comeback, 40,140-2, 280-1 and nationalism, 55, 57, 74, 85-6,91-2, 104 revolutionary hubris, 210 and Russian identity, 317 supporting the Balts, 184-5 uncritical Westernism, 80-1,165, 210 utopianism, 9 Inter-regional Deputies’ Group see MDG International Monetary Fund see IMF Iraq, 142-3 Isakov, Boris, 205 Israel, 145, 261 Italy, Yeltsin’s trip to (December 1991), 417-18 Ivanenko, Viktor, 226, 299, 382 Ivanov, Nikolai, 75, 76,152,164 Ivashko, Vladimir, 155,185, 304, 306, 207, 209 Jackson-Vanik amendment, 95,119,259; see also US Congress; Cold War Japan, 45, 66,102, 208 territorial issues with the USSR, 250 Jaruzelski, Wojciech, 48,97,129,151,171, 285 Jews, Soviet, 81,140, 147, 360 emigration of, 119,145, 259 and Ukrainian politics, 360, 364 John-Paul II, Pope, 418 Johnson, Tom, 423 Juan Carlos, King of Spain, 296 junta see Emergency Committee Kaifu, Toshiki, 122,250 Kalugin, Oleg, 164 Kaplan, Rick, 422 Karimov, Islam, 109,191,257, 381 Karpov, Viktor, 262 Karpukhin, Viktor, 299 Karyakin, Yuri, 312 Kasparov, Garry, 211 Kazakhstan (The Kazakh SSR), 53, 323,400, 408 joins the Commonwealth of Independent States, 411 nuclear arms, 347 Kebich, Vyacheslav, 351, 398,400-1,402, 405 521
INDEX Kerman, George, 6,411 Kerensky, Alexander, 138 KGB (Committee for State Security), USSR, 13,14, 16, 27, 33, 66, 67, 71, 83, 86, 143,155, 163-70, 175, 213,232, 301, 316, 399,417 on American engagement in Russian politics, 212-13 broken up and demoralized, 378, 382 commercial activities, 127-8,157,189, 327-8, 437 division and hesitancy during the emergency, 283, 299,299, 302 Gorbachev’s encirclement in Zaria, 274, 292, 293 headquarters spared in August 1991, 313-14 logistics of the coup, 271, 272, 273-4, 287, 290 merged with the police forces, 418 and nationalist movements, 52, 74, 76, 86, 92,164 not acting on the oath to the Soviet Union, 402 obedience to leadership of, 165-6 and prospects of social unrest, 152,153, 155, 227 protection of leadership, 118,166,265, 274, 307, 382 and Russian nationalism, 216 and Russian politics, 115,117,164,186, 219, 227, 299,455 split over the Union Treaty, 271 supporting Yeltsin, 71, 149, 227, 449 suspected attempt on Yeltsins life, 147 tapping communications, 165, 213, 221-2, 257, 269 “turn to the right,” 154 see aho KGB, Russian KGB, Russian, 137,149, 150, 226, 299; see aho KGB, USSR Khasbulatov, Ruslan, 131-2,146,193, 227, 327, 373 during the junta’s rule, 281, 282, 295, 304-5 and Gorbachev, 204, 209-10,211 and the victory of Russian democracy, 306,311,313 Khlebnikov, Paul, 327 Khodorkovsky, Mikhail, 328-9 Khrushchev, Nikita, 22, 30, 34,44,45,57, 65, 66, 79, 389,431 and Crimea, 327 lessons for Gorbachev, 31, 38,420,427 Kirkland, Lane, 202, 220 Kissinger, Henry, 66, 220 522 Kobets, Konstantin, 299 Kohl, Helmut, 45, 90,110,196
financial support to Gorbachev, 116,144, 145, 244, 249, 250, 339-40 reaction to the coup in Moscow, 284,287 on separatism in the USSR, 114, 341 and Soviet troops in East Germany, 124, 284, 381 Soviet-German accords (1990), 124 special relations with Gorbachev, 110, 112,121,246,416 on Yugoslavia, 261 Köhler, Horst, 340 Kolosovsky, Andrei, 404-5,412, 413 Komplektov, Viktor, 292 Komsomol, entrepreneurship of, 157, 327-8 Koppel, Ted, 422,423,424 Korea, Republic of, 208 Korzhakov, Alexander (“Sasha”), 149, 282, 315, 358,403 Kovalev, Sergey, 339 Kozyrev, Andrei, 238, 291, 319, 356, 367, 377, 394-5,400,414,417 and the destruction of the Union, 367-8 during junta rule, 283, 290-2 ensuring Russia’s status as Soviet successor state, 412,419,420 expectation of Western help, 222, 292, 414,426 at meeting of Slavic leaders in Viskuli, 398,400,402, 403 as Russian Foreign Minister, 226 takeover of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, 336, 380,412,417 and US leadership, 220,221, 404-5,408, 413 Kravchenko, Leonid, 298 Kravchuk, Antonina, 266 Kravchuk, Leonid, 86, 359, 360, 360, 383 and Crimea’s separatism, 385-6 defying Gorbachev, 265,266, 351-2, 394 during emergency rule, 283,286, 307, 308 and economic relations with Russia, 352, 361, 369, 370 growing confidence, 201, 256, 265, 320, 359 as a leader of Ukraine’s independence, 320-2, 351, 359 at meeting of Slavic leaders in Viskuli, 396, 398-405 Nine Plus One talks, 255-6, 315, 326, 352, 369, 370 partnership with Yeltsin, 173-4, 325 and the post-Soviet confederation, 263, 266, 361, 364, 383
INDEX presidential race in Ukraine, 256, 326, 359, 360, 364, 384-6 referendum on independence, 322, 393, 397 trip to Canada and the United States (September 1991), 359-61, 363 on Ukraine’s nuclear arms, 363, 367, 392, 401 and Ukrainian-American diaspora, 359, 360 and Ukrainian-Russian conflict, 325-6 worries about dominant Russia, 174, 263 Kremlin, the as Gorbachevs presidential residence, 130, 168, 177, 184, 224 seized by Yeltsin, 407-8,413,419,420-1, 424 and Yeltsins demands and empowerment, 120, 137-8, 219, 223, 224 Krenz, Egon, 93 Krieble, Robert, 212, 217, 220, 291 Kruchina, Nikolai, 157, 315, 326, 327-8 Kryuchkov, Vladimir, 66, 88-9,108,113, 115, 130,143,193, 215, 256, 327 and American agents of influence, 165 arrest, 309 on the bloodshed in Vilnius (January 1991), 183 calculations for Russia’s role, 286 enjoying Gorbachev’s trust, 151, 261, 269 fear of Western sanctions, 285 and Grand Bargain, 235-6, 242 insinuating and goading Gorbachev, 148, . 4,269 II plotting to introduce emergency, 200,221 on political reforms, 163-4 reading of intelligence, 269-70 reluctance to use force, 284,288-9,297, 302, 303 as a ringleader of a junta, 164, 269-71, 272, 273, 274,275,276, 285-7, 288-9 trip to Foros, 305, 306, 307-8 on the Union referendum, 191,200 and the Union Treaty, 269,430 on Western financial policies, 164,165-6, 168,177, 190, 290, 294, 301-2, 303 and Yeltsin, 226, 286-7, 288 see also KGB, USSR Kryzhanovsky, Pyotr, 396 Kunadze, Georgy, 418 Kuwait, 142-3,196 Kuzbass, 79,193, 211, 216, 218, 297; see also workers Kvitsinsky, Yuly, 247, 336 Landsbergis, Vytautas, 58,
76,112,114,182, 184, 186, 282, 342 Latin America as a mirror for Soviet troubles, 247, 248, 249, 435 as a testing-ground for neoliberalism, 230-1,249 Latvia, 114,185 gaining sovereignty, 318-19 national referendum on independence (1991), 200 see also Baltic republics Lavrov, Kirill, 147 Lavrov, Sergey, 336-7 Lebed, Alexander, 297, 298, 305 legal succession from the Soviet Union to Russia, 212, 264, 350 British advice on, 419 and financial institutions, 376-7 Russian-Ukrainian dispute over, 367,401 Western consent to, 369, 413, 419, 426 Yeltsin’s dilemma on, 366, 373 Lenin, Vladimir, 16, 29, 35, 36, 72, 219, 293, 329, 333, 337, 343, 373, 375, 379 construction of the Soviet Union, 51,400, 403 his cult debunked, 72 his reforms, 428 Levada, Yuri, 217 Lieven, Dominic, 68 Ligachev, Yegor, 20, 23, 29, 39,40, 106, 107, 112, 115,123-4 Likhachev, Dmitry, 75, 99, 108, 333 Lincoln, Abraham, 193 Lithuania assassination of customs officers (July 1991), 261 bloodshed in January 1991,182-3, 290 separatism (1989-90), 89,104,112 Soviet economic sanctions against, 113, 115 suspends independence declaration, 123 see also Baltic republics Lobov, Vladimir, 262 Lubbers, Ruud, 249, 284 Lugar, Richard, 411 Lukianenko, Levko, 320, 321 Lukin, Vladimir, 313 concept of Russia inside a Union, 174, 207 excluded from the Viskuli talks, 398 relations with the United States, 220,221 resistance to the junta, 281 as supporter of the Union Treaty, 207, 209 and territories and borders of Russia, 173-4, 324, 325 523
INDEX Lukyanov, Anatoly, 35, 58, 71,193, 205, 327 and the “500 Days,” 136,146 opportunism in August 1991, 272,275-6, 287, 295, 304 maneuvering to succeed Gorbachev, 176, 221, 242, 296 prodding for hard line, 148,151-2,154, 255 as Speaker of the USSR Supreme Soviet, 108,117,176 trip to Foros, 306, 207, 309 Luzhkov, Yuri, 281, 300, 315 Major, John, 196, 244, 293, 338, 343,421 Makashov, Albert, 122, 216 Malaparte, Curzio, 293-4 Malkina, Tatiana, 288 Mao Zedong, 41, 60 Marchuk, Yevgeny, 392 Marshall Plan (1947) as a model for Western assistance to the Soviet Union/Russia, 235, 240, 340, 411,414,415 expectation of in Soviet-Russian elites, 414, 432 Masliukov, Yuri, 88,112,136,137,138,142, 144, 175, 295 Matiukhin, Grigory, 226 Matlock, Jack, 83, 84,182,195,196,199, 220, 232,239 conspiracy against Gorbachev (June 1991), 221, 243 on the Soviet Union’s preservation, 238-9 and Ukraine, 262, 263 May Day demonstration (1990), 115 Mazowiecki, Tadeusz, 91, 97 McFaul, Michael, 212 MDG (Inter-regional Deputies’ Group), 77, 78, 82, 83, 84, 86, 88,101,120 Medvedev, Vadim, 35, 36, 47, 74, 76, 85, 245, 246, 332,379 Medvedev, Vladimir, 273 Men, Alexander, assassination of 140-1 Meri, Lennart, 213, 347 MIC (military-industrial complex), Soviet, 44, 64-5, 135, 267, 270, 348,437 and the “500 Days,” 166 biological programs, 166, 348, 421 as a bogus threat for Russian liberals, 135,141,166,268 budgetary allocations, 166-7,169 cost-effectiveness of, 17,166,432 “conversion” and dismantling of, 159, 166-70, 221, 234 directors of its corporations, 168-70, 251 employees in separatist democratic movement,
117, 166,210 fear of production cuts, 251 foreign investments, 168,169, 246, 251 Gorbachevs expectations of, 65 and market ventures, 168,169-70 in republics, 323, 347, 359 and separatism, 137,162 and the Soviet governments reforms, 64, 128, 234 takeover by Russia, 316 “turn to the right,” 17,154 US attitudes toward, 45,170, 233 MID (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the USSR) fears of elimination, 380 and international recognition of Russia, 389 purge after August 1991, 336-7 and Soviet assets abroad, 380-1, 388-9, 417 takeover by Russia discussed, 378, 380-1, 388-9,413,417-18 Middle East, 145,196,197 international conference on, 143-4, 379-80 Soviet role in, 143, 260,261, 412 Mielke, Erich, 14,17, 93 military-industrial complex see MIC Miloševič, Slobodan, 370 Ministry of Finance of the USSR printing money to cover tax holes, 237 proposing higher taxes, 126-7 taken under Russia’s control, 376-7, 383, 387 see also finances, Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs see MID Mitchell, George, 220 Mitterrand, François, 37,89,196 on the dissolution of the Soviet Union, 410 G-7 summit in London, 249, 251 as Gorbachevs supporter, 114,122,145, 244, 340 reactions to the coup in Moscow, 284, 287, 305 recognition of the Baltics, 320 shifting priorities away from the East, 340 Mlynař, Zdeněk, 33 Moiseyev, Mikhail brief tenure as Minister of Defense, 312, 315 during the emergency, 314 as General Staff head, 160,161,238, 309 Moldova, 85 524
INDEX conflict in Transnistria, 436 separatism and violence in, 153, 262,283, 350 Mosbacher, Robert, 144, 220, 221 Moscow attitudes to preservation of the Union, 202 as capital of the Soviet Union and the RSFSR, 124, 134, 137, 145,219 as center of the defense industries, 65, 169-70 as controller of Union economic assets, 52, 157-8 envy and enmity toward, 73-4, 76-7, 120-1, 139,150 as hotbed of Westernism and liberalism, 80, 86, 97,99, 101, 105, 117,128,178, 184,186, 194,197, 210, 217 living standards deteriorating under Gorbachev, 62 power struggle in, 150,152, 202, 203-204, 207 as Soviet-Russian media hub, 72, 76,105, 117,135 supporting market reforms, 135 supporting Yeltsin, 71,138, 201, 217 as symbol of colonial domination, 58 under control of Democratic Russia, 115, 152 Movement for Democracy and Reforms, 225,280; see also Shevardnadze, Eduard Mulford, David Q, 239, 353, 390,414 Miillerson, Rein, 319 Mulroney, Brian, 122, 250,422 on the coup in Moscow, 285 on recognition of the Balts and Ukraine, 341,359 Murashov, Arkady, 150, 348, 349-50; see also Democratic Russia; MDG Mutallibov, Ayaz, 351,419 Myasnikov, Georgy, 100 Nabiyev, Rahmon, 419 Nagorny Karabagh, conflict over, 54-5, 358, 389, 436 Naishul, Vitaly, 230-1 Najibullah, Mohammad, 345 Nakasone, Yasuhiro, 66 National Democratic Institute (NDI), 213 National Endowment for Democracy (NED), Washington DC, 202, 212, 291 lobbying for Ukraine’s independence, 342 National Security Council (NSC), 83,164, 181,343 contingency group on the Soviet Union, 181, 377-8 nationalism as anti-systemic force, 4 in Azerbaijan (1990),
104-5,162,184 Azeri-Armenian conflict, 54-5 in the Baltic republics (1988), 56 in Georgia and Abkhazia (1988-89), 74, 91 in Kazahstan (1986), 53 nationalists, Russian 99,100,146, 267 and collapse of the Soviet state, 317-18 and emergency rule, 287 hating Gorbachev, 107 NATO, 97, 124 cooperation council (NACC), 413 declaration to reform itself (1990), 122, 123 and Eastern European countries, 161, 246-7 expansion and Russia’s reaction, 436,437 humanitarian aid to the Soviet Union, 346.411 and junta rule in Moscow, 284, 300 non-enlargement “pledge,” 110 Russia’s request to join, 410, 413 and Soviet military withdrawal, 159,160 Nazarbayev, Nursultan, 109,175,176, 209, 241, 283, 381 excluded from meeting of Slavic leaders, 400,404,408 as Gorbachev’s unsteady ally, 257, 258, 331, 332, 352, 408 soliciting US recognition, 347 worries about Russia’s dominance, 325, 347-8 and Yeltsin, 268, 323, 338,408 Nazi-Soviet pact (1939), 57, 76, 85, 86,112, 320 Gorbachev’s concealment of original, 421 see also Baltic republics Németh, Miklós, 91 Nevzorov, Alexander, 287, 318 New Economic Policy (NEP), 16, 27 “new political thinking,” 43-4,46 “new world order,” 247 of the Bush administration, 143,411 crisis of, discussed, 438,439 for Gorbachev, 43,46, 116, 197, 237, 260, 261 place of Russia in, 434 and the Soviet military, 160 and Yeltsin and Russian democrats, 150, 291.411 Nicaragua, 96 Nine Plus One talks see Novo-Ogaryovo; Union Treaty; Gorbachev, Mikhail 525
INDEX Nit, Igor, 354 Nixon, Richard, betting on Yeltsin in April 1991,213-14 Nordhaus, William D., 231 Noriega, Manuel, 96 Nove, Alec (Alexander Novakovsky), 126 Novo-Ogaryovo, 206-7,208, 209-10, 212, 215, 218, 234, 240, 241, 256, 258, 260, 326, 260, 380-1 nuclear weapons, 327 fracturing Soviet arsenal, 181, 344, 361 Nunn-Lugar initiative, 411 prospect of intra-Soviet conflicts, 375 and Soviet nuclear controls, 275, 314-15, 378,408,413-14, 417, 424 and Soviet plutonium, 168 tactical systems, 361, 362, 375 on Ukraine’s territory, 361, 363, 367; see also Ukraine and US initiative (September 1991), 361-2 see also START Nunn-Lugar initiative, 411 Nunn, Sam, 411 O’Clery, Conor, 423 Obama, Barack, 438 Obolensky, Alexander, 333 Odling-Smee, John, 232,414 Odom, William, 162 oil, Soviet/Russian and Belarus, 398-9, 400 collapse of distribution and export controls, 329, 374 “disappearance” of revenues and products, 127, 390, 412-13 and foreign investments, 144, 246 and Gaidars reforms, 377 “nationalized” by Yeltsins Russia, 221, 316, 330, 357-8, 388 as a power asset of Yeltsins Russia, 367 prices and production, 25,127,130,146 subsidized deliveries to Ukraine and Baltic states, 377 as a surrogate currency, 377 Tengiz fields, 144,258, 259 transit via Ukraine and Belarus, 409 Tyumen fields, 211, 218 and Ukraine, 329, 361, 370 OMON, 183, 185, 261 Onikov, Leon, 158 opposition to Gorbachev see MDG Orbán, Viktor, 91 Organization of Security and Cooperation in Europe see OSCE Orlov, Vladimir, 246 526 Orlov, Yuri, 248 Orthodox Church see Russian Orthodox Church OSCE (Organization of Security
