Fortress dark and stern: the Soviet home front during World War II
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
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[2021]
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| Beschreibung: | xx, 494 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme, Karten, Portraits (schwarz-weiß) |
| ISBN: | 9780190618414 |
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| adam_text | Contents Acknowledgments Terms and Abbreviations Units ofMeasurement Major Wartime Commissariats Cities Whose Wartime Names Have Changed Introduction: Total War ix xi xv xvii xxi 1 1. Panic, Scorched Earth, and Evacuation 11 2. Rolling East and Resettlement 57 3. The Staff of Life: Feeding the People 94 4. Illicit Provisioning: Inequality, Leveling, and Black Markets 128 5. “All for the Front”: Free Labor, Prisoners, and Deportees 164 6. The Labor System in Crisis: The Limits of Mobilization 198 7. Coercion Constrained: The Wartime Labor Laws 231 8. The Public’s Health 263 9. “Our Cause Is Just”: Loyalty, Propaganda, and Popular Moods 294 10. “Brick Dust and Ashes”: Liberation and Reconstruction 337 Conclusion 369 Appendix: Tables Notes Bibliography Index 381 391 457 475
Bibliography Archives Archive holdings for the Peoples Commissariats are catalogued under their postwar title of Ministries. GARF (Gosudarstvennyi arkhivRossiiskoi federatsii—State Archive of the Russian Federation) Main Reading Room f. 5451 All-Union Soviet of Trade Unions (Vsesoiuznyi sovet professionaľnikh profsoiuzov) f. 5452 Central Committees of the Unions of Workers in State Trade, Public Catering, and Consumer Cooperatives (Tsentral’nye komitety profsoiuzov rabotnikov gosudarstvennoi torgovli, obshchestvennogo pitaniia i potrebiteľskoi kooperatsii) f. 6822 Soviet for Evacuation under the USSR Soviet of People’s Commissars (Sovet po evakuatsii pri SNK SSSR) f. 7416 Central Committees of the Unions of Workers in the Coal Industry (Tsentral’nye komitety profsoiuzov rabochikh ugol’noi promyshlennosti) f. 7676 Opis’ 14 Central Committee of the Union of Workers in the Automotive and Tractor Industry (Tsentral’nyi komitet profsoiuza rabochikh avtomobil’noi і traktornoi promyshlennosti) f. 7678 Central Committees of the Unions of Workers in Aviation and Defense Industry (Tsentral’nye komitety profsoiuzov rabochikh aviatsionnoi і oboronnoi promyshlennostei) f. 8009 Ministry of Public Health of the USSR (Ministerstvo zdravookhraneniia SSSR) f. 8114 Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee (Evreiskii antifashistskii komitet) £ 8131 Procuracy of the USSR (Prokuratura SSSR) f. 9226 State Sanitary Inspectorate of the USSR Commissariat of Public Health (Gosudarstvennaia sanitarnaia inspektsiia Komissariata zdravookhraneniia SSSR) f. 9507 Ministry of Labour Reserves of the USSR (Ministerstvo
trudovykh rezervov SSSR) f. 9517 Committee to Enumerate and Distribute the Labor Force under the USSR Soviet of People’s Commissars (Komitet po uchetu i raspredeleniiu rabochei sily pri SNK SSSR) Reading Room 2 f. A-327 Chief Administration of Resettlement under the Council of Ministers of the RSFSR and Its Predecessors (Glavnoe pereselencheskoe upravlenie pri SM RSFSR i ego predshestvenniki) f. A-374 Statistical Administration of the RSFSR (Statisticheskoe upravlenie RSFSR) f. A-482 Ministry ofPublic Health ofthe RSFSR (Narodnyi komissariat zdravookhraneniia RSFSR)
458 BIBLIOGRAPHY RGAE (Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv ekonomiki—Russian State Archive of the Economy) f. 1562 Central Statistical Administration of the USSR (Tsentral’noe statisticheskoe upravlenie SSSR) f. 4372 State Planning Commission ofthe USSR (Gosudarstvennyi planovyi komitet SSSR) f. 7971 Ministry of Trade of the USSR (Ministerstvo torgovlia SSSR) f. 8848 Ministry of the Electrotechnical Industry of the USSR (Ministerstvo elektrotekhnicheskoi promyshlennosti SSSR) f. 8875 Ministry of the Iron and Steel Industry of the USSR (Ministerstvo chernoi metallurgi! SSSR) RGASPI (Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv sotsiaľno-politicheskoi istorii—Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History) f. 