and Cooperation in Europe), 247 conference in Moscow (September 1991), 338-40, 344 Oswald, Lee Harvey, 399 Palazhchenko, Pavel, 251, 257, 260, 262, 380, 416 Panama, US invasion of, 96 Pankin, Boris, 337 and “democratic foreign policy,” 227, 344-5 and the Middle East peace conference, 379-80 and OSCE conference, 338-9 and Russian attack on the Foreign Ministry, 380-1 “parade of sovereignties” (1990), 120,121, 162 Party apparatus and institutions criticism of Gorbachev’s leadership, 71-2, 224 “democratization” of, 155 dissolved, 315, 318, 326 ethnic-national and regional clans, 52, 158 inability to oust Gorbachev, 209, 225, 255, 270, 428 new commercial opportunities, 156-8 purge of the Old Guard, 41, 67, 71 “turn to the right,” 155 Party Conference (1988), 35, 37 Party Congress: 1986,21-2, 25; 1990, 123-34,155; 1991,255 Party, the (Communist Party of the Soviet Union) banned, 317 fragmentation along nationalist lines, 429 money, 326-7 power monopoly, 101,106-7,163 reformist potential, 437 shutdown with Gorbachev’s consent, 313, 315 see also Russian Communist Party Pateichuk, Yevgenia, 402 Pavlov, Georgy, 326,442 Pavlov, Valentin, 31, 108, 126, 130,206,221, 239,256,279 against decentralization, 175 anti-crisis program, 207, 235, 247 arrest, 311 attempts to stabilize Soviet finances, 142, 175,188-9, 234, 237, 242,272
INDEX ban on rallies, 202, 203 Cabinet, 246, 294-5 concept of conservative reforms, 187-8, 242 concept for the RSFSR government, 226 concern for Western banks and profiteers, 189-90, 272 demanding emergency rule, 242 exit from junta, 298 on Grand Bargain, 236, 241-2 participation in the junta and sickness, 272, 287,294-5, 298 as Prime Minister of the USSR, 175-6, 187-90, 202, 234 public hatred of, 189 and Soviet bankruptcy, 272 on the Union Treaty, 272, 295,478 view of Gorbachev, 187 perestroika, 22, 31, 34, 50, 55, 59, 62, 66, 67, 71,181,187,194, 266, 399,415 declared extinct, 184, 317, 328 in need of Western support, 116 Pérez de Cuéllar, Javier, 277, 426 Petrakov, Nikolai, Ю8,128,142,149,154 and the “500 Days,” 133-6, 146, 147 in Andropov’s group of economists, 422 program of market transition (1990), 128-9,130,132, 142,429 on republics’ separatism, 129,130,134 Pikhoia, Rudolf, 155 Pinochet, Augusto, 230, 288, 295, 300 Pipes, Richard, 212 Plekhanov, Yuri, 274,275, 306, 307, 309 Plokhy, Serhii, 307, 359, 383, 385, 393 Poland, 17,90, 91, 340, 381, 395,408 economic reforms (“the Balcerowicz Plan”), 128, 129 impact on political movements in the Soviet Union, 141,193, 194,294 see also Solidarity Politburo, 155,192 and German unification, 116 and Gorbachev’s reforms, 34, 36, 37, 38, 41,46,49, 54, 55, 57, 58, 61,64, 71,72 as institution in decline, 36, 69, 79, 107, 123,155, 224 reformers and Gorbachev loyalists added to, 40,41, 88 political liberalization, 35, 38,40-1; see also Constitution Polozkov, Ivan, 117,123, 155,156,171, 192, 205, 209, 225 Ponomarev, Lev, 212 Popov,
Gavriil, 73,105,115, 116, 225, 310 demanding Ukraine’s territories, 325 elected Mayor of Moscow, 219 fearful of dictatorship, 194, 202, 299-300 shutdown of the Party apparatus, 315 soliciting Western food aid to Moscow, 346 suspected conspiracy against Gorbachev, 221-2,243 Portnikov, Vitaly, 366-7 Powell, Colin, 258-9, 361 Presidential Council (1990), 108-9,172,193 presidential elections in RSFSR (June 1991), 215-19 price reform under Gorbachev buying panics, 131,146 delayed, 63 overdue, 31,130-1 Primakov, Yevgeny, 135, 243, 251, 308, 332 during emergency rule, 297 as Gorbachev’s emissary, 143-4, 234 in Gorbachev’s provisional government, 338 and Grand Bargain, 235, 236-7 and the Gulf war, 143-4,196 as head of foreign intelligence, 382, 407, 418 joins the democratic opposition, 304 on export of arms, 168-9 privatization see economy Prokhanov, Alexander, 267, 287, 296 Prokofiev, Yuri, 146, 202, 224-5,276, 315 provisional government: 1917, 138,144, 197, 349, 366; after August 1991 see State Council Prunskienė, Kazimira, 115,183 public opinion and polls, 124,135,138,192, 217, 283, 430 during emergency rule, 294 on growing anarchy, 171 in Moscow on the Commonwealth accords, 409 reaction to Gorbachev’s resignation, 422 in Ukraine, 359, 384 Pugo, Boris, 57,175, 193, 242, 256, 327 commits suicide, 303 in the junta, 287, 298 Putin, Vladimir, 2, 290,432, 436-7 Qian Qichen, 96 Radio Liberty, 283,296 Rappaport, Bruce, 167 Rasputin, Valentin, 99,100,130 Reagan, Ronald, 17, 37,44 and Gorbachev, 44,49, 50 pressure on Soviet economy, 44-5 Referendum (1 December 1991) on Ukraine’s
independence see Ukraine 527
INDEX Referendum (17 March 1991) on preservation of the Union, 190-1, 438 results of, 200 and Russian presidency, 191 Remnick, David, 140-1, 156, 204, 267 Revenko, Grigory, 257, 312, 337 Rice, Condoleezza, 83,164,181,182,197 Romania, 97,153 Ross, Dennis, 143,236,262 Rostropovich, Mstislav, 300 RSFSR see Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic Rumyantsev, Oleg, 212,366 Russia see Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic Russian Communist Party, 100,122-3,135, 155, 156, 192, 268 banned by Yeltsin and Gorbachev, 317 fragmentation of, 205 Russian Federation see Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic Russian Orthodox Church, 100,140-1, 205, 223, 283, 317; see aho Alexyi II, Patriarch Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR; Russian Federation), 51, 98 autonomous republics and regions within, 135-6,191, 201,208,256, 323 and the Bank of Russia, 132,188, 218, 226, 376 declaration of sovereignty, 120 elections of the Congress and Supreme Soviet in (1990), 116-17 formation of a counterelite, 121,131,430, 431 geopolitical environment of, 365,419 institutional weakness of, 98, 99,100, 149, 225-6 proposals to break it up, 99,101 recognition by the West, 305,413,414; see ako Yeltsin, Boris recognized as the Soviet Union’s successor state, 413, 420,425; see also legal succession renamed Russian Federation/Russia, 409 rivalry with Soviet institutions, 99,145-6 and Russians outside it, 98 subsidizing other republics, 99, 201, 357, 367, 372,395,419 seizing Soviet economic assets, 388 tax reforms, 188 Rutskoy, Alexander, 205,225,299, 310, 325, 366, 390, 398
commercial interests, 329, 366, 375 delegated to Gorbachev’s provisional government, 331,357 and “nuclear threat” to Ukraine, 375 “saving” Gorbachev, 306, 308-9 and triumph of Russian democracy, 310, 313 trouble-shooting in Kazakhstan and Ukraine, 325-6 as Yeltsin’s running mate, 218 Rüütel, Arnold, 185,212, 318-19 Ryashentsev, Vladimir, 127-8 Ryzhkov, Nikolai, 23, 24, 26, 71,162 alienation from Gorbachev, 134,140, 177,334 and the ANT scandal, 128 as architect of economic reforms, 16, 20, 27-8,429 on Baltic separatism, 58,112 and Chernobyl, 26 and Eastern Europe, 48,246 elected Prime Minister (1989-90), 79 emotionalism, 128,131,139-40,142, 148,154 fear of back-stepping on reforms, 63,105 heart attack and resignation, 177 and the Law on State Enterprises, 28, 29 and miners’ strike, 80 as opponent of the “500 Days,” 133-4, 136,137,146 and Party apparatus, 28,40 political reforms, 36 on prices and finances, 31, 32,63,131, 146 in RSFSR presidential race, 216,219 self-accounting of the republics, 56, 85 unable to prevent economic crisis, 62, 123,126,142 working on a crisis program, 127, 129-30, 131,134 Saburov, Yevgeny, 355 economic program, 355, 356, 371 negotiating a post-Soviet economic union, 357, 367 succeeded by Gaidar, 373-4 Sachs, Jeffrey, 235,415 Safire, William, 238,239, 341, 342, 360 Sąjūdis, 57, 76,184 Sakharov, Andrei, 34, 76,150,211, 219, 280, 339 constitution project, 86,100 death and funeral, 101 and national self-determination, 86, 91, 115 parliamentary opposition, 73-4, 77-8 Samsonov, Viktor, 290 Savisaar, Edgar, 56, 334 Savostyanov, Yevgeny, 349 528
INDEX Schultz, George, 119,160 Scowcroft, Brent, 50, 83, 92, 94, 181, 260 and the Baltic republics, 114, 342 and China, 96 and the coup in Moscow, 283, 284 and fracturing Soviet nuclear arsenal, 361, 392 and German reunification, 110 on Gorbachev, 143,197, 393, 425 mistrust of the CIA estimates, 215, 378 on prioritizing East-Central Europe, 197 and Soviet nuclear reductions, 238, 258, 262 surprised by the Soviet Union’s demise, 215, 341, 378, 425 on Ukraine and Russia, 344, 360 on US strategy towards the collapsing Soviet Union, 341, 342, 344, 360. 392 on Yeltsin and Russian separatism, 182, 213, 222, 259, 378, 392 SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative), 17, 44, 45, 50 Security Council (under Gorbachev), 172, 235, 254,312 Shaimiev, Mintimer, 208, 323 Shakhnazarov, Georgy, 14-15, 20, 34, 39, 61, 78, 110, 171,273, 335, 378, 382, 409,436 on Baltic nationalism, 59 dismantling Union statehood, 334 and Eastern Europe, 49 estimate of the Soviet collapse, 423-4 on ethnic conflicts in South Caucasus, 54 on Gorbachev’s place in history, 193 and Politburos lack of will, 428 and Russia’s geopolitics, 365 on Ukrainian separatism, 256, 257, 384 working on the Union Treaty, 114-15, 190,206, 207,208-9,256,329, 365, 368 Shakhrai, Sergey, 227, 356, 398 at meeting of Slavic leaders in Viskuli, 400,409 Shaposhnikov, Yevgeny, 278, 301, 362 as commander of “Commonwealth forces,” 420 on fragmentation of the Soviet Army, 381 as Minister of Defense, 314, 346 and nuclear controls (“briefcases”), 413, 421, 424 recognizes Yeltsin as boss, 404,407 on withdrawal of Soviet troops from the Baltics, 346, 347
Shatalin, Stanislav, 108,130, 133,138,139, 147,149, 154, 169,198 Shatrov, Mikhail, 147 Shcherbak, Yuri, 323, 325, 332 Shcherbakov, Vladimir, 142, 236, 246,251, 279 and the Cabinet of Ministers during emergency days, 295, 304, 316 Shcherbitsky, Vladimir, 85, 86, 88 Shebarshin, Leonid, 142, 164-5, 227, 285, 288 as the KGB head, 312, 313, 314 Sheinis, Viktor, 117 Shenin, Oleg, 156, 171, 183, 200, 209 and the junta, 270, 276, 303, 304 Shevardnadze, Eduard, 38,45, 55,123,165, 334, 408, 412 against the junta, 280, 296, 300 alienation from and criticism of Gorbachev, 177 as centrist between Gorbachev and Yeltsin, 244, 258 conflict with Soviet military, 160-1 on dangers of democratic radicalism, 203 democratic opposition, 151 and dissolution of the Soviet Union, 406 expectations of dictatorship, 152,176-7, 183-4 on failure of perestroika, 415 and Georgia, 91,176, 203, 416 and German reunification, 109-10 and Gorbachevs presidency, 105,151, 337 with Gorbachev during his last days in power, 378, 381 and the Gulf crisis (1990), 142-3, 144 leaning on the West, 119,161 leaves the Party, 225 relations with Baker and US administration, 92,161, 243, 258, 346-7 as messenger to US leaders, 113,119, 144,182, 243 pessimism about the Union’s future, 85 resigns as Foreign Minister: December 1990, 176-7; December 1991, 418 visit to NATO headquarters, 97 Shevardnadze, Nanuli, 300 Shmelyov, Nikolai, 88, 95, 142 Shneider, Mikhail, 211, 212 Shushkevich, Stanislav, 387, 399 dependence on Yeltsins Russia, 388 at meeting of Slavic leaders in Viskuli, 398, 400-1,403 supporting Kravchuk, 332-3, 352
tutoring Lee Harvey Oswald, 399 Silayev, Ivan, 281,295, 299, 346,418 as a coordinator of Unions economy, 331, 338, 340, 346, 352-3, 357, 390, 406, 418 529
INDEX as RSFSR prime minister, 226, 310, 338, 352 “saving” Gorbachev in Crimea, 306, 308-9 and Soviet foreign debts, 390 Simes, Dimitri K, 213 Sitaryan, Stepan, 35, 442 Slavsky, Yefim, 26 Sliunkov, Nikolai, 99 Snegur, Mircea, 419 Sobchak, Anatoly, 78,108,128,225,268 on Baltic and Ukraine’s independence, 323, 325, 334, 386 commercial activities, 329 during emergency rule, 281, 289-90, 296, elected mayor of Leningrad (St Petersburg), 219 as Gorbachev’s uncertain ally, 332, 346 “socialist democracy,” 15, 21, 27, 28, 33-6, 42, 60-2, 77, 101, 158,225,428 in Gorbachev s new Party program, 255 Sokurov, Alexander, 217å Solidarity (Polish movement), 15 impact on Ukrainian nationalists, 85 as a model for Russian democrats, 73, 151,193, 194, 202 round table and elections, 86, 90, 211 Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 66,100, 232, 333 influence on Yeltsin, 150, 220 on the union of three Slavic nations, 173, 324, 327 Soros, George, 147, 230 Soviet bloc, 17-18, 90, 96-7 Soviet collapse causes of, 3-6, 9, 397-8, 427-9 estimates about, 2,135,181 explanations of, 3-7 historical alternatives, 428 and mass disillusionment in Russia, 435, 437 parallels with Western decline, 438 place in history, 439 Western media’s narrative, 423 see also Soviet Union; Soviet Union, dissolution of Soviet identity crumbling, 82-3, 84, 87 Soviet Union (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; USSR) as a confederation, 51, 58-9,135, 208-9 conference in Alma-Ata, 416,417, 419-20 exit law for republics, 60,107,113 founding Treaty of 1922, 400,405 fragility and resilience of, 432 Gorbachev’s resignation Joint Declaration of
April 1991, 209 530 meltdown of executive power, 303, 316, 331,332, 364 name discarded, 208 perceived death of, 348,400-2, 425 Russian nationalism, 51-2,156, 219, 267 as sovereign legal entity, 319 Union Treaty, 264, 269; see also Union Treaty Western humanitarian and food aid to, 345, 353,368,380,412,415 see also legal succession; Soviet Union, dissolution of Soviet Union, dissolution of changing Russian perceptions of, 435, 437 declaration of, 400-2 fear and insecurity of initiators, 402-3 informing the US government on, 403-5 meeting of Slavic leaders in Viskuli, 397, 398-405 and public apathy, 409, 422, 424 ratification and popular reactions to, 409 in Western imagination, 423, 425,433, 437 Western surprise and verdict, 410, 415-16 Soyuz, 171,172,243 Spohr, Kristina, 434,435 Stalin, Joseph, 21, 30, 34, 35,40,43, 75,243, 246, 249, 266,269, 280, 295, 339, 348, 359, 389,403, 425 Stankevich, Sergey, 73,105, 313-14, 325, 366, 398 Starovoitova, Galina, 73, 86-7,120 advising Yeltsin, 191, 217, 386, 292, 391 advocating Western help to Yeltsin during the coup, 290,291 assassinated (1998), 417 demanding Gorbachevs resignation, 184, 290 demanding Gorbachevs return during junta days, 290 excluded from the talks in Viskuli, 401 on foreign debts, 391 on Gorbachev’s missed opportunities, 310,416-17 on inevitability of the Soviet Unions break-up, 87, 291 and the Soviet Union’s abrupt dissolution, 416-17 on Ukraine’s independence, 386, 396, 398,400-1 START (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty), 238, 250, 251,253, 258,261-2, 412 ratification in the Union’s Supreme Soviet, 343
INDEX State Bank, 18, 32, 79,188,237, 242 and commercial banks, 328 during the emergency rule, 304 loss of revenues, 391,412-13 and monetary liberalization, 32, 33, 128 role after economic liberalization, 374 and “swap” operations, 111 taken over by Yeltsins government, 329-30, 383, 387 see also Gerashchenko, Viktor State Committee for the State of Emergency see Emergency Committee State Council (provisional government after August 1991), 331, 334, 337, 346, 351-3, 355, 356, 358, 369-70, 376, 377, 380-3, 386, 387, 388, 391,406, 417 State Enterprises, Law on, 27-9,63,189, 397 State Inspection (Gospriemka), 24 Stepanov-Mamaladze, Teimuraz, 55, 80, 82, 91,97, 118, 119, 123, 160,316,416, 422 Stoltenberg, Thorvald, 240 Stolypin, Pyotr, 187-8, 266, 427 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty see START Strategic Defense Initiative see SDI Strauss, Robert, 341, 394 Sukhanov, Lev, 83-4,192 Summers, Larry, 229 Sununu, John, 393 Supreme Soviet (RSFSR), 101,131,193 Gorbachev’s explanations to, 316-17 ratifies the dissolution of the USSR, 409 and Russian presidency, 191 in session during emergency rule, 282, 304-6 split over Yeltsins separatism and radicalism, 193 “war of laws” with the USSR Supreme Soviet, 145-6, 397 as “the White House,” symbol of Russian democracy, 297, 298, 300, 304, 310 Supreme Soviet (USSR) absence during emergency rule, 295-6, 304 “closed” session on Soviet crisis, 242 controlled and disabled by republics, 331, 409 curbing populist allocations of, 129 in Gorbachevs political reforms, 78 as the last representative institution of the Union, 222-3, 333 populism and economic