17, op. 88 Information Sector of the Organizational-Instructional Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (Sektor informatsii organizatsionnoinstruktorskogo otdela TsK VKP(b)) f. 17, op. 122 Organizational-Instructional Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (Organizatsionno-instruktorskii otdel TsK VKP(b)) f. 17, op. 125 Propaganda and Agitation Administration of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (Upravlenie propaganda і agitatsii TsK VKP(b)) f. 644 State Committee for Defense of the USSR (Gosudarstvennyi komitet oborony SSSR) f. M-l Central Committee of the All-Union Leninist Communist Union of Youth (Vsesoiuznyi Leninskii kommunisticheskii soiuz molodezhi—Komsomol) NA IRI-RAN (Nauchnyi arkhiv Institut Rossiiskoi istorii Rossiiskaia akademiia nauk—Scientific Archive of the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of
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Index absenteeism, 105,167,209,231,232,235֊ 6,237,240-1,243,246,259,261, 274,374-5,388-9table7.1,434ո48 See also labor laws, labor turnover and absenteeism Aleksandrov, A., 304 Aleksandrov, G. E, 318,327-8,333,334, 450n95,450-ІПІ09 All-Union Central Council of Unions (VTsSPS), see unions amnesties of Gulag prisoners, 201,374 in honor ofvictory over Nazi Germany, 232,261,433n24,436-7n86 of labor deserters, 238,260-1,433n24 of peasants in liberated territories, 349 of Poles, 42 Andreev, A. A., 182 anti-cosmopolitan campaign, 327-8,334 anti-Semitism, 68,75,326-8,334, 335,351,366-7,378,450n95, 450-ІПІ09 See also Jews armaments and ammunition industries Central Asian workers in, 203,205,208 evacuation of, 21,52,83-4 housing and living conditions in, 183 labor mobilization to, 167,171,173, 201,212,218,363 labor turnover in, 254,259 rations and provisioning in, 109,120, 122,128-9,140,141,156-7 starvation and malnutrition in, 111, 254,285-6,287,288 wages in, 289 working conditions in, 275,277,280 atrocities, see Nazism aviation industry, 61 child workers in, 196 evacuation of, 35,52,83-4,88-91 housing and living conditions in, 182-3 labor mobilization to, 167,365 labor turnover in, 256 number of workers in, 432-3n20 rationing and provisioning in, 102,103, 107-8,110,131-3,134,135-6, 140,146,161 use of prison labor in, 189-90 wages in, 288-9,409n37 women workers in, 280,441n75 working conditions in, 80 Bab’i Yar (Babi Yar), 19,332 Backe, Herbert, see Hunger Plan bakeries, 2,97,106-7,116,117,129,145, 324,328,352,408n28 Bashkiriia, see Ufa baths and bathhouses, 2,69,72-3,75,77,
80,81,90,110,128,153,171,180, 183,196,206,227,245,265,292, 328,338,355,370,417nl02 See also, soap shortage Bednov, I. A., 128-9,130-1,156,163 Belorussia filtration of citizens in after liberation, 348 German massacres in, 39,40, 312,338-9 German occupation of, 5,24,34, 309,337 liberation of, 331,340,364 mobilization of workers in, 228,354, 361-2,363,367 nationalist resistance in, 340,361 See also evacuation Berezovskaia, S. G., 241-2 Berggol’ts, Olga, 306,307-8,335 Beria, L. P„ 16,63,152,161,208,215, 233,422n88
476 INDEX Bezymianlag labor camp, 189-90 black and gray markets, 129-30, 149-55,162 Bochkov, V. M„ 208,240 bombing of Soviet cities and evacuation routes, 5,7,12,20,27,28,30,31, 35,40,52,54,58,63,211,301,324, Braithwaite, Rodric, 8 bread, see rationing bread (ration) cards forgery and theft of, 129,147 issue of in liberated territories, 345 trade in, 115,149-50,151,154,155 used as currency, 130 workers selling, 226,290 budgets, see workers canteens and public dining rooms, 94,98, 102,103,106-111,140-1,159, 160,186,287,373,376,41 ln90 and differential provision of officials and workers, 132-4,135,138-9, 161,163,207 and experiments with food substitutes, 116-21 and feeding prisoner workers, 188,195 and restoration of canteen network in liberated territories, 352-4 and special canteens for Central Asian workers, 207 theft from, 128,129,143,146,147 See also food supplies Central Asian workers, 86,253,284, 286.355 demand to end mobilization of, 225-6 labor turnover among, 206,226,240 mobilization of, 198,202-3,211,212, 213,215,216 poor health and mortality among, 203-4,205,206,208-9,210,225, 226.355 racism encountered by, 198,199, 209-11,226 working and living conditions of, 199, 204-9,229 Central Committee of the Communist Party, see Communist Party Central Statistical Administration (TsSU), 103,200,233,274,279, 383table3.4,408n28,415n27, 417nl02,432n20 Cheliabinsk and Cheliabinsk province black and gray markets in, 151 condition of Central Asian workers in, 207,209,211 evacuees in, 61,62,73 factories evacuated to, 83,84-5,91 flight from Labor Reserve schools in, 244,245
housing and living conditions in, 81, 128,153,180-82,218-19 introduction of rationing in, 96-7 labor turnover in, 180,240,254-5 low wages in, 289 misappropriation of consumer goods by officials in, 130-1 mortality in, 283,285 population growth in, 76,381table 2.1 provisioning of workers in, 133-4 starvation in, 110,129,255,285,288 theft and misappropriation of food supplies in, 134,145,146, 147,156-7 tuberculosis in, 284 use of markets by workers in, 152-5, 417ПІ02 use of prison labor in, 189 working conditions in, 204 Cheliabinsk Tractor Factory (ChTZ), see Kirov factory, Cheliabinsk chemical industry, 38, 78,83,101,104, 111,142,171,203,212,236 women workers in, 280 working conditions in, 276,278 Chernyshev, V. V, 203 Chief Administration of Labor Reserves, 166,201 See also Labor Reserves childcare, 6,74,105,110,159,201,242, 268,269,270,271,272-3,281,305, 357,374 children and child workers, 196 cannot attend school for lack of clothing, 228 of deported Soviet Germans, 193 evacuation of, 12,15,20,23,24,31,39, 41,44,48,49,52,56,58,60,61,63,
INDEX 65,68,70,73-4,75,77,79,87,264, 282.372 homeless and unsupervised, 245,247 illegal mobilization of, 220-1 illness and mortality of, 71,73,263, 265-6,267-8,270,272,281,282, 283,293,437n7 provisioning and nutrition of, 68,70,94, 99,101,102,104-5,106,110, 111, 122,123-4,131,140,144-5,159, 194,268-73,290,304,353,370-1, 373,383table3.4 sanitary education of, 292-3 and Spanish Civil War orphans, 123-4 as victims of Nazi atrocities, 312, 316,331-2 See also orphans Chuikov, V. S„ 196-7,320 clothing and footwear shortages, 53,77-8, 81,87,98,131,137,146,151,168, 174,180,181,183,184,191,204, 208,228,239,241,242,243,244, 245,337,353,370,376 coal industry, 173-4 accidents in, 276-7 dependence of on labor deserters 257-8 evacuation of, 36-8 housing and living conditions in, 182-3 Labor Army prisoners in, 192,193 labor shortage in, 224,228,365 labor turnover in, 174,256,260,435n69 mobilization for, 78,173-4,213,255, 355-7,363,365 of Central Asian workers, 203, 211,216 use of prison labor in, 188 women workers in, 441n75 working conditions in, 265 coercion limits of, 231,233, in mobilizing workers, 175,358, 361.372 role of in shaping attitudes to war effort, 9,374,395n33 collaboration and collaborators, 8,300, 325,340,341-3,344,345-52,353, 354,359,367 collective farms attitudes of towards evacuees, 75-6 477 and concealment of labor deserters, 233, 247-52,374 and contracts with industrial enterprises and local soviets, 99, 112,116,149 damage to under German occupation, 338 deportation of Soviet Germans to, 326 and exclusion of peasants from rationing system, 97,115 flight from during
first five-year plans, 232 labor shortage in, 114,198,223, 291,358 and mobilization of rural population, 169,202,214,215,223-4,229, 387table6.1 and private plots, 114 See also harvests, markets, peasants collective security, 3 Commissar Order, 4,5 Commissariats Ammunition, 83,171,173,183 Armaments, 218 Aviation, 84,365,432n20 Chemical Industry, 171 Coal Industry, 37,38,174,216,224,365 Construction, 86,88,157,206,366 Defense, 27,202,205,216,224,225, 234,346,386table5.1 Electric Power Stations, 21,223 Electrical Industry, 85 Health, 6,72,172,270,271,274,279, 281,282 Internal Affairs, see NKVD Justice, 244 Light Industry, 228 Medium-Sized Machine-Building, 170 Oil Industry, 122 Paper Industry, 83 Procurements, 124 Railways, 11,15,28,30,33,37,51,52, 53,82,168,192 See also railways River Fleet, 52,171 Rubber Industry, 98 Shipbuilding, 20, State Control, 63,222,223 State Security (NKGB), 348