interests in, 77, 78-9, 80, 126-7 531 push for a strong hand, 171 and the Union Treaty, 256, 257 upstaged by the RSFSR parliament, 205 Sviridov, Georgy, 147 Talbott, Strobe, 1,416, 434 Tarasenko, Sergey, 119, 144, 416 Tatarstan, 201, 208, 210 Taubman, William, 21, 26-7, 33, 38, 60-1, 94, 133, 142, 310 taxation, Soviet on cooperatives, 33 federal tax, 134,133,134,210,256,257, 266 Pavlovs reforms, 188-9 and republics’ non-payment, 174,188, 206, 327 on state enterprises, 78,130 Ter-Petrosian, Levon, 419 Thatcher, Margaret, 37, 80, 94, 122 calls Yeltsin during the coup, 291 and Grand Bargain, 238-9, 254-5 Thurmond, Strom, 220 Tikhonov, Nikolai, 23 Tocqueville, Alexis de, 43, 68, 141 travel abroad and cultural shock, Soviet, 81, 82 Travkin, Nikolai, 83, 366, 406 Treaty on the Conventional Forces in Europe see CFE triumphalism, Western, 2 Trump, Donald, 438-9 Tsereteli, Zurab, 415,416 Tsypko, Alexander, 72, 324, 366 Tucker, Robert C., 266 Tudjman, Franjo, 370 Tuleyev, Aman, 216 Tusk, Donald, 2 Ukraine, 25-6 Act of Independence (1991), 321-2 claim on Unions assets, 332, 383, 391 and Crimea see Crimea declaration of sovereignty (1990), 120, 263, 320, 321, 385, 399, 400 and Donbass, 263, 324, 325, 330, 352, 363, 367, 384, 386, 392, 363, 384, 386, 394 economic assets on its territory, 256, 321 economic dependence on RSFSR, 352, 330, 384, 405 fears of dominant Russia, 191 and Gorbachev-Yeltsin rivalry, 256, 320, 384 and Gorbachev’s provisional government, 331
INDEX history of sovereignty in, 86,120 independence referendum, 322, 378, 392; results of, 395 lack of Western assistance, 434 military forces on its territory, 162, 321, 322, 325-6, 381 national currency, 332, 350, 356, 369-70, 388,404, 405 national mobilization in, 85-6,153, 247-8 as non-nuclear state, 392 plans for a national army, 322, 325-6, 367, 389 political reforms in, 100 reactions to emergency rule, 320; see also Kravchuk, Leonid recognition by Russia, 395-6, 398 refusal to pay Soviet debts, 332, 383,391 regionalism and fragmentation in, 384, 386, 393 Rukh (initially the People’s Movement of Ukraine for Perestroika), 85-6,173, 212, 263, 320-1, 385, 399, 400 and Russia’s economic reforms, 373, 385, 388, 405 scenarios of full independence, 262,393-5 treaty with the RSFSR (1990), 173-4, 325 Ukrainian KGB, 320, 321, 384 as UN founding member, 359 Union referendum, 200-1 Union Treaty, 256 US “delayed recognition” of, 266, 322, 341, 342, 393-4, 426 US estimates on, 263, 343-4, 347, 378 visit of Bush (1991), 263 Western regions, 86, 173,320 see also Ukraine, nuclear capabilities; Ukrainian-Russian relations Ukraine, nuclear capabilities, 341,363-4,394 American position on, 361 Kravchuk’s pragmatism about, 392,401 and maintenance, 363-4 and nuclear controls, 413 see also Ukrainian-Russian relations Ukrainian diaspora in the US and Canada, 262, 342 Ukrainian Supreme Soviet (Rada), 256, 320-2, 351, 379, 392 Ukrainian-Russian relations, 392,436 accords on territorial integrity after August 1991, 325, 326, 386 conflict over resources and money, 370, 377 and Crimea, 324, 325,
326, 366-7, 392, 400 and Donbass, 324, 325, 363, 367, 384,437 532 and national identities, 383-4 nuclear weapons, 323, 363, 366-7, 375, 392,401 prospect of war, 325, 327, 387, 392, 394, 405,408-9,437 and Russian democracy, 366-7, 387 Russian reactions to the Ukrainian Act, 323-6; see also Voshchanov, declaration and Russian reforms, 383, 387, 408-9 and Soviet Army and Navy, 367, 392,407 Sevastopol and Black Sea fleet, 367, 395, 407 treaty of mutual recognition (November 1990), 173-4, 325, 401 Umalatova, Sazhi, 176 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics see Soviet Union Union Treaty (1989-91), 85, 107, 114, 133, 135, 155,156 after the coup, 329, 331, 332, 335, 350, 351-3, 365, 368, 369-70, 382-3, 385, 387, 391, 394, 395, 399 controversy and division over, 266-8, 271,279,280, 295 discussed at the USSR Congress of People’s Deputies, 177-8 drafts, 208,256-7 Gorbachev’s concessions to republican leaders, 199,255-6 as Gorbachev pipe dream, 398,430,437 Gorbachev’s procrastination on, 85,135, 138,170-1 and the junta plot, 269, 270-1, 272, 274, 285 in the Nine Plus One talks, 207-9, 315 signing ceremony planned, 257, 264,268, 273 split Russian attitudes toward, 202 text published, 267-8 and Ukraine, 256, 385 US experts on, 244 Yeltsin’s rejection of, 170,173 United Nations, 43,172, 290 and Russia’s succession to the USSR, 220, 363 Soviet seat in Security Council of, 346, 363, 380, 413, 419 and Union’s republics, 186, 346, 359, 419-20 United States and Cold War lens, 433 as a factor in Soviet and post-Soviet politics, 8, 346, 369, 419-20, 433 Gorbachevs attitude toward, 50,119; see also
Gorbachev, Mikhail
INDEX perceptions of the Cold Wars end, 3, 248 recognition of Ukraine, 263, 346, 395-6, 420, 426 recognizes other post-Soviet states, 426 recognizes Russia as the Soviet Unions successor, 420, 425-6 as a source of international legitimacy, 292, 304, 369,403, 419 Soviet reformers leaning on, 118-19,144, 220-2, 233 see also Bush, George H. W.; US Congress US Congress, 95, 252, 411, 433 backing Yeltsin, 220, 222, 393 support for the Baltics and Ukraine, 222, 341, 359 see also Nunn-Lugar initiative US Embassy in Moscow, 245 during emergency rule, 283, 289, 300, 311 US Information Agency (USIA), 81 US military (Pentagon, Joint Chiefs of Staff), advocating break-up of the Soviet Union, 239, 344, 361, 392 USSR see Soviet Union Utkin, Vladimir, 251, 475 Uzbekistan, 75,158, 268, 388, 408,412; see also Karimov, Islam as justification for denial of Western aid to Russia, 414,434 in Latin America, 230-1, 233, 295 modified after 1990s, 438 its perils in the collapsing Union, 374-6 Weinstein, Allen, 220, 291-2,404-5 Westad, Odd Arne, 433 Western media, 141,143, 154, 184, 190, 196, 213,233 in August 1991, 280, 282, 283,288, 291-2, 293, 296, 306 covering Gorbachevs resignation, 422-3 and the Grand Bargain, 238, 251 as a source of Gorbachev’s learning and discourse, 46 taking cues from Soviet liberals, 140,178, 204, 288 see also BBC; CNN Western role in Soviet collapse, 87, 432 Weyrich, Paul, 220 Wicks, Nigel, 338 Wilder, Thornton, 262 Wilson, Woodrow, 44 Witte, Sergey, 427 workers, 108, 117 disillusionment with Gorbachev, 80, Vaino, Karl, 57 Varennikov, Valentin, 112, 215, 267 as
enthusiast of emergency rule, 272, 274, 288, 289, 297, 298, 301 in Ukraine during emergency rule, 274, 275, 286 Velikhov, Yevgeny, 53, 168, 169, 170, 333 Viskuli, meeting of Slavic leaders, 397, 398-405 Vlasov, Alexander, 117 Volsky, Arkady, 52-3 Vorontsov, Yuli, 426 Vorotnikov, Vitaly, 20,41, 59, 72, 101, 105, 112, 118, 205 Voshchanov, Pavel, 83 declaration on Ukrainian borders, 323-5 during emergency rule, 283-4, 290, 296 as a factor in Gorbachevs vacillations, 80, 129,130 and liberal Moscow politicians, 101, 206-7, 202,211-12 strikes and damage, 79-80, 193-4, 215 see also IMF; Washington Consensus World Bank, 95,147, 229 Soviet membership in, 234, 248 Wörner, Manfred, 97, 124, 249, 362 on Russia in NATO, 410 201 Wałęsa, Lech, 193, 239, 247 “war of laws” (1990-91) see Supreme Soviet, RSFSR; Supreme Soviet, USSR Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact), 47, 96-7, 159 disbanding of, 161, 246 Washington Consensus, 229-30 advocates in Moscow, 230-1,414-15 alternatives to, 354-5 applied to the Soviet Union, 233, 249, 354 embedded in Yegor Gaidars program, 355, 356, 371 533 Yakovlev, Alexander, 40,110,151, 157,169, 280, 422 accused of being American agent of influence, 165 as an advocate of “socialist democracy,” 21-2, 34, 36 anti-Stalinism, 57, 58 attacked by Party conservatives and nationalists, 123 and Baltic separatism and independence, 56-7, 85, 112 and Eastern Europe, 49 fearful of a coup, 184, 268, 270 and Gorbachev, 106,108,133,137-8, 203, 225 and Gorbachev’s last days in power, 334, 338, 378
INDEX as a mediator of Gorbachev-Yeltsin “settlement,” 420-1 and non-Russian nationalism, 53-4 and Russian nationalism, 99 supports Russian liberals and “democracy,” 203 on Ukraine’s independence, 393 Yakovlev, Vladimir, 328 Yakovlev, Yegor, 184, 225, 307, 328 as head of Soviet television, 423 Yanayev, Gennady, 175, 246,256 background, 258 charming Bush, 258, 262, 284 fear and denial, 297-8 Gorbachevs choice as Vice-President of the USSR, 176, 265 as the junta’s figurehead, 274, 275, 276, 277, 280, 281, 282, 284, 285 press conference on August 19,1991, 287-8 snubbed and scorned, 176, 263 and the Soviet economy, 294 Yankelevich, Tatiana, 281, 289 Yaremenko, Yuri, 168,169 Yaroshenko, Viktor, 141-2,146,157,159 Yavlinsky, Grigory, 132 and “400 Days of Confidence,” 132,139 and the “500 Days,” 132-4,146,147 argues to preserve the Union, 355, 367, 369-70, 388 criticism of, 354 gloomy forecasts, 194-5 and Grand Bargain, 235-7, 240-1,248 reform proposals before August 1991, 234-5 reform proposals post-August 1991, 338, 351 refusal to go to G-7 meeting in London, 234 as RSFSR deputy Prime Minister, 132, 147 solicits Western help after the coup, 363 supports Yeltsin-Gaidar reforms, 388 as top Soviet economist after August 1991, 331, 340, 345, 346, 352, 363,419 and Washington Consensus, 330 Yavorivsky, Vladimir, 321 Yazov, Dmitry, 108,115, 141,143,151,162, 193, 215, 246,256, 327 against the use of force, 277, 278, 301, 302, 303 and arms reductions, 161,163,251, 262 arrested, 309 introduces troops to Moscow, 277-8, 301 in the junta, 271-2, 273,274, 277 on Lithuania crisis, 112,113,183
534 plot to introduce an emergency rule, 221, 271 and the Soviet Army in crisis, 160,162 trip to Crimea to see Gorbachev, 306-8 withdraws troops from Moscow, 302, 303 Yazova, Emma, 301 Yeltsin, Boris, 7, 36, 38-9 admiring and emulating the United States, 84,222, 225,233 advisory circle, 150,186,190,194 against Western assistance to Gorbachev, 243-4 antics, theatrics, and swagger 217, 259-60, 281, 306, 382, 387, 391, 399, 401, 415, 422, 424 appropriation of Soviet economic assets, 120, 137,218, 221,316, 376, 38 and autonomies within the RSFSR, 135-6,191, 201, 208, 256 birthday party (1991), 192 celebrates US recognition of Russia, 426 and Central Asian republics, 201, 268, 395, 407-8,412 and Chechnya, 389-90 and Commonwealth of Independent States, 401, 404, 408,409 and confederation “from below,” 171, 173,186,195,207, 221,268 contacts with Bush, 83-4, 221, 259-60, 291-2, 307, 311, 368-9,388, 390, 404-5, 411-12 courage, 292-3, 300-1 and Crimea, 174, 386,401 deciding alone on economic reforms in Russia, 195, 358, 372-3 decrees on destroying the Party, 227-8, 316 desire to join NATO, 410,413 discontent with Western policies after 1991,435,437 economic populism, 147,201, 218, 226, 395 economic reforms, 132,133,134,146, 147,148, 166, 241, 352, 355 economic treaty with republics, 357, 369, 370, 373 effect on Russians, 39, 99,102, 149, 193-4,217-18,219 ejection from the Politburo (1987), 39, elected Chairman of the RSFSR Supreme Soviet, 118 elected in Moscow (1989), 71 elected President of the RSFSR, 219 elected to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, 76
INDEX entrusts economic reforms to Yegor Gaidar, 371, 372, 415 extraordinary powers to implement reforms, 373 family, 281, 282, 305,317 “friends” in Washington DC, 212, 213, 220, 291 and “the government of reforms,” 358, 372-3, 376, 377, 398 and great power status for Russia, 365-6, 369, 389,435 heralds Russia’s (RSFSR) sovereignty, 120, 135, 137 humiliating Gorbachev, 316-17, 383, 420-1 inauguration as president of Russia, 223 and the KGB, 147, 149, 222, 226-7, 288, 305, 305, 382 and lack of power institutions in the RSFSR, 149, 225, 226 last meetings with Gorbachev, 406, 416, 420-1 and a Marshall Plan for Russia, 415 meeting Slavic leaders in Belarus, 386, 395, 398-405 and the military-industrial complex, 221, 388 nuclear controls, 314-15, 401, 408, 413-14,417, 424 orders to raise the Russian flag over the Kremlin, 424 orders to use force in 1993, 303 power-grabbing, 305, 310, 311-12, 313, 314,316-17,419 presidential campaign, 102,103, 201, 207,215-16,218-19 purge of state apparatus, 226,227 reluctant funding of federal structures, 383, 388 on removing Gorbachev, 192,194,195, 201, 358, 359, 391,401,402,403 reports on his mental “instability,” 138, 148 resignation from the Party, 124 resists federal tax, 133, 134,210, 256,257 resists the junta, 280-4, 285-90,292-3, 296, 298,299 rivalry with Gorbachev, 103,139,148, 152, 192,195, 208, 268, 311, 316-17 and Russia’s legal succession, 366, 389 scandals around, 101-2 seeks US recognition, 83-4,198, 207-8, 213, 220, 221-3, 344, 259-60, 293 and the Soviet Army, 186,222, 282, 305, 358, 373,390, 407,411 support for Baltic
independence, 185-7, 319 tactical truce with Gorbachev, 204, 207, 208, 331, 333 on taking Gorbachev’s place, 103,137, 382, 402 trip to Italy (December 1991), 418 trips to the United States: 1989, 83-4; 1991,220-1 and Ukraine’s independence, 173-4, 321, 323-5, 377, 383, 386-7, 393, 394-5 and the Union Treaty, 173, 207-8, 218, 221, 256-7, 260, 267, 268, 387 and union of Slavic states, 173, 386, 395 whittles down the Union government, 138, 195, 207,256-7, 305, 345, 365, 369, 372-3, 403, 404, 410, 411-12, 413, 414 zigzags on federal governance, 352, 357, 369, 370, 373, 375-6, 376-7, 382,383 Yeltsina, Naina 39, 192, 281, 371 Yeltsina, Tatiana, 281, 282 Yeltsina, Yelena, 192, 305 Yugoslavia Gorbachev’s mediation, 370 as a mirror to the Soviet crisis and collapse, 261, 262, 327, 332, 343, 350, 367, 394,429 as a prequel to Soviet reforms, 55, 56 and US foreign policy, 343, 244 Zağladın, Vadim, 89, 268 Zaikov, Lev, 449 Zakharov, Mark, 72,147,150 Zalygin, Sergey, 147 “Zaria,” 38, 87, 103, 264-5 Zaslavskaya, Tatiana, 73, 88, 217,442 Zaslavsky, Ilya, 73, 349 Zelikow, Philip, 92, 363 Žemaitis, Stanislovas, 114 Zhao Ziyang, 60 Zhirinovsky, Vladimir, 287, 346, 349, 394, 435 presidential campaign of, 216, 219 Zinoviev, Alexander, 103 Zoellick, Robert, 143, 236, 239, 347 Zotov, Mikhail, 32, 33 535 München |
| adam_txt |
CONTENTS List of Illustrations Dramatis Personae Acknowledgments Maps Introduction: A Puzzle ix xi xvi xxi 1 PART I HOPE AND HUBRIS, 1983-90 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Perestroika Release Revolutions Separatism Crossroads Leviathan 13 43 70 98 126 154 PART II DECLINE AND DOWNFALL, 1991 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Standoff Devolution Consensus Conspiracy Junta Demise Cacophony Independence Liquidation 181 206 229 255 279 311 336 365 397
CONTENTS Conclusion 427 List ofAbbreviations Notes Selected Bibliography Index 440 441 502 511 Vill
INDEX Abalkin, Leonid, 62-3, 78-9, 80,108,126, 132, 246 and the “500 Days,” 134 in Andropov’s group of economists, 442 crisis program, 127,134 Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 58, 73, 168, 210 and the military-industrial complex, 167 and republican academies, 57, 263 transformed into Russian academy, 378 Achalov, Vladislav, 141,162-3, 272,297, 301, 302 Adamishin, Anatoly, 142, 279-80, 328, 329, 330, 336, 367, 370 on Russian-Ukrainian conflict, 370 Yeltsins December 1991 visit to Rome, 418 Afanasyev, Yuri as a leader of Democratic Russia, 105, 202,211,348 in the liberal opposition to Gorbachev, 73, 76, 88,101 as a promoter of republics’ independence, 88, 371 and the Union Treaty, 212,267 see also Democratic Russia; MDG Afgantsy see Army, Soviet Afghanistan abolition of Soviet aid to its regime, 119, 344, 345 Soviet occupation of, 14, 15, 285,438 US refusal to compromise on, 238,239 withdrawal of Soviet troops from, 49, 50 Aganbegyan, Abel, 140, 142, 330,442 Ageyev, Genyi, 297, 302 agriculture, Soviet, 63-4, 130 Akhromeyev, Sergey, 95, 110, 118, 215 and the demise of the Soviet Army, 159-60 and Soviet withdrawal from Europe, 238 suicide, 218 support of junta in August 1991, 215, 318 Aleksandrov, Anatoly, 26 Alexyi II, Patriarch, 223-4, 283, 305 “Alfa,” 183, 283, 299, 299, 382, 406 Alferenko, Gennady, 83 Aliev, Geydar, 54 Alksnis, Viktor, 171,177 Allende, Salvador, 300 Allison, Graham, 235, 238, 240, 241, 243, 248-9 on China, 438 as Grand Bargain supporter, 241, 248-9, 343 Andreotti, Giulio, 45, 196, 213 assistance to Gorbachev, 249, 250 Andropov, Yuri, 314 as Brezhnev’s