478 INDEX Commissariats (cont.) Tank Industry, 182 Textile Industry, 48,140,255 Timber Industry, 214 Trade, 98,99,107,108,113-14,121, 122,123,125,126,149,150-1, 152,155,157,158-9,181,286, 408n28,409n40 and ban on self-provisioning by officials, 137-9 and Departments of Workers’ Provisioning, 111 and organization of rationing on home front, 6,96,98,373 and organization of rationing in liberated territories, 352 and search for food substitutes, 116-18,120 Commissions for Workers’ Provisioning, see social controllers Committee to Enumerate and Distribute the Labor Force (Komitet), see labor mobilization Communist Party and alienation of party officials from workers, 156 and betrayal oflocal activists to Gestapo, 352 Central Committee of and anti-Semitism, 327 and complaints over food supplies, 123,128,131-3,136,156-7,163 and complaints about regional leaders, 304 and complaints over working and living conditions, 182,204-5, 207-8,209,219,227,417nl02 creates Commissariat of State Security (NKGB), 348 and evacuation, 14,16,17,22,25,26, 30,34,50 and filtration ofpopulation of liberated territories, 351-2 and gardens and subsidiary farms, 112,411n90 and labor mobilization, 173,225, 226,227 and organization of food supplies in liberated territories, 352 warns local leaders against “diversionists” and spies, 325 and wartime labor laws, 241 and wartime propaganda, 295,297, 311,317,318,319 changes in membership of during war, 341 collaboration of members with Nazi occupation, 8,341-3,344 and loss of activists to front, 303 and murder of members under Nazi occupation, 4,340 and party
officials and black market trading, 162 and complaints about workers’ conditions, 205,206,208, 228,328-9 and corruption, 145 during evacuation, 11,15,17,18,21, 22,23,26,30,52,55,65 during Ivanovo strikes, 48,51 and enforcement of wartime labor laws, 233,246,247,258 and filtration ofpopulation in liberated territories, 349 and labor mobilization, 199,217,224, 227,243 organize collective farm markets, 114,124 raise alarm about worker starvation, 285 and reconstruction of liberated territories, 107 report on popular attitudes, 317,319 and reports of anti-Soviet sentiments, 301 witness Nazi atrocities, 311 and role of local activists disseminating propaganda, 297,314, 319,323,325,375 during evacuation, 7,17,22,43,50, 54,55,65,373 improving conditions for workers, 174,205 in labor mobilization, 174,216 mobilizing civilian defense initiatives, 323,324 in reconstruction of liberated territories, 340
INDEX and self-provisioning by local party and state officials, 130-9 and theft of food supplies by local party officials, 145-6 vetting of party members who remained in occupied territory, 342-4, 345.367 courts, 25,158-9,181,186,219,220,230, 235,236,240-1,244,246,249,251, 262,332,345-6,347,348,349,354, 356,376,389table7.1 See also military tribunals currency reform (December 1947), 162-3 decentralized procurement, see food supplies Departments of Workers’ Provisioning (ORSy), 111-12,117,121,128, 129,130,135,138,139,143,144, 147,150,157,159,286 deportations, 164,187 of Chechens, 192,325-6 of Crimean Tatars, 192,325-6,364 during 1930s, 42,187,404n37 from liberated territories, 347, 349.367 from Moscow, 43,192 of Soviet Germans, 42-3,60,64,65, 67,187,192-3,325-7,335,364, 424nl02,449n91 from territories annexed under Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, 42 See also Labor Army diet and nutrition of children, 68,70,101,102,104-5,106, 110, 111, 123-4,131,140,144-5, 159,194,268-73,290,304,353, 370-1,373 of collective farmers, 114 deterioration of during war, 1,100, 107-8,263,383table3.3, 408-9Ո.28 and extra food for the malnourished, 100-1,111,141,142,290, 291,373 and impact on productivity, 126-7 and role of hunger in revolutions, 95 and use of markets to combat hunger, 153-5 479 See also food supplies, health of population, rationing, starvation Dietrich, Otto, 38 Dnepropetrovsk and Dnepropetrovsk province evacuation of, 11-12,31-2,34-5,37 evacuees from, 77 German occupation of, 11,12,36,353 labor mobilization in after liberation, 358.359.363 liberation of, 32 Donbass, 34,67 evacuation of,
12,35-8 German occupation of, 106,173 labor desertion in, 258 labor mobilization for, 213,255-6, 356.363 draft boards (voenkomaty), 299,301 role of in labor mobilization, 6,167,172, 185,202,203,204,229,240,374 Dubrovin, N, E, 15,17,20,21,28,43,44, 46,54,55,396n23 Dvorson, L. G„ 66 Ehrenburg, Ilya (Il’ia Erenburg), 314,316, 332-3,450-1Ш09 electric power stations, 12,21,37,101, 203,212,217,320,325 epidemics, see health of population Erickson, John, 55 Ershov, V. A., 55 evacuation as agent of modernization, 59,88-91 of agriculture, 30-33,55,56,398n81, 399ПІ03 and amalgamation of factories, 59, 82-6,88-91 of Belorussia, 13,24,30,40 of Caucasus, 54-5 of children, 12,15,20,23,24,31,39,41, 44,48,49,52,56,58,60,61,63,65, 68,70,73-4,75,77,79,87,264, 282,372 and deterioration of working conditions, 274 of Dnepropetrovsk, 11-12,31-2, 34-5,37 of Donbass, 12,35-8 first and second phases of, 13,54-5
480 INDEX evacuation (cont.) of industry, 34-8,165,372-3 of Kiev, 1,19,34,35,37,57,60,86 of Latvia, 15 from Leningrad, 13,20,21,29,40-42, 68-72,76 of Moscow, 13,21,40-41,43-7 panic during early phase of, 21-9 and population growth ofhome front cities, 76,77,381table2.1 prewar plans for, 14 problems of, 20-29,51-3 role of workers in, 7,54,55,63 sanitary crisis created by, 58,63-4, 65,69,72-4,114,263-4,291-2, 370,373 and scorched earth policy, 18 and spread of epidemic diseases, 6,59, 72-4,77 of Stalingrad province, 54 worker protests against in Ivanovo, 48-51,303 of Zaporozhe, 35-6,37 See also, evacuees, Soviet for Evacuation evacuation centres (evakopunkty), 17,39, 43,66,71,74-5,76,77 evacuees and refugees conditions faced by, 58-81,103, 122,263 health and mortality among, 2,57-8, 59,62,64,68-71,267,269, 284,287 numbers and age composition of, 59-61,403n3 reception of by peasants, 65,75-6 return of to liberated territories, 350-1, 363,364 See also Leningrad family and assumption of domestic care by workplace, 6-7,126,181,195,374 and factory as surrogate family for orphaned workers, 323 and unpaid domestic labor of women, 179 family law of July 1944,280-1 fascism, 3,5,296,300,329 and anti-fascism as motivation for support of war effort, 295,299, 304,309,312,334,375-6 and Soviet role in defeat of, 8 and struggle against, 378,379 film, 298,348 filtration of population in liberated territories, 345-52 food substitutes, see food supplies food supplies and collective farm markets, 95,99,112, 113-16,124,125,129,149,190, 271,383table3.3 and decentralized procurement, 95,99,
107,113,124,125,382table3.1, 383table3.3 decline of before the war, 100 and erosion of division between agriculture and industry, 126 evacuation of, 30-33 and food production, 382table3.2 and food substitutes, 95-6,116-21 and gardens, 95,99-100,107,111-13, 114,117,119,125,126,141, 162,190,275,286-7,291,359, 382table3.1 importance of potatoes in, 113,126,287 and Lend-Lease food aid, 125, 290-91,373 and leveling of food hierarchies by officials, 129,139-43,158,160, 161,163 losses of in occupied territories, 94,100, 382table3.2 and milk shortages, 99,100,104,112, 114,131,268-73,384table4.1 organizational conflicts over, 121-5 and private plots, 97,99,114,115, 254 and privileged allocations for top officials, 138-9,415nn25,27, 384table4.1 role of black and gray markets in, 149-55,162 role of state in, 95-6,125,373 and self-provisioning by managers, state, and party officials, 129, 130-9,156,160,414nl4
INDEX social control of by workers and unions, 159-61 sources of, 382table3.1 and subsidiary farms, 95,99,105, 107,111-13,123,126,129,131, 135,145,159,161-2,163,190, 382table3.1,408n28,41 ln90 theft and misappropriation of, 129, 143-7,150,156-60 See also, canteens, diet and nutrition, rationing, starvation France, 95,437n7,447n48 fall of, 235 and policy of appeasement, 3 and Soviet attitudes toward, 431n9 war losses in, 8 fuel shortages, 2,77,79-80,81,82,90,94, 105,106-7,108,109,126,127,136, 145,160,183,216,223-4,228,276, 292,319,320,322,328,340,353, 365,367 FZO (factory training schools), see Labor Reserves gardens and gardening, 95,99-100,107, 111-13,114,117,119,125,126, 141,162,190,275,286-7,291,359, 382table3.1 Gastello, N. F., 310 Germany defeat and occupation of, 332,334, 450nl06 and Nazi plan for occupation of Soviet Union, 4-5 and partition of Poland, 3-4 Soviet food exports to, 100 starvation in during World War I, 284 surrender of, 367-8 war losses in, 8 See also Jews, Nazism, Red Army GKO (State Committee for Defense), 6,16,29,30,31,37,43,53,54,82, 83,87,125,147,155,156,157, 159,166,170,172,186,199,200, 202,206,208,213,215,216,218, 225,227,346,347,355,397n31, 429nl21 481 Glavpromstroi (NKVD department for industrial construction), 187, 386table5.3 Goncharov, G. A., 190,424nl02 Goring, Hermann, 4 Gor’kii and Gor’kii province bread shortages in, 106-7 flight from Labor Reserve schools in, 245,247 food shortages in, 269 industrial accidents and diseases in, 278 introduction of rationing in, 96-7 labor turnover in, 259-60 and levelling of ration hierarchies by