loyalist, 14 as Gorbachevs mentor, 19, 20, 24, 30 and his followers, 155 illness and death, 18 Jewish roots, 13 on nationalism and Soviet federation, 52-3,112 as a reformer, 13,14, 17-18, 23,42,437 on Western currency wars against the USSR, 17,177 ANT affair, 127-8,169 anti-alcohol campaign (1985), 23-4, 397 Arbatov, Georgy, 186, 207, 442
INDEX Armenia, 153, 176, 198 boycott of Union referendum (1991), 200 earthquake (1988), 55, 95 see also Nagorny Karabagh Army, Soviet Afgantsy (veterans of Afghanistan), 296, 298,299, 302 anti-Gorbachev rallies in Moscow, 163, 204 arms control cuts, 159, 262 attitudes during junta rule, 298-9,301 in the Baltic republics, 183, 318 and the Commonwealth of Independent States, 419 demoralized by Gorbachev’s zigzags, 185 and economic liberalization, 373, 374-5 and ethnic-nationalist conflicts, 104-5, 161-2 fears of anti-Gorbachev coup, 111,114, 141,209 in Moscow during junta rule, 277-8, 282-3,298-9 not fully in control, 183, 403 oath of allegiance to the Soviet Union, 403, 404,407 reactions to its withdrawal from Eastern Europe, 159-60,161,163, 216 retreat from East Germany and Eastern Europe, 124,159-60, 181, 344, 381 and the Soviet Union’s dissolution, 402-3, 404,407, 409 taken over by Yeltsin’s Russia, 358, 389, 407 threat of partitioning, 381 voting for Yeltsin, 283, 449 see also MIC Åslund, Anders, 415 Attali, Jacques, 251-2, 340 Aven, Pyotr, 391 Azerbaijan, 156, 176, 200, 268, 374, 381 Armenian pogroms in, 54, 56 use of Soviet troops in (1990), 104-5 see also Nagorny Karabagh Bagrov, Nikolai, 385, 386 Bakatin, Vadim, 175, 308, 338 as candidate for Russia’s presidency, 216 criticism by Gorbachev, 152 dismissed by Yeltsin, 418-19 as head of the KGB, 314, 316, 346, 407 and Lithuania’s secession, 113 pro-Americanism, 346 Baker, James, 50,110-11,153,161, 236,419 advising Gorbachev, 96, 198-9, 201, 380 on Baltic independence and policies, 199, 347 512 and the coup in Moscow,
284, 292, 300 dangers of Soviet break-up, 342-3 engaged in Soviet politics, 198, 199 and the five principles, 243, 344, 347, 394,412 friendship with Shevardnadze, 143, 258, 284, 346-7, 392,415 on Grand Bargain, 239, 244 and the Gulf crisis, 143 on handling Yeltsin and the Russian factor, 199, 260 at the Moscow summit (July 1991), 258, 261 negotiating Gorbachevs safe retirement, 41 negotiating safety of Soviet nuclear weapons, 411,413 Princeton speech on “post-Soviet Union” (December 1991), 411 private views on Soviet collapse, 415-16 supporting Russian democracy, 347, 392, 415 on Ukraine, 392 on US recognition of post-Soviet states, 413,416,419-20 visits to the collapsing Soviet Union: September 1991, 344-8; December 1991,412-14,415-16 on Yeltsin-Gorbachev rivalry, 345-6 Baklanov, Oleg, 168,169,171 on arms reductions, 251 in junta of August 1991, 270, 277, 301-2, 303 seeing Yeltsin before the emergency, 286 trip to Foros, 306 balance of trade, Soviet, 17-18, 23, 390 Balcerowicz, Leszek, 128,132, 235; see also Poland, economic reforms Baltic republics (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia) as beneficiaries of the Soviet collapse, 438 bloodshed in January 1991,183-5 at the Congress of People’s Deputies, 76 disputed issues, 261, 334 during junta rule in Moscow, 284, 305 fear of independence reversal, 332, 334 gaining sovereignty, 318-19, 334, 342 Gorbachev’s pledge not to use force, 96, 184 and Kaliningrad region, 347 national mobilization, 85 Nazi-Soviet pact (1939) 57, 76, 85 “people’s fronts,” 55, 56, 57, 60,449 rejection of Soviet commitments, 347 and republican “self-accounting,”
56, 59 Russian-speaking minorities, 182-3,186, 200,261,319, 347 Soviet military and assets in, 327, 347, 381
INDEX as a success story after 1991, 436 support from other national movements, 58 support from Russian liberals, 86,115, 184-5, 213, 290 support from Yeltsin, 185-6, 213 Union referendum, 200 and the United States, 84,95,114,197, 199, 341-2, 347 Western attitudes to, 114, 172,195,213, 258-62, 284, 318, 319-20, 341 bankers and stockbrokers in Moscow, 156-7, 296-7, 328-9 ties with KGB, 328 see also entrepreneurs, Russian banks and banking, Soviet, 32-3 appearance of specialized banks (1987), 32 bankruptcy of External Economy Bank of the USSR (Vneshekonombank), 390 bankruptcy of External Trade Bank of the USSR (Vneshtorgbank), 413 bankruptcy of Soviet “people’s banks” abroad, 390 crisis with Western credits, 111, 116, 127, 294, 412 and separatism, 132 see also State Bank Barannikov, Viktor, 390, 413 Batkin, Leonid, 350 BBC, 196,210, 290-1,296 Beissinger, Mark, 4, 52 Belarus see Belorussia Belorussia (since September 1991, Belarus), 98,211,219, 226, 261,266 economic dependence on Russia, 398-9, 400 meeting of Slavic leaders in Viskuli, 398-405 not eager to secede, 191 Supreme Soviet of, 381 Bérégovoy, Pierre, 340 Berlin Wall, fall of see Germany Berastam, Mikhail, 30, 232-3 as an advisor on Gaidars liberalization strategy, 374-6, 377 on dilemmas behind Soviet Union’s dissolution, 372, 375 “reform without shock,” 233, 354-5, 375 as a witness of Gaidar’s first moves, 373-4, 415 Beschloss, Michael, 1 Bessmertnykh, Alexander, 246, 309,312, 336 collaborating with junta in August 1991, 276, 277 as Shevardnadzes successor, 182, 251, 261 Bethell, Nicholas, 291 Blackwill, Robert, 236,
343 Bobkov, Filipp, 73 Bocharov, Mikhail, 132, 232, 327, 355 Boldin, Valery, 35, 148, 165, 193, 265, 268, 277,279,312 biased reporting to Gorbachev, 138 in cahoots with KGB’s Kryuchkov, 165, 270 as Gorbachevs chief of staff, 109 plot of emergency, 273,274, 276 Bonnell, Victoria, 280-1 Bonner, Yelena, 91,150, 211 against the Union Treaty, 212, 267 shocked by news of emergency rule, 280 see also Sakharov, Andrei Boren, David, 204 Borovoy, Konstantin, 328 Boskin, Michael, 121-2, 236,241, 244 Bounkin, Boris, 169 Boxer, Vladimir 211, 212 Brady, Nicholas, 121-2, 239, 353 against Western assistance to the USSR, 239, 249, 343,411 Braithwaite, Jill, 300 Braithwaite, Rodric, 120, 149,153,174,176, 190, 201, 202, 209, 237, 245, 250-1, 355, 367, 372, 432 on Gorbachev’s decline, 204, 209 on junta rule, 289 on legality of Soviet dissolution, 419 on Ukraine’s independence, 387 on the Union Treaty, 258 Brazauskas, Algirdas, 57, 71, 76 Brexit, 438 Brezhnev, Leonid, 14, 17, 31, 33, 81, 375 British Commonwealth, as model for the post-Soviet space, 190, 350,400 Brovikov, Vladimir, 107 Brown, Archie, 5,120 Brzeziński, Zbigniew, 212 Biichi, Hernán, 230 Bukovsky, Vladimir, 212, 348 Burbulis, Gennady, 82-3,135,136,176, 186, 327, 413 against the purge of Soviet bureaucracy, 354 and the American right, 212-13, 220, 222, 354 background and views, 149-50, 291, 317, 327, 353-4, 383 constructing a Russian state, 191, 353-4, 389, 406 and Democratic Russia, 212, 354 on destruction of the Soviet Union, 291, 358,400-1,405,409,410 513
INDEX during junta rule in August 1991,281, 282, 299 on Gorbachev, 282, 311, 317, 365 idea of a union of Slavic republics, 173 and the KGB, 165, 226, 227, 299, 303, 354, 382,407 at meeting of Slavic leaders in Viskuli, 398, 400-1 and Russia’s primacy in the post-Soviet space, 264-7 and Russia’s strategy of reforms, 355-6, 357-8, 372 shutdown of the Party apparatus, 315 and Ukraine, 327, 383,400,401 and the West, 82-3,221, 222,409-10, 436 Western help, 221,222,409-10,415 on Yeltsins grandstanding, 415 and Yeltsin’s presidential campaign, 212, 216-17,218 as Yeltsin’s strategist, 150,186,191, 216-17,353-5 Burns, Nicholas, 377-8,410,425 Bush administration American recognition of Russia and Ukraine, 262 dilemma of Gorbachev vs republics, 181, 433 project “Russia’s freedom,” 433 viewing Soviet Union as an “evil empire,” 425,433 Bush, Barbara, 119 Bush, George H. W, 50, 83 against financial help to Soviet Union, 122, 236-7, 239-41, 244, 245, 343, 353 arms reduction talks, 238,251,261-2,368 and the Baltic case, 95-6, 114,172,195, 213, 258-62, 284, 341-2 and changes in Eastern Europe, 92, 93, 94-5 Christmas 1991 call from Gorbachev, 424-5 contacts with Yeltsin, 214, 222, 260, 293, 311,368 fear of military coup in Moscow, 258-9, 341, 378, 392 and German unification, 110,118 and Gorbachev’s safe retirement, 416,420 humanitarian aid/food assistance to the USSR, 345, 353, 368, 380,415 intelligence on Soviet crisis, 215,258, 262, 378, 378 pressures on inside the US, 341, 360, 393, 394, 395-6 reacting to Soviet Union’s demise, 341, 410, 424, 425 reacting to junta in Moscow, 283-4, 292-3,
307,311 recognition of Russia (RSFSR), 404 sanctions on the USSR (1991), 195,198 and Soviet role in the Gulf crisis, 143-4, 172,195 strategy regarding Soviet collapse, 197, 199-200, 341-4,368 supporting and steering Gorbachev, 111-12,113-14,121, 172,198, 199-200, 221,222, 233-4, 240, 249, 252-3, 259, 261, 285, 338, 342, 393, 394,434 support of the post-Soviet union of republics, 262, 263, 368 and Ukraine’s independence, 262-3, 359, 360-1, 392, 393, 395-6 US leadership in NATO and G-7, 245, 249-50, 251 at the US-Soviet summits: 1989, 95-6; 1990, 118-19,143-4; 1991,258-62 Cabinet of Ministers (USSR), 171,172,205, 211,224 during emergency rule, 294,298, 302, 316 liquidation of, 316, 331, 332, 364 Camdessus, Michel, 368 Carpendale, Andrew, 342, 343,410-11 Castro, Fidel, 238, 399 Ceauşescu, Nicolae, 90, 91, 97 Celeste, Richard, 169 Center for Democracy, Washington DC, 291-2; see aho Weinstein, Allen Central Asia (republics) dependence on Russia, 332, 381,408 and Islamic fundamentalism, 347,408 joins the Commonwealth, 411 Soviet republics of, 114,131,152,158, 208, 257, 315 withdrawal of Soviet weapons, 161 Yeltsin’s attitude towards, 201 CFE (Treaty on the Conventional Forces in Europe), 159, 161,163,250,412 Ratification of, 238, 344 Charter of Paris (1990), 172 Chebrikov, Viktor, 20, 27, 58, 88 Chechnya, 74, 131,208, 389,435, 436,403 Cheney, Richard, 92,220, 221 advocating break-up of Soviet Union, 239, 342, 344, 361, 392 Chernenko, Konstantin, 20 Chernobyl nuclear catastrophe, 25,44, 364, 397,405 financial consequences, 25 Chernomyrdin, Viktor, 157, 327 514
INDEX Chernovol, Vyacheslav, 385 Chernyaev, Anatoly, 21, 34,40, 66, 87, ПО, 135, 149, 157,165, 261 attempting to resign as Gorbachevs aide, 185 attitude to Yeltsins “Russia,” 103,224 connections to democratic opposition, 207 in Crimea with Gorbachev, August 1991, 273, 274, 275, 287, 293, 309 on demise of Gorbachevs leadership, 148,177, 188, 224,370 and dismantling of Soviet statehood, 309, 334 estimate of Soviet collapse, 423 and German unification, 110,116,118, 124 on Gorbachevs clinging to the Party and Soviet system, 155, 237, 317 and Gorbachev’s last days in power, 378, 406 on Gorbachev’s place in history, 193 as Gorbachevs speechwriter, 225,237, 245, 266 on Lithuania crisis, 112 on nationalism and separatism, 59, 74 radicalization, 87 on Russian attitudes to Gorbachev, 201, 224 on Russian democracy and statehood, 203 on Ukraine and Crimea, 367 and the Union Treaty, 190, 257 on US attitudes to Gorbachev, 197, 198-9, 23 on US conduct, 143, 235,254 Westernism and reliance on the United States, 116, 118-19, 144, 254 China, People’s Republic of, 60, 408, 420 impact on Soviet reforms, 41,61, 229 recognition of Russia, 420 reforms as a possible road for the USSR, 158,175 Sino-Soviet summit (May 1989), 60 Tiananmen Square crackdown, 61, 84-5, 90, 93,96,108, 152, 184, 204, 292,438 Western investments, 434,438 in US-Soviet relations, 261 CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) analysis of the Soviet crisis, 93,182,215, 245, 378 and the August 1991 coup, 271, 283-4, 292 briefing Bush and Scowcroft on Soviet affairs, 215, 258, 259, 262, 378 intelligence sources in Moscow, 245, 377 as a
model for the reformed KGB, 346, 382 in Soviet officials’ imagination, 165 pro-Yeltsin bias in, 292, 378 CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States), 400, 406,407, 408,409, 425 Alma-Ata conference, 416, 417,419-20 borders between members, 405 as cover for Soviet Union’s dissolution, 436 declaration of, 401-2, 404 extra-legal nature of, 400, 405-6, 419 fictional joint control over Soviet nukes, 220 nuclear controls, 401, 404, 413 and the Soviet Army, 404 see abo Viskuli civil war, specter/fear of, 108, 113, 147, 149, 151,153, 154, 164, 174,195-6, 269, 276, 282, 301, 314, 333,405, 406, 416, 430 prospect in Ukraine, 320, 393, 405 see also Yugoslavia Clinton, Bill, 426, 434 CMEA (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance), 47 crisis and dissolution, 246 CNN, 121,143, 152,196,204 covering Gorbachev’s farewell speech, 422-3 during emergency rule, 283, 288 invited to fly to Crimea to rescue Gorbachev, 306 COCOM (Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls), 45,159 Colby, William, 169 Cold War “defeat” of the Soviet Union, 411,433 perceived end of, 43-4, 50, 92, 95-6, 143, 148, 252, 405,433 Western policies in, 44-5, 158, 259 Collins, James, 283, 289, 290 Colton, Timothy, 244 “Common European Home” (Gorbachev’s vision of Europe), 48, 50, 89, 94,97, 109, 110, 173, 249, 275 Commonwealth of Independent States see CIS Communist Party see Party, the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe see CSCE Congress of Peoples Deputies (RSFSR): May-June 1990, 116-18; March 1991, 203-5; May 1991, 216; October 1991, 373 approving the RSFSR presidency, 191, 205,216 515
INDEX granting Yeltsin extraordinary powers for Kravchuks diplomacy towards, 385-6, reforms, 373 389 standoff between Yeltsin and Gorbachev, and Ukraine referendum (December 203-5 1991), 395 Congress of People’s Deputies (USSR), 36 and Ukraine’s insecurity, 363 electing Gorbachev as President, 107-8 Ukrainian-Russian dispute over, 324, 325, election and convocation of, 70 326, 327, 351, 384, 394,400 last straw for Gorbachev to stay in power, CSCE (Conference on Security and 406,421 Cooperation in Europe), 172 reformed out of existence, 256, 331, Cuadra, Sergio de la, 230, 415 332-4, 348 Cuba, 96,119,239 sessions: May-June 1989, 74-8; abrogation of Soviet assistance to, 344, December 1989,175-8; March 1990, 345 107-8; September 1991, 332-4 Czechoslovakia, 48, 93 Constitution of the Soviet Union plans to join NATO, 161 breached by Yeltsin during emergency “Prague Spring” (1968), 34 rule, 306,311-12 Soviet invasion of (1968), 47, 59, 97, 112, and Commonwealth accords, 400, 410 115, 184 debates on confederation, 59, 99,120, 134, 135,429 Darman, Richard, 239 defended by Yeltsin and Russian De Michelis, Gianni, 145 democrats, 283 Delors, Jacques, 133, 249, 410 defied by RSFSR Congress, 204 Dementey, Nikolai, 266, 315 eroded and abrogated, 264, 332, 333-4, Demirchan, Karen, 54 348, 370 Democratic Russia (DR), 101,115,140,164, Novo-Ogaryovo Joint Declaration, 208, 189 209 absence of economic strategy, 348, and reforms of political system (1988), 349-50,354 35-6 against Gorbachev and the Soviet and reforms of ruling structures (1990), government, 105,152,176,184, 234 107, 108
against the Union Treaty, 201, 267 respected by hardliners and junta backing Baltic independence, 86,115, (1990-91), 156,270, 277, 288 184-5, 213, 290 and “socialist democracy,” 33 backing Ukraine’s sovereignty, 117, 211 troika deals with Yeltsin and Nazarbayev: “common democratic space,” 333, 343, July 1991, 256-7; September 1991, 331 351 Constitutional Assembly, Russian (1918), “dark forces” of reaction, 140-1, 243 333, 379 declarations of human rights, 333, 339 Cooperatives, Law on, 32, 63, 397 and economic liberalization, 150-1, 229 cooperatives, Soviet, 18,113, 129,130,166, gatherings and rallies, 150,153,184,194, 168 202,210-11,317, 348-5 as profiteers, 79, 80, 81, 111, 126, 189 mass base, 211 taxation of, 127,189 pro-Western moods, 339, 348-50 see also Cooperatives, Law on and RSFSR parliament, 117,131 Coordinating Committee for Multilateral and shutdown of the Party in Moscow, 315 Export Controls supported by American NGOs, 202, Cossiga, Francesco, 418, 422 212-13 Council for Mutual Economic Assistance supporting and criticizing Yeltsin, 202-3, see CMEA 216, 333, 349, 371 Council of Federation (1990-91), 108, unprepared for state work, 348, 350 Crimea weakness of, 430 annexed by Russia (2014), 2,437 “democrats of the first wave,” 9, 73, 76,117, autonomy within Ukrainian republic, 70, 348, 350; see also intelligentsia 385 Deng Xiaoping, 16,60, 61,295,434 Gorbachev on vacation in, 34, 38,40,41, diamonds, Soviet, 111, 127,137, 330, 370, 87,134, 265-6, 273, 306 376, 388, 390, 391 516
INDEX Dienstbier, Jiří, 340 Diuk, Nadia, 212 Doguzhiev, Vitaly, 295, 302, 304 Dole, Robert, 220 Dornbusch, Rudiger, 231, 356,414 Dudayev, Dzhokhar, 389 Dumas, Roland, 340, 419 Durdinets, Valery, 392 East Germany (German Democratic Republic), 49, 91,92, 93 Eastern Europe, 3, 15, 18,43,47-8, 89,433 collapse of trade with the USSR, 246, 247 illiberal trend in, 438s nationalism in, 52 and neoliberal economics, 230 peaceful revolutions in, 94, 306 plans to join NATO, 161, 246-7 as priority for the West over Russia, 433, 434 prospect of violence in, 48-9 rejection of “Finlandization,” 247 as US strategic priority after 1989,239, 245, 284 withdrawal of Soviet forces from, 159-61, 327 see also Soviet bloc; Warsaw Treaty Organization; CMEA EBRD (European Bank for Reconstruction and Development), 249, 251, 340 economic treaty among post-Soviet republics talks on, 346, 357, 367-8, 369, 370 and Ukraine, 367, 370, 373, 383, 386, 400 Yeltsin’s zigzags on, 357, 369, 370, 373 economy, Soviet, 16, 23 blows to, 24,25, 26 collapse of the central state, 327, 329-30 crisis, 4,126 crisis of supply, 62,424 de-centralization of, 27-8, 30 IMF-World Bank study of, 231 joint-stock companies, 157 loss of state control over export, 111,113, 166, 207, 374-5 “nationalization” by RSFSR, 120, political liberalization, 78-9 populist policies, 126,129,146, 201, 231, 232, 327 price liberalization, 128, 132,373, 374-6, 383 privatization, 129,132,156-7, 234, 326-9 protectionist reaction to crisis of, 207 reform programs in 1991, 348 subsidies, 18, 99, 201, 327, 372, 377, 357, 367, 395,419 and Western
economists, 126, 231, 233, 235, 356, 372, 354-5, 373, 374-8,415 see also finances, Soviet; inflation EEC see European Economic Community elites, Russia’s (after 1991), and decline of liberal Westernism, 435-6 Emergency Committee (State Committee for the State of Emergency; GKChP; junta) assurances to the West, 276, 277, 292 and bureaucratic class, 294, 295, 296, 297, 304 consequences of its failure, 303-4, 320 and curfew in Moscow, 298 delegation to Crimea, 273-4,275,276, 303 disagreement and disintegration, 297, 301-3,307 economic crisis, 272, 280, 294, 302 and Gorbachev’s absence, 275, 287, 290 and Gorbachev’s “treason” 318 lack of economic strategy, 294 lack of legitimacy, 273, 275, 285, 286-8, 290, 291, 293, 294, 295-6, 304, 305 logistics, 269-72 and the media, 279-80, 286, 287, 287-8, 297, 298 Operation Thunder,” 297, 301, 302 and the Party, 276-7 plans for Yeltsin, 286, 288-9 popular resistance to, 289, 296, 297, 300, 302 popular initial acceptance of, 1, 320 reactions in the West, 272, 274, 280-1, 287, 289, 292 repentance of members, 303 and republican/regional elites, 283,286, 297, 306 shock effect of, 278, 280-1 tipping point for, 294, 302 unready to use violence, 285 emergency legislation, 108,146, 259 wasted by Gorbachev, 171-3,174, 201 entrepreneurs, Russian against the junta, 296-7,296, 328 and the collapse of the Soviet state, 327-9 and Party money, 157, 326 as promoters of liberalization, 204, 225, 327, 328, 349 Erb, Richard, 414 Ermarth, Fritz, 182, 214 Estonia, 77, 389 Russia’s recognition of sovereignty, 318-19 and Russian democrats, 291 separatism of,
59,112-13 see also Baltic republics 517
INDEX EU see European Union European Bank for Reconstruction and Development see EBRD European Economic Community, 47,102, 122, 190, 249, 340 European Union, 133, 340 exclusion of Russia, 436 Friedman, Milton, 229, 232 Frolov, Ivan, 35 Fukuyama, Francis, 410 Furman, Dmitry, 45, 81 Fyodorov, Boris, 457 Fyodorov, Svyatoslav 73 Fahd bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, King of Saudi Arabia, 145 Falin, Valentin, 118 Federal Reserve System, 188, 222, 229, 351, 353 Filshin, Gennady, 189 finances, Soviet, 17, 30-1, 111 budget deficit, 62, 63, 80, 242 debts and dependence on Western credits, 111, 116,139, 161,170, 194, 233, 234, 294 dualism of, 30-1, 32, 128, 129, 130 fear of Western sanctions, 272, 274,285, 293, 295, 304 food imports (as a Soviet problem), 18 gold reserves, 111, 127, 338, 353, 412 loss of revenues, 126-7, 412 manipulations with cashless money, 129 printing money, 237, 330, 358, 370, 376, 387, 397 ruble zone during the collapse, 358, 369-70,405, 419 Soviet bankruptcy, 110, 237, 242, 246, 293, 294, 327, 338, 390 taken under Russia’s control, 376-7, 387-8 see also foreign debts and credits, Soviet; Goznak; inflation; Ministry of Finance Fischer, Stanley, 235 Fisunenko, Igor, 218, 219 Fokin, Vitold, 263, 351, 369, 370, 399 at meeting of Slavic leaders in Viskuli, 399,400,401,405 foreign debts and credits, Eastern European, 15-16, 17,48, 93, 340 foreign debts and credits, Soviet, 17, 25,48 denial of credits, 111, 242, 294, 338, 340, 353 restructuring of, 249, 340 Russia takes over, 390-1,404 Western pressure to pay, 353 foreign investments in the USSR, 246 Foreign Ministry, Russian
226, 380,418, 426; see aho Kozyrev, Andrei foreign trade, Soviet collateralized by gold, 353 halted for lack of credit, 111, 294 impact of de-centralization, 90 518 G-7 competition among Soviet actors to get money from, 352 internal coordination, 343 and Soviet debts/financial chaos, 390-1 summits: Houston, 1990,122, 231, 232; London, 1991, 234, 238, 246, 248, 249-54 and Western Sherpas, 247, 338, 340, 353 Gaidar, Masha, 295 Gaidar, Yegor, 231, 371,406 and the “500 Days,” 231 abolition of state monopoly on currency regulation, 374 absence of financial reserves, 390-1, 414 decree on price liberalization, 373, 374-6; other decrees, 398 drafting the Commonwealth accords, 400, 405 and failing central governance, 356, 375, 376 IMF-World Bank study of Soviet economy, 232 macroeconomic theory, 231, 355, 356, 371, 373 at meeting of Slavic leaders in Viskuli, 398-402 partnership with Burbulis, 355-6 on preventing war with Ukraine, 405 produces strategy of reforms for Yeltsin, 355-8 reactions to emergency rule, 231, 288, 295, 300, 303 reforms postponed, 383 in the Russian “government of reforms,” 376, 377 on seizing financial and economic assets and controls, 376, 398 social consequences of reforms, 435 his team of economists, 295, 398 Western lack of assistance, 390-1, 414, 434 and Yeltsin, 295, 371-2, 431 Gamsakhurdia, Zviad, 91, 198,283, 415 Gandhi, Rajiv, 63 Garcelon, Marc, 210 Garrison, Jim, 83 Gates, Robert, 50, 92,163-4, 181, 245 and the coup in Moscow, 283, 292
INDEX Gazprom, 157, 327, 330, 375, 388 Gdlyan, Telman, 74, 75, 76,152,164 General Staff, Soviet, 176,177, 238, 247, 251, 297, 298, 303, 362, 378,411,419 Genscher, Hans-Dietrich, 114,124, 293, 319, 339-40, 422 Georgia bloodshed in Tbilisi (April 1989), 74, 75, 162 conflict with Russia (2008), 437 separatism and violence in, 92, 350 stays out of the Commonwealth, 416 Gerashchenko, Viktor, 79,108,132, 235, 330 German Democratic Republic see East Germany Germany Berlin Wall, fall of, 93 foreign assistance to Gorbachev, 121, 339-40 German reunification, 109-12 monetary union with East Germany, 111-12 and NATO, 110-12 nuclear arms, 362 Soviet rapprochement with West Germany, 89, 90 Soviet troops in, 124, 284, 381 see aho East Germany Gidaspov, Boris, 209, 296 GKChP see Emergency Committee glasnost, 4, 22, 37, 67, 71, 75, 88 gold reserves, Soviet as collateral for the West, 95,290,412 “disappearance” of, 390-1 seized by Russia’s authorities, 388 see also Finances Golikov, Vyacheslav, 193 Golovatov, Mikhail, 183 Golovkov, Alexei, 231, 355,491 Gonzalez, Felipe, 45,145, 225 Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich and the “500 Days,” 133,134,135,136, 135-7, 140, 150 against privatization, 28, 245 alliance with Yeltsin and Nazarbayev: July 1991, 256-7, 258, 263-4; September 1991, 331-2, 333-4 background, 19-20 and Baltic separatism, 85, 87,104, 112-13, 115, 195-6, 261 birthday (1991), 193 calls for his resignation, 176, 184, 192-3, 194, 201, 203, 211, 243, 274,290, 310, 311,333 as chairman of the Supreme Soviet, 75-8 and the Chernobyl catastrophe, 26 519 and collectivized agriculture, 64 as
commander-in-chief, 161, 162-3, 183, 238, 251,262-3, 381,407-8 “Common European Home” vision, 48, 50, 89, 97, 109, 173 conducting State Council and provisional government, 331, 334, 335, 337, 338, 351-2, 356, 357, 369, 381, 382, 387, 388, 391,406 as crucial driver of Soviet collapse, 5, 397, 427, 428 in denial of political realities, 94,105-6, 312-13,416-17, 422 on the destruction of the Union, 394, 406,409,436 destruction of the Unions state structures, 333-4 devolution/delegation of power, 8, 69, 107, 206, 208, 224, 256-7, 264, 268, 314, 322, 331 and the economy, 23-5, 28-9, 63,129, 201,224,316 and the Emergency Committee, 272-3, 271,274, 308 eroding authority, 100, 103, 104,105, 148, 283 farewell address and resignation, 422-4 fearing civil war, 195-6, 269, 314 fearing for family’s life, 265-6, 274, 275, 293 and finances, 30, 31,129,130-1,206 foreign travel, 82,119,172 fundraising abroad, 116,144-5, 337, 338, 339-40, 363, 380 G-7 summit in London, 245, 246, 247, 251-4, 255 and German money, 116,121,144, 339 and German reunification, 92, 94, 109-11,116, 118,124 and Grand Bargain, 235, 237, 240, 241, 254-5 and Gulf War, 172,183, 196, 197 health, 273, 275, 292, 293, 295-6, 307 hubris, 37, 38, 68, 80,104, 222, 243, 264, 353 indecision and temporizing of, 54,117, 138,140,142, 172,185, 188-9, 203, 206, 210, 245, 279,429 isolated in Crimea, 272, 273-4 lack of interest in executive power, 36, 109, 172,314 lack of strategy, 22, 26-7, 66,67,117,130, 142, 337,427 left without money, 383,406 as Lenin’s emulator, 21-2, 24, 26, 27, 37, 46, 66-7, 106, 135, 269, 422, 427
INDEX lionized by the West, 95,119, 148, 340, 415 losing popularity at home, 2, 24, 80, 88, 105,125,205,310 loss of power instruments, 314-15, 407-8,417 and military industries, 64-6,167-9, 251 and NATO, 110-12,118,124, 247 Nine Plus One talks, 206-10, 218, 234-5, 240,241, 255-7,258, 266, 315; see also Union Treaty Nobel Peace Prize, 148,173,184 non-use of force and legalism, 43,47, 54, 55, 61,105, 183-5,196, 203,322, 406, 428 and nuclear arms, 44, 262 and nuclear controls, 275, 314-15, 378, 413-14,408, 417, 419,421, 424 and the Party apparatus, 27,40-1, 66-7, 71, 72, 107, 123, 135, 155, 157-8, 209, 225, 255 and the Party’s destruction, 315, 316 place in history, 193, 422 political isolation, 378, 379, 387,417 popular anger against, 115,121,191, 193-4 and the post-August 1991 provisional government, 312, 322, 331; see also State Council reading and theorizing by, 34, 38,66-7, 68,106,135, 266 rejection of junta members, 274, 306, 307-8 reliance on intelligentsia, 46, 54, 55, 56, 72 reliance on KGB, 165,166,197,199, 222, 243, 265,268, 269 reliance on US leadership, 45-6,196,197, 198-9,233,252,258, 260 resigns as Party head, 318 return to Moscow after junta’s collapse, 309-10 and Russia’s economic reform, 378-9 and Russia’s sovereignty, 99,117-18 and the Russian Communist Party, 100, 124,136,155,193, 225 and Russian liberals, 105,150,152,184, 217, 234,378,417 and Russian opposition and separatism, 100, 204-5, 417 and the Russian presidency, 219, 224 and the Ryzhkov government, 134,136, 140 and Shevardnadze’s resignation, 177 and “socialist democracy,” 27,28, 35-6, 60, 61, 67,
225,428 on Soviet nationalities, 51, 53-4 on Stalin and terror, 34-5, 57 as a struggling world statesman, 247, 248, 255, 260-1,262, 337, 339-40, 379-80 terms of retirement, 420-2 “turn to the right,” 154, 171-3, 174, 192, 260, on Ukrainian independence and sovereignty, 321, 370, 393-4, 395 and Ukrainian separatism, 256, 257,258, 263, 393-4, 395 Union presidency, 106-8, 171, 174, 257, 266, 282 Union Treaty, 85,135,138,170-1 US-Soviet summits, 44, 96, 118-19,182, 253 US economic support, 119,144, 235 vacation in August 1991,265-6 verbosity, 1, 105-6, 202, 261, 353 and Vilnius bloodshed (January 1991), 183-4, 185 and Yeltsin, 39, 117-18, 119,133, 137-8, 148-9, 201, 223, 357, 379, 382, 387 and Yeltsin’s anti-Party decrees, 265 Gorbacheva, Irina, 265, 307,310 Gorbacheva, Raisa, 26,104,105,109,118, 119, 177, 251,264, 270,410 decision to go on vacation in August 1991, 265 her fear and breakdown, 307,308, 309, 310, 378 as an intellectual partner of Mikhail, 19-20, 34 during isolation in Zaria, 273, 274, 293, 307 and the Soviet Cultural Foundation, 100 on the Union Treaty, 266-7 Gorbunovs, Anatolijs, 57,185, 319 Gosnell, Jack, 296 Gosplan, 18,28,31, 88, 175, 230 Gospriemka see State Inspection Goznak, 330, 376, 387-8 Grachev, Andrei, 267, 335 Grachev, Pavel, 281,298,407,413 Grand Bargain (private proposal of Western assistąnce to Soviet reforms, 1991), 235, 236,238, 239-40, 241, 243-4, 245, 248 compared to the Marshall Plan of 1947, 235,240, 340 Granin, Daniil, 316 Greenspan, Alan, 353 Grinev, Vladimir, 321, 322, 331 Gromov, Boris, 175, 216, 267 Gromyko, Andrei, 20, 27,28,45 GRU,
92, 253, 299 520
INDEX Gubenko, Nikolai, 147, 279 Gusak, Gustav, 47 Hadjiev, Salambek, 329 Hannah, John, 342 Havel, Vaclav, 161, 216, 239, 337,246-7 Helms, Jesse, 220 Helsinki Final Act (1975), 33, 48, 319 as a model for the post-Soviet environment, 332, 343 Hewett, Ed, 244, 343-4, 425 Hobbes, Thomas, 154 Honecker, Erich, 90, 93, 399 Hoover Institution, Stanford University, 231 Horelick, Arnold, 244 Hroch, Miroslav, 52 Hungary, 1956 invasion of, 14, 92,184,271, 284, 285, 326 Hurd, Douglas, 149, 338,419 Hurenko, Stanislav, 265, 286 Hussein, Saddam, 142,143,196 ideology, and Soviet collapse, 4, 9, 430-1, 432 Ilyushin, Viktor, 398 IMF (International Monetary Fund), 92, 229, 338 and the “500 Days,” 147 Gorbachev’s defiance of, 234,247 pessimism about Soviet economy and Gorbachev, 368 and Polish reforms, 128,129 political support for Gaidar, 414-15 and reduction of Soviet military, 373 Soviet membership in, 95,175, 234, 235, 248, 259, 343, 368, 390 and Soviet reforms, 129,147,165,230, 249, 345 study on the Soviet economy, 231-2, 233 as a surrogate Western actor, 122,137, 345 technical assistance to the USSR, 122, 137 see also World Bank and Washington Consensus inflation in Soviet economy, 128,148,177, 201, 210, 374, 422 accumulation of cash, 30-1 cashless crediting, 129 and Gaidar’s reforms, 383,405, 414 and Pavlov’s reforms, 202, 234-5 policies of state enterprises, 126-7 and populist politics, 130,146,177, 201, 232, 327 intelligentsia, Soviet base of Russian counterelite, 101, 430 calling for a strong arm, 146-7 decamping from Gorbachev to Yeltsin, 150,217,317, 378 ethos, 210, 348, 350
fearing the KGB, 140-1, 350 fearing a military coup, 216 fearing a Stalinist comeback, 40,140-2, 280-1 and nationalism, 55, 57, 74, 85-6,91-2, 104 revolutionary hubris, 210 and Russian identity, 317 supporting the Balts, 184-5 uncritical Westernism, 80-1,165, 210 utopianism, 9 Inter-regional Deputies’ Group see MDG International Monetary Fund see IMF Iraq, 142-3 Isakov, Boris, 205 Israel, 145, 261 Italy, Yeltsin’s trip to (December 1991), 417-18 Ivanenko, Viktor, 226, 299, 382 Ivanov, Nikolai, 75, 76,152,164 Ivashko, Vladimir, 155,185, 304, 306, 207, 209 Jackson-Vanik amendment, 95,119,259; see also US Congress; Cold War Japan, 45, 66,102, 208 territorial issues with the USSR, 250 Jaruzelski, Wojciech, 48,97,129,151,171, 285 Jews, Soviet, 81,140, 147, 360 emigration of, 119,145, 259 and Ukrainian politics, 360, 364 John-Paul II, Pope, 418 Johnson, Tom, 423 Juan Carlos, King of Spain, 296 junta see Emergency Committee Kaifu, Toshiki, 122,250 Kalugin, Oleg, 164 Kaplan, Rick, 422 Karimov, Islam, 109,191,257, 381 Karpov, Viktor, 262 Karpukhin, Viktor, 299 Karyakin, Yuri, 312 Kasparov, Garry, 211 Kazakhstan (The Kazakh SSR), 53, 323,400, 408 joins the Commonwealth of Independent States, 411 nuclear arms, 347 Kebich, Vyacheslav, 351, 398,400-1,402, 405 521