managers, 142 mobilization of workers from, 216, 217,221 mortality in, 267 population growth in, 381table2.1 sanitary conditions in, 328 theft and misappropriation of food supplies in, 145 Gor’kii Motor Vehicle Factory (GAZ), 215,275,276,410n49 Gorshenin, K. R, 220,221,258-9 Gorshkov, M„ 37 Gosplan (State Planning Commission), 28,32,166,171,174,200,203,233, 235,363,432֊3n20 Granovskii, G. M., 193-4 Great Britain, 118,164,302 Soviet attitudes toward, 431n9 and delays opening second front, 318 and Lend-Lease food aid, 125,290 and policy of appeasement, 3 war losses in, 8 Grossman, Vasily, 40, 314,332 Gulag (Chief Administration of Camps), see NKVD harvests, 99,100,110,114,115,173,178, 224,287,290,356,358,376 evacuation of, 25,30 from subsidiary farms and gardens, 112 health of population, 263 and adult mortality, 264-5,267, 282-6
482 INDEX health of population (cont.) and campaign to curb sick notes, 279-80 and child nutrition, 68,70,102,104-5, 110, 111, 123-4,140,144-5,159, 268-73,290,304,353,370-1,373 and contraction of medical personnel and facilities, 266 and epidemic control measures, 266 and epidemics during World War I and Civil War, 264 and industrial accidents and diseases, 149,174,263,265,274-80 and “industrial principle” of administering healthcare, 273-4 and infant and child mortality, 71,73, 263,265-6,267-8,270,272,281, 282,283,293,437n7 and major diseases dysentery, 6,68, 71,265,268,282 malaria, 203,266 measles, 6,59,71,74,77,264,267-8, 373,438nl3 pneumonia, 68,71,181,204,205, 208,209,264,266,268,273,278 rickets, 70,268,272-3 tuberculosis, 6,68, 71,101,104,141, 204,208-9,264,265,266,268,270, 272,273,275,283-5,437n7 typhus, 6,59,65,71,72,73,74,264, 282,292,338,373,437n2 prewar, 265-6,291-2 and sanitation and sanitary controls, 7, 58,65,71-2,239,263-4,265,266, 268,275,282,283,291-2,328 and teenagers, 284 and training of new doctors, 282 and women workers, 280-1 See also diet and nutrition, evacuation, evacuees, starvation Himmler, Heinrich, 4 Hitler, Adolf, 3,4,36,47,50,235,298,299, 314,327,333,393n24 and pro-German sentiments among Soviet population, 26,300,302,326 Hitler-Stalin pact, see Molotov-Ribbentrop pact Holocaust, 40,447n48 See also Jews home front and contribution to war effort, 2-3,7, 369,371,372,375 population of major cities in, 381table2.1 homeless children, 245,247 horses, 88,152,174,304,362 evacuation of, 26,31,33,399nl03 and mobilization for carting, 213-14,224
requisitioned by army, 178 shortage of, 80,100,247,338,353 housing and living conditions, 1,2,7,59, 78-82,89,174,178-84,196,21819,227-8,370-1,374,377 Hunger Plan (German plan for occupation of Soviet Union), 4 “immortal regiments,” 378 infant and child mortality, see health of population intelligentsia, 130,319 as target of anti-cosmopolitan campaign, 327 iron and steel industry, 78,81,85,86,878,112,131,151,274 evacuation of, 34-6 labor turnover in, 254,255-6,361 production difficulties in, 320 reconstruction of in liberated territories, 213,363 use of Central Asian workers in, 203,207 use of prison labor in, 189,190,192 women workers in, 280,441n75 work hazards in, 276,277 See also Kuznetsk iron and steel combine, Magnitogorsk iron and steel combine, Novo-Tagil iron and steel works “Internationale,” 309,310,447n44 Ivanovo and Ivanovo province Central Asian workers in, 203-4,225 health of children in, 272 introduction of rationing in, 96-7 labor turnover in, 241 -3 living conditions in, 184