INDEX Kerman, George, 6,411 Kerensky, Alexander, 138 KGB (Committee for State Security), USSR, 13,14, 16, 27, 33, 66, 67, 71, 83, 86, 143,155, 163-70, 175, 213,232, 301, 316, 399,417 on American engagement in Russian politics, 212-13 broken up and demoralized, 378, 382 commercial activities, 127-8,157,189, 327-8, 437 division and hesitancy during the emergency, 283, 299,299, 302 Gorbachev’s encirclement in Zaria, 274, 292, 293 headquarters spared in August 1991, 313-14 logistics of the coup, 271, 272, 273-4, 287, 290 merged with the police forces, 418 and nationalist movements, 52, 74, 76, 86, 92,164 not acting on the oath to the Soviet Union, 402 obedience to leadership of, 165-6 and prospects of social unrest, 152,153, 155, 227 protection of leadership, 118,166,265, 274, 307, 382 and Russian nationalism, 216 and Russian politics, 115,117,164,186, 219, 227, 299,455 split over the Union Treaty, 271 supporting Yeltsin, 71, 149, 227, 449 suspected attempt on Yeltsins life, 147 tapping communications, 165, 213, 221-2, 257, 269 “turn to the right,” 154 see aho KGB, Russian KGB, Russian, 137,149, 150, 226, 299; see aho KGB, USSR Khasbulatov, Ruslan, 131-2,146,193, 227, 327, 373 during the junta’s rule, 281, 282, 295, 304-5 and Gorbachev, 204, 209-10,211 and the victory of Russian democracy, 306,311,313 Khlebnikov, Paul, 327 Khodorkovsky, Mikhail, 328-9 Khrushchev, Nikita, 22, 30, 34,44,45,57, 65, 66, 79, 389,431 and Crimea, 327 lessons for Gorbachev, 31, 38,420,427 Kirkland, Lane, 202, 220 Kissinger, Henry, 66, 220 522 Kobets, Konstantin, 299 Kohl, Helmut, 45, 90,110,196
financial support to Gorbachev, 116,144, 145, 244, 249, 250, 339-40 reaction to the coup in Moscow, 284,287 on separatism in the USSR, 114, 341 and Soviet troops in East Germany, 124, 284, 381 Soviet-German accords (1990), 124 special relations with Gorbachev, 110, 112,121,246,416 on Yugoslavia, 261 Köhler, Horst, 340 Kolosovsky, Andrei, 404-5,412, 413 Komplektov, Viktor, 292 Komsomol, entrepreneurship of, 157, 327-8 Koppel, Ted, 422,423,424 Korea, Republic of, 208 Korzhakov, Alexander (“Sasha”), 149, 282, 315, 358,403 Kovalev, Sergey, 339 Kozyrev, Andrei, 238, 291, 319, 356, 367, 377, 394-5,400,414,417 and the destruction of the Union, 367-8 during junta rule, 283, 290-2 ensuring Russia’s status as Soviet successor state, 412,419,420 expectation of Western help, 222, 292, 414,426 at meeting of Slavic leaders in Viskuli, 398,400,402, 403 as Russian Foreign Minister, 226 takeover of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, 336, 380,412,417 and US leadership, 220,221, 404-5,408, 413 Kravchenko, Leonid, 298 Kravchuk, Antonina, 266 Kravchuk, Leonid, 86, 359, 360, 360, 383 and Crimea’s separatism, 385-6 defying Gorbachev, 265,266, 351-2, 394 during emergency rule, 283,286, 307, 308 and economic relations with Russia, 352, 361, 369, 370 growing confidence, 201, 256, 265, 320, 359 as a leader of Ukraine’s independence, 320-2, 351, 359 at meeting of Slavic leaders in Viskuli, 396, 398-405 Nine Plus One talks, 255-6, 315, 326, 352, 369, 370 partnership with Yeltsin, 173-4, 325 and the post-Soviet confederation, 263, 266, 361, 364, 383
INDEX presidential race in Ukraine, 256, 326, 359, 360, 364, 384-6 referendum on independence, 322, 393, 397 trip to Canada and the United States (September 1991), 359-61, 363 on Ukraine’s nuclear arms, 363, 367, 392, 401 and Ukrainian-American diaspora, 359, 360 and Ukrainian-Russian conflict, 325-6 worries about dominant Russia, 174, 263 Kremlin, the as Gorbachevs presidential residence, 130, 168, 177, 184, 224 seized by Yeltsin, 407-8,413,419,420-1, 424 and Yeltsins demands and empowerment, 120, 137-8, 219, 223, 224 Krenz, Egon, 93 Krieble, Robert, 212, 217, 220, 291 Kruchina, Nikolai, 157, 315, 326, 327-8 Kryuchkov, Vladimir, 66, 88-9,108,113, 115, 130,143,193, 215, 256, 327 and American agents of influence, 165 arrest, 309 on the bloodshed in Vilnius (January 1991), 183 calculations for Russia’s role, 286 enjoying Gorbachev’s trust, 151, 261, 269 fear of Western sanctions, 285 and Grand Bargain, 235-6, 242 insinuating and goading Gorbachev, 148, . 4,269 II plotting to introduce emergency, 200,221 on political reforms, 163-4 reading of intelligence, 269-70 reluctance to use force, 284,288-9,297, 302, 303 as a ringleader of a junta, 164, 269-71, 272, 273, 274,275,276, 285-7, 288-9 trip to Foros, 305, 306, 307-8 on the Union referendum, 191,200 and the Union Treaty, 269,430 on Western financial policies, 164,165-6, 168,177, 190, 290, 294, 301-2, 303 and Yeltsin, 226, 286-7, 288 see also KGB, USSR Kryzhanovsky, Pyotr, 396 Kunadze, Georgy, 418 Kuwait, 142-3,196 Kuzbass, 79,193, 211, 216, 218, 297; see also workers Kvitsinsky, Yuly, 247, 336 Landsbergis, Vytautas, 58,
76,112,114,182, 184, 186, 282, 342 Latin America as a mirror for Soviet troubles, 247, 248, 249, 435 as a testing-ground for neoliberalism, 230-1,249 Latvia, 114,185 gaining sovereignty, 318-19 national referendum on independence (1991), 200 see also Baltic republics Lavrov, Kirill, 147 Lavrov, Sergey, 336-7 Lebed, Alexander, 297, 298, 305 legal succession from the Soviet Union to Russia, 212, 264, 350 British advice on, 419 and financial institutions, 376-7 Russian-Ukrainian dispute over, 367,401 Western consent to, 369, 413, 419, 426 Yeltsin’s dilemma on, 366, 373 Lenin, Vladimir, 16, 29, 35, 36, 72, 219, 293, 329, 333, 337, 343, 373, 375, 379 construction of the Soviet Union, 51,400, 403 his cult debunked, 72 his reforms, 428 Levada, Yuri, 217 Lieven, Dominic, 68 Ligachev, Yegor, 20, 23, 29, 39,40, 106, 107, 112, 115,123-4 Likhachev, Dmitry, 75, 99, 108, 333 Lincoln, Abraham, 193 Lithuania assassination of customs officers (July 1991), 261 bloodshed in January 1991,182-3, 290 separatism (1989-90), 89,104,112 Soviet economic sanctions against, 113, 115 suspends independence declaration, 123 see also Baltic republics Lobov, Vladimir, 262 Lubbers, Ruud, 249, 284 Lugar, Richard, 411 Lukianenko, Levko, 320, 321 Lukin, Vladimir, 313 concept of Russia inside a Union, 174, 207 excluded from the Viskuli talks, 398 relations with the United States, 220,221 resistance to the junta, 281 as supporter of the Union Treaty, 207, 209 and territories and borders of Russia, 173-4, 324, 325 523
INDEX Lukyanov, Anatoly, 35, 58, 71,193, 205, 327 and the “500 Days,” 136,146 opportunism in August 1991, 272,275-6, 287, 295, 304 maneuvering to succeed Gorbachev, 176, 221, 242, 296 prodding for hard line, 148,151-2,154, 255 as Speaker of the USSR Supreme Soviet, 108,117,176 trip to Foros, 306, 207, 309 Luzhkov, Yuri, 281, 300, 315 Major, John, 196, 244, 293, 338, 343,421 Makashov, Albert, 122, 216 Malaparte, Curzio, 293-4 Malkina, Tatiana, 288 Mao Zedong, 41, 60 Marchuk, Yevgeny, 392 Marshall Plan (1947) as a model for Western assistance to the Soviet Union/Russia, 235, 240, 340, 411,414,415 expectation of in Soviet-Russian elites, 414, 432 Masliukov, Yuri, 88,112,136,137,138,142, 144, 175, 295 Matiukhin, Grigory, 226 Matlock, Jack, 83, 84,182,195,196,199, 220, 232,239 conspiracy against Gorbachev (June 1991), 221, 243 on the Soviet Union’s preservation, 238-9 and Ukraine, 262, 263 May Day demonstration (1990), 115 Mazowiecki, Tadeusz, 91, 97 McFaul, Michael, 212 MDG (Inter-regional Deputies’ Group), 77, 78, 82, 83, 84, 86, 88,101,120 Medvedev, Vadim, 35, 36, 47, 74, 76, 85, 245, 246, 332,379 Medvedev, Vladimir, 273 Men, Alexander, assassination of 140-1 Meri, Lennart, 213, 347 MIC (military-industrial complex), Soviet, 44, 64-5, 135, 267, 270, 348,437 and the “500 Days,” 166 biological programs, 166, 348, 421 as a bogus threat for Russian liberals, 135,141,166,268 budgetary allocations, 166-7,169 cost-effectiveness of, 17,166,432 “conversion” and dismantling of, 159, 166-70, 221, 234 directors of its corporations, 168-70, 251 employees in separatist democratic movement,
117, 166,210 fear of production cuts, 251 foreign investments, 168,169, 246, 251 Gorbachevs expectations of, 65 and market ventures, 168,169-70 in republics, 323, 347, 359 and separatism, 137,162 and the Soviet governments reforms, 64, 128, 234 takeover by Russia, 316 “turn to the right,” 17,154 US attitudes toward, 45,170, 233 MID (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the USSR) fears of elimination, 380 and international recognition of Russia, 389 purge after August 1991, 336-7 and Soviet assets abroad, 380-1, 388-9, 417 takeover by Russia discussed, 378, 380-1, 388-9,413,417-18 Middle East, 145,196,197 international conference on, 143-4, 379-80 Soviet role in, 143, 260,261, 412 Mielke, Erich, 14,17, 93 military-industrial complex see MIC Miloševič, Slobodan, 370 Ministry of Finance of the USSR printing money to cover tax holes, 237 proposing higher taxes, 126-7 taken under Russia’s control, 376-7, 383, 387 see also finances, Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs see MID Mitchell, George, 220 Mitterrand, François, 37,89,196 on the dissolution of the Soviet Union, 410 G-7 summit in London, 249, 251 as Gorbachevs supporter, 114,122,145, 244, 340 reactions to the coup in Moscow, 284, 287, 305 recognition of the Baltics, 320 shifting priorities away from the East, 340 Mlynař, Zdeněk, 33 Moiseyev, Mikhail brief tenure as Minister of Defense, 312, 315 during the emergency, 314 as General Staff head, 160,161,238, 309 Moldova, 85 524
INDEX conflict in Transnistria, 436 separatism and violence in, 153, 262,283, 350 Mosbacher, Robert, 144, 220, 221 Moscow attitudes to preservation of the Union, 202 as capital of the Soviet Union and the RSFSR, 124, 134, 137, 145,219 as center of the defense industries, 65, 169-70 as controller of Union economic assets, 52, 157-8 envy and enmity toward, 73-4, 76-7, 120-1, 139,150 as hotbed of Westernism and liberalism, 80, 86, 97,99, 101, 105, 117,128,178, 184,186, 194,197, 210, 217 living standards deteriorating under Gorbachev, 62 power struggle in, 150,152, 202, 203-204, 207 as Soviet-Russian media hub, 72, 76,105, 117,135 supporting market reforms, 135 supporting Yeltsin, 71,138, 201, 217 as symbol of colonial domination, 58 under control of Democratic Russia, 115, 152 Movement for Democracy and Reforms, 225,280; see also Shevardnadze, Eduard Mulford, David Q, 239, 353, 390,414 Miillerson, Rein, 319 Mulroney, Brian, 122, 250,422 on the coup in Moscow, 285 on recognition of the Balts and Ukraine, 341,359 Murashov, Arkady, 150, 348, 349-50; see also Democratic Russia; MDG Mutallibov, Ayaz, 351,419 Myasnikov, Georgy, 100 Nabiyev, Rahmon, 419 Nagorny Karabagh, conflict over, 54-5, 358, 389, 436 Naishul, Vitaly, 230-1 Najibullah, Mohammad, 345 Nakasone, Yasuhiro, 66 National Democratic Institute (NDI), 213 National Endowment for Democracy (NED), Washington DC, 202, 212, 291 lobbying for Ukraine’s independence, 342 National Security Council (NSC), 83,164, 181,343 contingency group on the Soviet Union, 181, 377-8 nationalism as anti-systemic force, 4 in Azerbaijan (1990),
104-5,162,184 Azeri-Armenian conflict, 54-5 in the Baltic republics (1988), 56 in Georgia and Abkhazia (1988-89), 74, 91 in Kazahstan (1986), 53 nationalists, Russian 99,100,146, 267 and collapse of the Soviet state, 317-18 and emergency rule, 287 hating Gorbachev, 107 NATO, 97, 124 cooperation council (NACC), 413 declaration to reform itself (1990), 122, 123 and Eastern European countries, 161, 246-7 expansion and Russia’s reaction, 436,437 humanitarian aid to the Soviet Union, 346.411 and junta rule in Moscow, 284, 300 non-enlargement “pledge,” 110 Russia’s request to join, 410, 413 and Soviet military withdrawal, 159,160 Nazarbayev, Nursultan, 109,175,176, 209, 241, 283, 381 excluded from meeting of Slavic leaders, 400,404,408 as Gorbachev’s unsteady ally, 257, 258, 331, 332, 352, 408 soliciting US recognition, 347 worries about Russia’s dominance, 325, 347-8 and Yeltsin, 268, 323, 338,408 Nazi-Soviet pact (1939), 57, 76, 85, 86,112, 320 Gorbachev’s concealment of original, 421 see also Baltic republics Németh, Miklós, 91 Nevzorov, Alexander, 287, 318 New Economic Policy (NEP), 16, 27 “new political thinking,” 43-4,46 “new world order,” 247 of the Bush administration, 143,411 crisis of, discussed, 438,439 for Gorbachev, 43,46, 116, 197, 237, 260, 261 place of Russia in, 434 and the Soviet military, 160 and Yeltsin and Russian democrats, 150, 291.411 Nicaragua, 96 Nine Plus One talks see Novo-Ogaryovo; Union Treaty; Gorbachev, Mikhail 525
INDEX Nit, Igor, 354 Nixon, Richard, betting on Yeltsin in April 1991,213-14 Nordhaus, William D., 231 Noriega, Manuel, 96 Nove, Alec (Alexander Novakovsky), 126 Novo-Ogaryovo, 206-7,208, 209-10, 212, 215, 218, 234, 240, 241, 256, 258, 260, 326, 260, 380-1 nuclear weapons, 327 fracturing Soviet arsenal, 181, 344, 361 Nunn-Lugar initiative, 411 prospect of intra-Soviet conflicts, 375 and Soviet nuclear controls, 275, 314-15, 378,408,413-14, 417, 424 and Soviet plutonium, 168 tactical systems, 361, 362, 375 on Ukraine’s territory, 361, 363, 367; see also Ukraine and US initiative (September 1991), 361-2 see also START Nunn-Lugar initiative, 411 Nunn, Sam, 411 O’Clery, Conor, 423 Obama, Barack, 438 Obolensky, Alexander, 333 Odling-Smee, John, 232,414 Odom, William, 162 oil, Soviet/Russian and Belarus, 398-9, 400 collapse of distribution and export controls, 329, 374 “disappearance” of revenues and products, 127, 390, 412-13 and foreign investments, 144, 246 and Gaidars reforms, 377 “nationalized” by Yeltsins Russia, 221, 316, 330, 357-8, 388 as a power asset of Yeltsins Russia, 367 prices and production, 25,127,130,146 subsidized deliveries to Ukraine and Baltic states, 377 as a surrogate currency, 377 Tengiz fields, 144,258, 259 transit via Ukraine and Belarus, 409 Tyumen fields, 211, 218 and Ukraine, 329, 361, 370 OMON, 183, 185, 261 Onikov, Leon, 158 opposition to Gorbachev see MDG Orbán, Viktor, 91 Organization of Security and Cooperation in Europe see OSCE Orlov, Vladimir, 246 526 Orlov, Yuri, 248 Orthodox Church see Russian Orthodox Church OSCE (Organization of Security
and Cooperation in Europe), 247 conference in Moscow (September 1991), 338-40, 344 Oswald, Lee Harvey, 399 Palazhchenko, Pavel, 251, 257, 260, 262, 380, 416 Panama, US invasion of, 96 Pankin, Boris, 337 and “democratic foreign policy,” 227, 344-5 and the Middle East peace conference, 379-80 and OSCE conference, 338-9 and Russian attack on the Foreign Ministry, 380-1 “parade of sovereignties” (1990), 120,121, 162 Party apparatus and institutions criticism of Gorbachev’s leadership, 71-2, 224 “democratization” of, 155 dissolved, 315, 318, 326 ethnic-national and regional clans, 52, 158 inability to oust Gorbachev, 209, 225, 255, 270, 428 new commercial opportunities, 156-8 purge of the Old Guard, 41, 67, 71 “turn to the right,” 155 Party Conference (1988), 35, 37 Party Congress: 1986,21-2, 25; 1990, 123-34,155; 1991,255 Party, the (Communist Party of the Soviet Union) banned, 317 fragmentation along nationalist lines, 429 money, 326-7 power monopoly, 101,106-7,163 reformist potential, 437 shutdown with Gorbachev’s consent, 313, 315 see also Russian Communist Party Pateichuk, Yevgenia, 402 Pavlov, Georgy, 326,442 Pavlov, Valentin, 31, 108, 126, 130,206,221, 239,256,279 against decentralization, 175 anti-crisis program, 207, 235, 247 arrest, 311 attempts to stabilize Soviet finances, 142, 175,188-9, 234, 237, 242,272
INDEX ban on rallies, 202, 203 Cabinet, 246, 294-5 concept of conservative reforms, 187-8, 242 concept for the RSFSR government, 226 concern for Western banks and profiteers, 189-90, 272 demanding emergency rule, 242 exit from junta, 298 on Grand Bargain, 236, 241-2 participation in the junta and sickness, 272, 287,294-5, 298 as Prime Minister of the USSR, 175-6, 187-90, 202, 234 public hatred of, 189 and Soviet bankruptcy, 272 on the Union Treaty, 272, 295,478 view of Gorbachev, 187 perestroika, 22, 31, 34, 50, 55, 59, 62, 66, 67, 71,181,187,194, 266, 399,415 declared extinct, 184, 317, 328 in need of Western support, 116 Pérez de Cuéllar, Javier, 277, 426 Petrakov, Nikolai, Ю8,128,142,149,154 and the “500 Days,” 133-6, 146, 147 in Andropov’s group of economists, 422 program of market transition (1990), 128-9,130,132, 142,429 on republics’ separatism, 129,130,134 Pikhoia, Rudolf, 155 Pinochet, Augusto, 230, 288, 295, 300 Pipes, Richard, 212 Plekhanov, Yuri, 274,275, 306, 307, 309 Plokhy, Serhii, 307, 359, 383, 385, 393 Poland, 17,90, 91, 340, 381, 395,408 economic reforms (“the Balcerowicz Plan”), 128, 129 impact on political movements in the Soviet Union, 141,193, 194,294 see also Solidarity Politburo, 155,192 and German unification, 116 and Gorbachev’s reforms, 34, 36, 37, 38, 41,46,49, 54, 55, 57, 58, 61,64, 71,72 as institution in decline, 36, 69, 79, 107, 123,155, 224 reformers and Gorbachev loyalists added to, 40,41, 88 political liberalization, 35, 38,40-1; see also Constitution Polozkov, Ivan, 117,123, 155,156,171, 192, 205, 209, 225 Ponomarev, Lev, 212 Popov,
Gavriil, 73,105,115, 116, 225, 310 demanding Ukraine’s territories, 325 elected Mayor of Moscow, 219 fearful of dictatorship, 194, 202, 299-300 shutdown of the Party apparatus, 315 soliciting Western food aid to Moscow, 346 suspected conspiracy against Gorbachev, 221-2,243 Portnikov, Vitaly, 366-7 Powell, Colin, 258-9, 361 Presidential Council (1990), 108-9,172,193 presidential elections in RSFSR (June 1991), 215-19 price reform under Gorbachev buying panics, 131,146 delayed, 63 overdue, 31,130-1 Primakov, Yevgeny, 135, 243, 251, 308, 332 during emergency rule, 297 as Gorbachev’s emissary, 143-4, 234 in Gorbachev’s provisional government, 338 and Grand Bargain, 235, 236-7 and the Gulf war, 143-4,196 as head of foreign intelligence, 382, 407, 418 joins the democratic opposition, 304 on export of arms, 168-9 privatization see economy Prokhanov, Alexander, 267, 287, 296 Prokofiev, Yuri, 146, 202, 224-5,276, 315 provisional government: 1917, 138,144, 197, 349, 366; after August 1991 see State Council Prunskienė, Kazimira, 115,183 public opinion and polls, 124,135,138,192, 217, 283, 430 during emergency rule, 294 on growing anarchy, 171 in Moscow on the Commonwealth accords, 409 reaction to Gorbachev’s resignation, 422 in Ukraine, 359, 384 Pugo, Boris, 57,175, 193, 242, 256, 327 commits suicide, 303 in the junta, 287, 298 Putin, Vladimir, 2, 290,432, 436-7 Qian Qichen, 96 Radio Liberty, 283,296 Rappaport, Bruce, 167 Rasputin, Valentin, 99,100,130 Reagan, Ronald, 17, 37,44 and Gorbachev, 44,49, 50 pressure on Soviet economy, 44-5 Referendum (1 December 1991) on Ukraine’s
independence see Ukraine 527
INDEX Referendum (17 March 1991) on preservation of the Union, 190-1, 438 results of, 200 and Russian presidency, 191 Remnick, David, 140-1, 156, 204, 267 Revenko, Grigory, 257, 312, 337 Rice, Condoleezza, 83,164,181,182,197 Romania, 97,153 Ross, Dennis, 143,236,262 Rostropovich, Mstislav, 300 RSFSR see Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic Rumyantsev, Oleg, 212,366 Russia see Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic Russian Communist Party, 100,122-3,135, 155, 156, 192, 268 banned by Yeltsin and Gorbachev, 317 fragmentation of, 205 Russian Federation see Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic Russian Orthodox Church, 100,140-1, 205, 223, 283, 317; see aho Alexyi II, Patriarch Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR; Russian Federation), 51, 98 autonomous republics and regions within, 135-6,191, 201,208,256, 323 and the Bank of Russia, 132,188, 218, 226, 376 declaration of sovereignty, 120 elections of the Congress and Supreme Soviet in (1990), 116-17 formation of a counterelite, 121,131,430, 431 geopolitical environment of, 365,419 institutional weakness of, 98, 99,100, 149, 225-6 proposals to break it up, 99,101 recognition by the West, 305,413,414; see ako Yeltsin, Boris recognized as the Soviet Union’s successor state, 413, 420,425; see also legal succession renamed Russian Federation/Russia, 409 rivalry with Soviet institutions, 99,145-6 and Russians outside it, 98 subsidizing other republics, 99, 201, 357, 367, 372,395,419 seizing Soviet economic assets, 388 tax reforms, 188 Rutskoy, Alexander, 205,225,299, 310, 325, 366, 390, 398
commercial interests, 329, 366, 375 delegated to Gorbachev’s provisional government, 331,357 and “nuclear threat” to Ukraine, 375 “saving” Gorbachev, 306, 308-9 and triumph of Russian democracy, 310, 313 trouble-shooting in Kazakhstan and Ukraine, 325-6 as Yeltsin’s running mate, 218 Rüütel, Arnold, 185,212, 318-19 Ryashentsev, Vladimir, 127-8 Ryzhkov, Nikolai, 23, 24, 26, 71,162 alienation from Gorbachev, 134,140, 177,334 and the ANT scandal, 128 as architect of economic reforms, 16, 20, 27-8,429 on Baltic separatism, 58,112 and Chernobyl, 26 and Eastern Europe, 48,246 elected Prime Minister (1989-90), 79 emotionalism, 128,131,139-40,142, 148,154 fear of back-stepping on reforms, 63,105 heart attack and resignation, 177 and the Law on State Enterprises, 28, 29 and miners’ strike, 80 as opponent of the “500 Days,” 133-4, 136,137,146 and Party apparatus, 28,40 political reforms, 36 on prices and finances, 31, 32,63,131, 146 in RSFSR presidential race, 216,219 self-accounting of the republics, 56, 85 unable to prevent economic crisis, 62, 123,126,142 working on a crisis program, 127, 129-30, 131,134 Saburov, Yevgeny, 355 economic program, 355, 356, 371 negotiating a post-Soviet economic union, 357, 367 succeeded by Gaidar, 373-4 Sachs, Jeffrey, 235,415 Safire, William, 238,239, 341, 342, 360 Sąjūdis, 57, 76,184 Sakharov, Andrei, 34, 76,150,211, 219, 280, 339 constitution project, 86,100 death and funeral, 101 and national self-determination, 86, 91, 115 parliamentary opposition, 73-4, 77-8 Samsonov, Viktor, 290 Savisaar, Edgar, 56, 334 Savostyanov, Yevgeny, 349 528
INDEX Schultz, George, 119,160 Scowcroft, Brent, 50, 83, 92, 94, 181, 260 and the Baltic republics, 114, 342 and China, 96 and the coup in Moscow, 283, 284 and fracturing Soviet nuclear arsenal, 361, 392 and German reunification, 110 on Gorbachev, 143,197, 393, 425 mistrust of the CIA estimates, 215, 378 on prioritizing East-Central Europe, 197 and Soviet nuclear reductions, 238, 258, 262 surprised by the Soviet Union’s demise, 215, 341, 378, 425 on Ukraine and Russia, 344, 360 on US strategy towards the collapsing Soviet Union, 341, 342, 344, 360. 392 on Yeltsin and Russian separatism, 182, 213, 222, 259, 378, 392 SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative), 17, 44, 45, 50 Security Council (under Gorbachev), 172, 235, 254,312 Shaimiev, Mintimer, 208, 323 Shakhnazarov, Georgy, 14-15, 20, 34, 39, 61, 78, 110, 171,273, 335, 378, 382, 409,436 on Baltic nationalism, 59 dismantling Union statehood, 334 and Eastern Europe, 49 estimate of the Soviet collapse, 423-4 on ethnic conflicts in South Caucasus, 54 on Gorbachev’s place in history, 193 and Politburos lack of will, 428 and Russia’s geopolitics, 365 on Ukrainian separatism, 256, 257, 384 working on the Union Treaty, 114-15, 190,206, 207,208-9,256,329, 365, 368 Shakhrai, Sergey, 227, 356, 398 at meeting of Slavic leaders in Viskuli, 400,409 Shaposhnikov, Yevgeny, 278, 301, 362 as commander of “Commonwealth forces,” 420 on fragmentation of the Soviet Army, 381 as Minister of Defense, 314, 346 and nuclear controls (“briefcases”), 413, 421, 424 recognizes Yeltsin as boss, 404,407 on withdrawal of Soviet troops from the Baltics, 346, 347
Shatalin, Stanislav, 108,130, 133,138,139, 147,149, 154, 169,198 Shatrov, Mikhail, 147 Shcherbak, Yuri, 323, 325, 332 Shcherbakov, Vladimir, 142, 236, 246,251, 279 and the Cabinet of Ministers during emergency days, 295, 304, 316 Shcherbitsky, Vladimir, 85, 86, 88 Shebarshin, Leonid, 142, 164-5, 227, 285, 288 as the KGB head, 312, 313, 314 Sheinis, Viktor, 117 Shenin, Oleg, 156, 171, 183, 200, 209 and the junta, 270, 276, 303, 304 Shevardnadze, Eduard, 38,45, 55,123,165, 334, 408, 412 against the junta, 280, 296, 300 alienation from and criticism of Gorbachev, 177 as centrist between Gorbachev and Yeltsin, 244, 258 conflict with Soviet military, 160-1 on dangers of democratic radicalism, 203 democratic opposition, 151 and dissolution of the Soviet Union, 406 expectations of dictatorship, 152,176-7, 183-4 on failure of perestroika, 415 and Georgia, 91,176, 203, 416 and German reunification, 109-10 and Gorbachevs presidency, 105,151, 337 with Gorbachev during his last days in power, 378, 381 and the Gulf crisis (1990), 142-3, 144 leaning on the West, 119,161 leaves the Party, 225 relations with Baker and US administration, 92,161, 243, 258, 346-7 as messenger to US leaders, 113,119, 144,182, 243 pessimism about the Union’s future, 85 resigns as Foreign Minister: December 1990, 176-7; December 1991, 418 visit to NATO headquarters, 97 Shevardnadze, Nanuli, 300 Shmelyov, Nikolai, 88, 95, 142 Shneider, Mikhail, 211, 212 Shushkevich, Stanislav, 387, 399 dependence on Yeltsins Russia, 388 at meeting of Slavic leaders in Viskuli, 398, 400-1,403 supporting Kravchuk, 332-3, 352
tutoring Lee Harvey Oswald, 399 Silayev, Ivan, 281,295, 299, 346,418 as a coordinator of Unions economy, 331, 338, 340, 346, 352-3, 357, 390, 406, 418 529
INDEX as RSFSR prime minister, 226, 310, 338, 352 “saving” Gorbachev in Crimea, 306, 308-9 and Soviet foreign debts, 390 Simes, Dimitri K, 213 Sitaryan, Stepan, 35, 442 Slavsky, Yefim, 26 Sliunkov, Nikolai, 99 Snegur, Mircea, 419 Sobchak, Anatoly, 78,108,128,225,268 on Baltic and Ukraine’s independence, 323, 325, 334, 386 commercial activities, 329 during emergency rule, 281, 289-90, 296, elected mayor of Leningrad (St Petersburg), 219 as Gorbachev’s uncertain ally, 332, 346 “socialist democracy,” 15, 21, 27, 28, 33-6, 42, 60-2, 77, 101, 158,225,428 in Gorbachev s new Party program, 255 Sokurov, Alexander, 217å Solidarity (Polish movement), 15 impact on Ukrainian nationalists, 85 as a model for Russian democrats, 73, 151,193, 194, 202 round table and elections, 86, 90, 211 Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 66,100, 232, 333 influence on Yeltsin, 150, 220 on the union of three Slavic nations, 173, 324, 327 Soros, George, 147, 230 Soviet bloc, 17-18, 90, 96-7 Soviet collapse causes of, 3-6, 9, 397-8, 427-9 estimates about, 2,135,181 explanations of, 3-7 historical alternatives, 428 and mass disillusionment in Russia, 435, 437 parallels with Western decline, 438 place in history, 439 Western media’s narrative, 423 see also Soviet Union; Soviet Union, dissolution of Soviet identity crumbling, 82-3, 84, 87 Soviet Union (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; USSR) as a confederation, 51, 58-9,135, 208-9 conference in Alma-Ata, 416,417, 419-20 exit law for republics, 60,107,113 founding Treaty of 1922, 400,405 fragility and resilience of, 432 Gorbachev’s resignation Joint Declaration of
April 1991, 209 530 meltdown of executive power, 303, 316, 331,332, 364 name discarded, 208 perceived death of, 348,400-2, 425 Russian nationalism, 51-2,156, 219, 267 as sovereign legal entity, 319 Union Treaty, 264, 269; see also Union Treaty Western humanitarian and food aid to, 345, 353,368,380,412,415 see also legal succession; Soviet Union, dissolution of Soviet Union, dissolution of changing Russian perceptions of, 435, 437 declaration of, 400-2 fear and insecurity of initiators, 402-3 informing the US government on, 403-5 meeting of Slavic leaders in Viskuli, 397, 398-405 and public apathy, 409, 422, 424 ratification and popular reactions to, 409 in Western imagination, 423, 425,433, 437 Western surprise and verdict, 410, 415-16 Soyuz, 171,172,243 Spohr, Kristina, 434,435 Stalin, Joseph, 21, 30, 34, 35,40,43, 75,243, 246, 249, 266,269, 280, 295, 339, 348, 359, 389,403, 425 Stankevich, Sergey, 73,105, 313-14, 325, 366, 398 Starovoitova, Galina, 73, 86-7,120 advising Yeltsin, 191, 217, 386, 292, 391 advocating Western help to Yeltsin during the coup, 290,291 assassinated (1998), 417 demanding Gorbachevs resignation, 184, 290 demanding Gorbachevs return during junta days, 290 excluded from the talks in Viskuli, 401 on foreign debts, 391 on Gorbachev’s missed opportunities, 310,416-17 on inevitability of the Soviet Unions break-up, 87, 291 and the Soviet Union’s abrupt dissolution, 416-17 on Ukraine’s independence, 386, 396, 398,400-1 START (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty), 238, 250, 251,253, 258,261-2, 412 ratification in the Union’s Supreme Soviet, 343
INDEX State Bank, 18, 32, 79,188,237, 242 and commercial banks, 328 during the emergency rule, 304 loss of revenues, 391,412-13 and monetary liberalization, 32, 33, 128 role after economic liberalization, 374 and “swap” operations, 111 taken over by Yeltsins government, 329-30, 383, 387 see also Gerashchenko, Viktor State Committee for the State of Emergency see Emergency Committee State Council (provisional government after August 1991), 331, 334, 337, 346, 351-3, 355, 356, 358, 369-70, 376, 377, 380-3, 386, 387, 388, 391,406, 417 State Enterprises, Law on, 27-9,63,189, 397 State Inspection (Gospriemka), 24 Stepanov-Mamaladze, Teimuraz, 55, 80, 82, 91,97, 118, 119, 123, 160,316,416, 422 Stoltenberg, Thorvald, 240 Stolypin, Pyotr, 187-8, 266, 427 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty see START Strategic Defense Initiative see SDI Strauss, Robert, 341, 394 Sukhanov, Lev, 83-4,192 Summers, Larry, 229 Sununu, John, 393 Supreme Soviet (RSFSR), 101,131,193 Gorbachev’s explanations to, 316-17 ratifies the dissolution of the USSR, 409 and Russian presidency, 191 in session during emergency rule, 282, 304-6 split over Yeltsins separatism and radicalism, 193 “war of laws” with the USSR Supreme Soviet, 145-6, 397 as “the White House,” symbol of Russian democracy, 297, 298, 300, 304, 310 Supreme Soviet (USSR) absence during emergency rule, 295-6, 304 “closed” session on Soviet crisis, 242 controlled and disabled by republics, 331, 409 curbing populist allocations of, 129 in Gorbachevs political reforms, 78 as the last representative institution of the Union, 222-3, 333 populism and economic
interests in, 77, 78-9, 80, 126-7 531 push for a strong hand, 171 and the Union Treaty, 256, 257 upstaged by the RSFSR parliament, 205 Sviridov, Georgy, 147 Talbott, Strobe, 1,416, 434 Tarasenko, Sergey, 119, 144, 416 Tatarstan, 201, 208, 210 Taubman, William, 21, 26-7, 33, 38, 60-1, 94, 133, 142, 310 taxation, Soviet on cooperatives, 33 federal tax, 134,133,134,210,256,257, 266 Pavlovs reforms, 188-9 and republics’ non-payment, 174,188, 206, 327 on state enterprises, 78,130 Ter-Petrosian, Levon, 419 Thatcher, Margaret, 37, 80, 94, 122 calls Yeltsin during the coup, 291 and Grand Bargain, 238-9, 254-5 Thurmond, Strom, 220 Tikhonov, Nikolai, 23 Tocqueville, Alexis de, 43, 68, 141 travel abroad and cultural shock, Soviet, 81, 82 Travkin, Nikolai, 83, 366, 406 Treaty on the Conventional Forces in Europe see CFE triumphalism, Western, 2 Trump, Donald, 438-9 Tsereteli, Zurab, 415,416 Tsypko, Alexander, 72, 324, 366 Tucker, Robert C., 266 Tudjman, Franjo, 370 Tuleyev, Aman, 216 Tusk, Donald, 2 Ukraine, 25-6 Act of Independence (1991), 321-2 claim on Unions assets, 332, 383, 391 and Crimea see Crimea declaration of sovereignty (1990), 120, 263, 320, 321, 385, 399, 400 and Donbass, 263, 324, 325, 330, 352, 363, 367, 384, 386, 392, 363, 384, 386, 394 economic assets on its territory, 256, 321 economic dependence on RSFSR, 352, 330, 384, 405 fears of dominant Russia, 191 and Gorbachev-Yeltsin rivalry, 256, 320, 384 and Gorbachev’s provisional government, 331