INDEX mood of workers in, 303-4,318,328, 329-30,373 population growth in, 38 ltable2.1 theft and misappropriation of supplies in, 136-7,143,147 worker protests in, 48-51,303-4 See also textile industry Japan war losses in, 8 Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, 311 Jews and anti-Semitism, 68,75,326-8,334, 335,351,366-7,378,450n95, 450-ІПІ09 murder of under Nazi occupation, 4,5, 8,13,22,33,39-40,311-12,332, 333,338,340,346,347,348,350, 447-8Ո48 murder of by Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), 360 number rescued through evacuation, 19 and refusal to evacuate, 18-19 Kaganovich, L. M., 16,17 Kalinin and Kalinin province evacuation of, 26-7,32,52,62,87 German occupation of, 53,313 and Kalinin front, 192,317 labor desertion in, 259-60 and labor mobilization, 176-7,178,255 liberation of, 47,325,352-3 Kalinin, Mikhail, 328,358 Kazakhstan deportation of Crimean Tatars to, 326 deportation of Soviet Germans to and from, 43,192-3 evacuation of children to, 56 evacuation of industry to, 16,42 number of evacuees received by, 59-60 See also Central Asian workers Kazan’ and Tatariia, 324 collective farm markets in, 115 evacuated factories in, 88-91 evacuees in, 61,66,102 food shortages in, 122,161-2 introduction of rationing in, 96-7 483 and levelling of ration categories by managers, 142-3 mobilization of teenagers for Labor Reserve schools in, 177 mobilization of workers in, 202,212 mortality in, 267 population growth in, 76,381table2.1 privileges of top officials in, 139 theft of food supplies in, 143,158 Khrushchev, N. S. and attack on Stalin, 5,36,318,448n64 Kiev and Kiev province bread
shortages in after liberation, 352 enumeration of population of after liberation, 355 evacuation of, 1,19,34,35,37,57,60,86 German occupation of, 36 filtration of population of after liberation, 349-50 liberation of, 212 Kirghiziia, see Central Asian workers Kirov, S. M„ 306 Kirov and Kirov province abuse of rationing system in, 132-3 evacuees in, 70-1 food shortages in, 107-8,109,269-70,272 labor turnover in, 259 mobilization of workers from, 201, 216,244 mortality in, 267,268,270,283 population growth in, 381table2.1 Kirov factory, Cheliabinsk, 61,62,83,87, 91,108-9,133-4,141,151,180, 182,254-5,285 labor turnover at, 179 Komitet (Committee to Enumerate and Distribute the Labor Force), see labor mobilization Komsomol and complaints over conditions, 81, 110-11,131,155,160,177-8,180֊ 3,226-7,241,285,376 and failure to enforce wartime labor laws, 252 members volunteer for Red Army, 299 and ration allowances for Komsomol officials, 137-8,415n25 soldiers joining, 309
484 INDEX Korneichuk, A. E., 306 Kosiachenko, G. R, 203 Kosmodemianskaia, Zoia, 310 Kosygin, A. N., 16,43,44,54,143 Kovalev, G. V., 43 Kovalev, I. V., 27 Kovalevskii, M. M., 210 Kudriavtsev, P., 434-5n57 Kuibyshev and Kuibyshev province condition of Central Asian workers in, 206-7,209-10 flight from Labor Reserve schools in, 244 housing conditions in, 81 milk shortages in, 272 population growth in, 76,381table2.1 use of prison labor in, 189-90 Kursk and Kursk province battle of, 212,214 evacuation of, 52,144 German occupation of, 25,309 theft of food in, 144 Kuznetsk iron and steel combine, 85, 151,276 Labor Army, 6,86,164,188,190-94,195, 196,373,424ПІ02 See also deportations labor desertion, see labor laws, labor turnover labor discipline, see labor laws, labor turnover labor laws decrees and edicts Decree of November 15,1932,235 Decree of December 28,1938,431n3 Edict of June 26,1940 (willful quitting), 167,170,231,232,235, 420nl6,43ІПІ0 Edict of December 28,1940 (flight from Labor Reserve schools), 246, 249,434n48 Edict of December 26,1941 (labor desertion), 169-70,231,232, 236-7,421n29,43ІПІ4,432nl7 Edicts of April 15,1943 and May 9,1943 (militarization of rail and water transport), 236-7, 432Ш1І6,17 Edict of December 30,1944 (partial amnesty oflabor deserters), 260, 261,436n85 Edict of July 7,1945 (general amnesty), 260,261,436-7n86 and acquittals and rejection of cases by Military Tribunals, 239,242-3, 257,259 and concealment of labor deserters by rural officials, 233,247-52,374 convictions under, 231-2,236, 237-8,246,257,262,374-5, 388-9table7.1,390table7.2,