INDEX history of sovereignty in, 86,120 independence referendum, 322, 378, 392; results of, 395 lack of Western assistance, 434 military forces on its territory, 162, 321, 322, 325-6, 381 national currency, 332, 350, 356, 369-70, 388,404, 405 national mobilization in, 85-6,153, 247-8 as non-nuclear state, 392 plans for a national army, 322, 325-6, 367, 389 political reforms in, 100 reactions to emergency rule, 320; see also Kravchuk, Leonid recognition by Russia, 395-6, 398 refusal to pay Soviet debts, 332, 383,391 regionalism and fragmentation in, 384, 386, 393 Rukh (initially the People’s Movement of Ukraine for Perestroika), 85-6,173, 212, 263, 320-1, 385, 399, 400 and Russia’s economic reforms, 373, 385, 388, 405 scenarios of full independence, 262,393-5 treaty with the RSFSR (1990), 173-4, 325 Ukrainian KGB, 320, 321, 384 as UN founding member, 359 Union referendum, 200-1 Union Treaty, 256 US “delayed recognition” of, 266, 322, 341, 342, 393-4, 426 US estimates on, 263, 343-4, 347, 378 visit of Bush (1991), 263 Western regions, 86, 173,320 see also Ukraine, nuclear capabilities; Ukrainian-Russian relations Ukraine, nuclear capabilities, 341,363-4,394 American position on, 361 Kravchuk’s pragmatism about, 392,401 and maintenance, 363-4 and nuclear controls, 413 see also Ukrainian-Russian relations Ukrainian diaspora in the US and Canada, 262, 342 Ukrainian Supreme Soviet (Rada), 256, 320-2, 351, 379, 392 Ukrainian-Russian relations, 392,436 accords on territorial integrity after August 1991, 325, 326, 386 conflict over resources and money, 370, 377 and Crimea, 324, 325,
326, 366-7, 392, 400 and Donbass, 324, 325, 363, 367, 384,437 532 and national identities, 383-4 nuclear weapons, 323, 363, 366-7, 375, 392,401 prospect of war, 325, 327, 387, 392, 394, 405,408-9,437 and Russian democracy, 366-7, 387 Russian reactions to the Ukrainian Act, 323-6; see also Voshchanov, declaration and Russian reforms, 383, 387, 408-9 and Soviet Army and Navy, 367, 392,407 Sevastopol and Black Sea fleet, 367, 395, 407 treaty of mutual recognition (November 1990), 173-4, 325, 401 Umalatova, Sazhi, 176 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics see Soviet Union Union Treaty (1989-91), 85, 107, 114, 133, 135, 155,156 after the coup, 329, 331, 332, 335, 350, 351-3, 365, 368, 369-70, 382-3, 385, 387, 391, 394, 395, 399 controversy and division over, 266-8, 271,279,280, 295 discussed at the USSR Congress of People’s Deputies, 177-8 drafts, 208,256-7 Gorbachev’s concessions to republican leaders, 199,255-6 as Gorbachev pipe dream, 398,430,437 Gorbachev’s procrastination on, 85,135, 138,170-1 and the junta plot, 269, 270-1, 272, 274, 285 in the Nine Plus One talks, 207-9, 315 signing ceremony planned, 257, 264,268, 273 split Russian attitudes toward, 202 text published, 267-8 and Ukraine, 256, 385 US experts on, 244 Yeltsin’s rejection of, 170,173 United Nations, 43,172, 290 and Russia’s succession to the USSR, 220, 363 Soviet seat in Security Council of, 346, 363, 380, 413, 419 and Union’s republics, 186, 346, 359, 419-20 United States and Cold War lens, 433 as a factor in Soviet and post-Soviet politics, 8, 346, 369, 419-20, 433 Gorbachevs attitude toward, 50,119; see also
Gorbachev, Mikhail
INDEX perceptions of the Cold Wars end, 3, 248 recognition of Ukraine, 263, 346, 395-6, 420, 426 recognizes other post-Soviet states, 426 recognizes Russia as the Soviet Unions successor, 420, 425-6 as a source of international legitimacy, 292, 304, 369,403, 419 Soviet reformers leaning on, 118-19,144, 220-2, 233 see also Bush, George H. W.; US Congress US Congress, 95, 252, 411, 433 backing Yeltsin, 220, 222, 393 support for the Baltics and Ukraine, 222, 341, 359 see also Nunn-Lugar initiative US Embassy in Moscow, 245 during emergency rule, 283, 289, 300, 311 US Information Agency (USIA), 81 US military (Pentagon, Joint Chiefs of Staff), advocating break-up of the Soviet Union, 239, 344, 361, 392 USSR see Soviet Union Utkin, Vladimir, 251, 475 Uzbekistan, 75,158, 268, 388, 408,412; see also Karimov, Islam as justification for denial of Western aid to Russia, 414,434 in Latin America, 230-1, 233, 295 modified after 1990s, 438 its perils in the collapsing Union, 374-6 Weinstein, Allen, 220, 291-2,404-5 Westad, Odd Arne, 433 Western media, 141,143, 154, 184, 190, 196, 213,233 in August 1991, 280, 282, 283,288, 291-2, 293, 296, 306 covering Gorbachevs resignation, 422-3 and the Grand Bargain, 238, 251 as a source of Gorbachev’s learning and discourse, 46 taking cues from Soviet liberals, 140,178, 204, 288 see also BBC; CNN Western role in Soviet collapse, 87, 432 Weyrich, Paul, 220 Wicks, Nigel, 338 Wilder, Thornton, 262 Wilson, Woodrow, 44 Witte, Sergey, 427 workers, 108, 117 disillusionment with Gorbachev, 80, Vaino, Karl, 57 Varennikov, Valentin, 112, 215, 267 as
enthusiast of emergency rule, 272, 274, 288, 289, 297, 298, 301 in Ukraine during emergency rule, 274, 275, 286 Velikhov, Yevgeny, 53, 168, 169, 170, 333 Viskuli, meeting of Slavic leaders, 397, 398-405 Vlasov, Alexander, 117 Volsky, Arkady, 52-3 Vorontsov, Yuli, 426 Vorotnikov, Vitaly, 20,41, 59, 72, 101, 105, 112, 118, 205 Voshchanov, Pavel, 83 declaration on Ukrainian borders, 323-5 during emergency rule, 283-4, 290, 296 as a factor in Gorbachevs vacillations, 80, 129,130 and liberal Moscow politicians, 101, 206-7, 202,211-12 strikes and damage, 79-80, 193-4, 215 see also IMF; Washington Consensus World Bank, 95,147, 229 Soviet membership in, 234, 248 Wörner, Manfred, 97, 124, 249, 362 on Russia in NATO, 410 201 Wałęsa, Lech, 193, 239, 247 “war of laws” (1990-91) see Supreme Soviet, RSFSR; Supreme Soviet, USSR Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact), 47, 96-7, 159 disbanding of, 161, 246 Washington Consensus, 229-30 advocates in Moscow, 230-1,414-15 alternatives to, 354-5 applied to the Soviet Union, 233, 249, 354 embedded in Yegor Gaidars program, 355, 356, 371 533 Yakovlev, Alexander, 40,110,151, 157,169, 280, 422 accused of being American agent of influence, 165 as an advocate of “socialist democracy,” 21-2, 34, 36 anti-Stalinism, 57, 58 attacked by Party conservatives and nationalists, 123 and Baltic separatism and independence, 56-7, 85, 112 and Eastern Europe, 49 fearful of a coup, 184, 268, 270 and Gorbachev, 106,108,133,137-8, 203, 225 and Gorbachev’s last days in power, 334, 338, 378
INDEX as a mediator of Gorbachev-Yeltsin “settlement,” 420-1 and non-Russian nationalism, 53-4 and Russian nationalism, 99 supports Russian liberals and “democracy,” 203 on Ukraine’s independence, 393 Yakovlev, Vladimir, 328 Yakovlev, Yegor, 184, 225, 307, 328 as head of Soviet television, 423 Yanayev, Gennady, 175, 246,256 background, 258 charming Bush, 258, 262, 284 fear and denial, 297-8 Gorbachevs choice as Vice-President of the USSR, 176, 265 as the junta’s figurehead, 274, 275, 276, 277, 280, 281, 282, 284, 285 press conference on August 19,1991, 287-8 snubbed and scorned, 176, 263 and the Soviet economy, 294 Yankelevich, Tatiana, 281, 289 Yaremenko, Yuri, 168,169 Yaroshenko, Viktor, 141-2,146,157,159 Yavlinsky, Grigory, 132 and “400 Days of Confidence,” 132,139 and the “500 Days,” 132-4,146,147 argues to preserve the Union, 355, 367, 369-70, 388 criticism of, 354 gloomy forecasts, 194-5 and Grand Bargain, 235-7, 240-1,248 reform proposals before August 1991, 234-5 reform proposals post-August 1991, 338, 351 refusal to go to G-7 meeting in London, 234 as RSFSR deputy Prime Minister, 132, 147 solicits Western help after the coup, 363 supports Yeltsin-Gaidar reforms, 388 as top Soviet economist after August 1991, 331, 340, 345, 346, 352, 363,419 and Washington Consensus, 330 Yavorivsky, Vladimir, 321 Yazov, Dmitry, 108,115, 141,143,151,162, 193, 215, 246,256, 327 against the use of force, 277, 278, 301, 302, 303 and arms reductions, 161,163,251, 262 arrested, 309 introduces troops to Moscow, 277-8, 301 in the junta, 271-2, 273,274, 277 on Lithuania crisis, 112,113,183
534 plot to introduce an emergency rule, 221, 271 and the Soviet Army in crisis, 160,162 trip to Crimea to see Gorbachev, 306-8 withdraws troops from Moscow, 302, 303 Yazova, Emma, 301 Yeltsin, Boris, 7, 36, 38-9 admiring and emulating the United States, 84,222, 225,233 advisory circle, 150,186,190,194 against Western assistance to Gorbachev, 243-4 antics, theatrics, and swagger 217, 259-60, 281, 306, 382, 387, 391, 399, 401, 415, 422, 424 appropriation of Soviet economic assets, 120, 137,218, 221,316, 376, 38 and autonomies within the RSFSR, 135-6,191, 201, 208, 256 birthday party (1991), 192 celebrates US recognition of Russia, 426 and Central Asian republics, 201, 268, 395, 407-8,412 and Chechnya, 389-90 and Commonwealth of Independent States, 401, 404, 408,409 and confederation “from below,” 171, 173,186,195,207, 221,268 contacts with Bush, 83-4, 221, 259-60, 291-2, 307, 311, 368-9,388, 390, 404-5, 411-12 courage, 292-3, 300-1 and Crimea, 174, 386,401 deciding alone on economic reforms in Russia, 195, 358, 372-3 decrees on destroying the Party, 227-8, 316 desire to join NATO, 410,413 discontent with Western policies after 1991,435,437 economic populism, 147,201, 218, 226, 395 economic reforms, 132,133,134,146, 147,148, 166, 241, 352, 355 economic treaty with republics, 357, 369, 370, 373 effect on Russians, 39, 99,102, 149, 193-4,217-18,219 ejection from the Politburo (1987), 39, elected Chairman of the RSFSR Supreme Soviet, 118 elected in Moscow (1989), 71 elected President of the RSFSR, 219 elected to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, 76
INDEX entrusts economic reforms to Yegor Gaidar, 371, 372, 415 extraordinary powers to implement reforms, 373 family, 281, 282, 305,317 “friends” in Washington DC, 212, 213, 220, 291 and “the government of reforms,” 358, 372-3, 376, 377, 398 and great power status for Russia, 365-6, 369, 389,435 heralds Russia’s (RSFSR) sovereignty, 120, 135, 137 humiliating Gorbachev, 316-17, 383, 420-1 inauguration as president of Russia, 223 and the KGB, 147, 149, 222, 226-7, 288, 305, 305, 382 and lack of power institutions in the RSFSR, 149, 225, 226 last meetings with Gorbachev, 406, 416, 420-1 and a Marshall Plan for Russia, 415 meeting Slavic leaders in Belarus, 386, 395, 398-405 and the military-industrial complex, 221, 388 nuclear controls, 314-15, 401, 408, 413-14,417, 424 orders to raise the Russian flag over the Kremlin, 424 orders to use force in 1993, 303 power-grabbing, 305, 310, 311-12, 313, 314,316-17,419 presidential campaign, 102,103, 201, 207,215-16,218-19 purge of state apparatus, 226,227 reluctant funding of federal structures, 383, 388 on removing Gorbachev, 192,194,195, 201, 358, 359, 391,401,402,403 reports on his mental “instability,” 138, 148 resignation from the Party, 124 resists federal tax, 133, 134,210, 256,257 resists the junta, 280-4, 285-90,292-3, 296, 298,299 rivalry with Gorbachev, 103,139,148, 152, 192,195, 208, 268, 311, 316-17 and Russia’s legal succession, 366, 389 scandals around, 101-2 seeks US recognition, 83-4,198, 207-8, 213, 220, 221-3, 344, 259-60, 293 and the Soviet Army, 186,222, 282, 305, 358, 373,390, 407,411 support for Baltic
independence, 185-7, 319 tactical truce with Gorbachev, 204, 207, 208, 331, 333 on taking Gorbachev’s place, 103,137, 382, 402 trip to Italy (December 1991), 418 trips to the United States: 1989, 83-4; 1991,220-1 and Ukraine’s independence, 173-4, 321, 323-5, 377, 383, 386-7, 393, 394-5 and the Union Treaty, 173, 207-8, 218, 221, 256-7, 260, 267, 268, 387 and union of Slavic states, 173, 386, 395 whittles down the Union government, 138, 195, 207,256-7, 305, 345, 365, 369, 372-3, 403, 404, 410, 411-12, 413, 414 zigzags on federal governance, 352, 357, 369, 370, 373, 375-6, 376-7, 382,383 Yeltsina, Naina 39, 192, 281, 371 Yeltsina, Tatiana, 281, 282 Yeltsina, Yelena, 192, 305 Yugoslavia Gorbachev’s mediation, 370 as a mirror to the Soviet crisis and collapse, 261, 262, 327, 332, 343, 350, 367, 394,429 as a prequel to Soviet reforms, 55, 56 and US foreign policy, 343, 244 Zağladın, Vadim, 89, 268 Zaikov, Lev, 449 Zakharov, Mark, 72,147,150 Zalygin, Sergey, 147 “Zaria,” 38, 87, 103, 264-5 Zaslavskaya, Tatiana, 73, 88, 217,442 Zaslavsky, Ilya, 73, 349 Zelikow, Philip, 92, 363 Žemaitis, Stanislovas, 114 Zhao Ziyang, 60 Zhirinovsky, Vladimir, 287, 346, 349, 394, 435 presidential campaign of, 216, 219 Zinoviev, Alexander, 103 Zoellick, Robert, 143, 236, 239, 347 Zotov, Mikhail, 32, 33 535 München |
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| author | Zubok, Vladislav Martinovič 1958- |
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| author_facet | Zubok, Vladislav Martinovič 1958- |
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| author_sort | Zubok, Vladislav Martinovič 1958- |
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| discipline | Geschichte |
| discipline_str_mv | Geschichte |
| era | Geschichte 1983-1991 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1983-1991 |
| format | Book |
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| publisher | Yale University Press |
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| spelling | Zubok, Vladislav Martinovič 1958- Verfasser (DE-588)115803734 aut Collapse the fall of the Soviet Union Vladislav M. Zubok New Haven ; London Yale University Press [2021] © 2021 xix, 535 Seiten, 16 ungezählte Seiten Bildtafeln Illustrationen, Karten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Hier auch später erschienene, unveränderte Nachdrucke Geschichte 1983-1991 gnd rswk-swf Zusammenbruch (DE-588)4264286-3 gnd rswk-swf Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4049712-4 Rezension gnd-content Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 g Zusammenbruch (DE-588)4264286-3 s Geschichte 1983-1991 z DE-604 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe 978-0-300-26244-5 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032755241&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032755241&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Zubok, Vladislav Martinovič 1958- Collapse the fall of the Soviet Union Zusammenbruch (DE-588)4264286-3 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4264286-3 (DE-588)4077548-3 (DE-588)4049712-4 |
| title | Collapse the fall of the Soviet Union |
| title_auth | Collapse the fall of the Soviet Union |
| title_exact_search | Collapse the fall of the Soviet Union |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Collapse the fall of the Soviet Union |
| title_full | Collapse the fall of the Soviet Union Vladislav M. Zubok |
| title_fullStr | Collapse the fall of the Soviet Union Vladislav M. Zubok |
| title_full_unstemmed | Collapse the fall of the Soviet Union Vladislav M. Zubok |
| title_short | Collapse |
| title_sort | collapse the fall of the soviet union |
| title_sub | the fall of the Soviet Union |
| topic | Zusammenbruch (DE-588)4264286-3 gnd |
| topic_facet | Zusammenbruch Sowjetunion Rezension |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032755241&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032755241&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT zubokvladislavmartinovic collapsethefallofthesovietunion |