433nn22,24,25 enforcement of Edict of June 26,1940, 236,240 enforcement of Edict of December 28, 1940,243-51 enforcement of Edict of December 26, 1941,231-3,239-43,252,256-62, 356-7,375,436nn78,79 Procuracy attitudes towards, 231,233, 236-42,246-52,256-62,354, 356,375 and reduction of bread ration for absenteeism, 105,209,237,375 See also, labor mobilization, labor turnover labor mobilization, 6,372,374 and breakdown of mobilization system, 199,211-21,222-5,228,232, 252-3,356 of Central Asian workers, 202-11,225֊ 6,229,240,355 of child workers, 196 during 1930s, 165-6 during first years of the war, 167-75 Edict of February 13,1942,170-1, 175,421n30 evasion of, 219-21,237,355,359,361 and formation of Komitet, 166 from juvenile labor colonies and reception centres, 201-2 to and from Labor Reserve schools, 2,6,114,164,166,167,168,170, 176-84,194,195,196,201,233-4, 243-4,374,385table5.1,419nl, 420nl2,454n88 in liberated territories, 228,354-63
INDEX and mobilization of previously exempt groups, 200-2 numbers mobilized, 164,167,233-4, 244,363-4,365,385table5.1, 387table6.1,419nl and poor health of those mobilized, 172, 180-1,203-4,205,206,208-9, 210,224,226,229,255 for reconstruction of liberated territories, 213,354-66,367 from rural population, 2,169,202,214, 215,223-4,229,387table6.1 of urban residents for agricultural work, 224 See also Labor Army, labor laws, Labor Reserves Labor Reserves and Labor Reserve schools, 6,164,167,175,201 attacks on by Ukrainian nationalists, 361-2 evacuation of, 52,70 and flight of young workers, see labor turnover and housing and living conditions, 81, 137,180-4,218-19,229 illegal mobilization for, 220-1 and low wages, 289 mobilization for, see labor mobilization and sanitary education, 292-3 and working conditions, 182,276-7 See also labor laws labor shortage, 165,199 in agriculture, 178,214,215,223,224 See also labor mobilization labor turnover and absenteeism, 186, 199,228,229,230,233,234-5, 274,374 age composition of, 253-4,435n60 in ammunition industry, 254 in armaments industry, 254 among Central Asian workers, 206, 226,240 in Cheliabinsk and Cheliabinsk province, 180,219,240,244-5,254-5 in coal industry, 173,174,256 in Donbass, 255-6,356-7,435n69 during prewar five-year plans, 232 food shortages as cause of, 215,291 in iron and steel industry, 254,256 485 by Labor Reserve students and young workers, 177-80,181,184,195, 219,231,232,233-4,243-51 in Moscow and Moscow province, 251-2,255 in nonferrous metals industry, 188 in Sverdlovsk and Sverdlovsk province, 254-5 in tank
industry, 254-5 in textile industry, 241-3,255 Lebedev-Kumach, V., 304 Leder, Mary, 46,264,270 Lend-Lease food aid, 125,290,291,373 Leningrad condition of evacuees from, 42,48,51, 59,62,68-71,123 siege of, 5,8,13,340,363 See also, evacuation, evacuees, starvation Leonov, L. M„ 306 leveling (uravnilovka), 104,129,139-43, 158,160,161,163 Levitan, Iu. B., 323 liberated territories and filtration of population, 345-52 labor mobilization to and from, 199, 213,216,228,229,253,255,340, 354-66,367 labor turnover in, 252,257-9, 356-7,435n69 nationalist groups in, 340,359-62, 367 reconstruction of, 74,107,212,213 restoration of canteen network in, 352-4,367 restoration of party organizations in, 341-4 See also occupied territories Litvinov, M. M., 3 Liubimov, A. V., 97,111,116,126,146, 152,155,162,207,410n49 looting, 22,25,27 loyalty, 6,136,187,253,295 machine-building industry, 37-8,84,101, 170,217,236,294,363 See also Uralmash Magnitogorsk labor turnover in, 259,436n83 population growth in, 381table2.1
486 INDEX Magnitogorsk (cont.) starvation and malnutrition in, 281 theft by workers in, 148 See abo Cheliabinsk and Cheliabinsk province, Magnitogorsk iron and steel combine Magnitogorsk iron and steel combine, 85, 113,151 housing and working conditions at, 179-80,181,440n50 Makhachkala, 54,57,63,64,68 Maksimov, M. D., 378-9 Malenkov, G. M., 21,157,161,205,209, 225,226,227,233 malnutrition, see diet and nutrition, starvation Markarov, L, 121 markets, 75,130,136,144,160,163,228, 287,305 black and gray markets, 7,149-55, 162,376 collective farm markets, 95,99,103, 112,113-16,124,125,129,149, 190,271,383table3.3 in occupied territory, 340 and sale of stolen goods, 143,144, 145,148 and sale of stolen ration cards, 147 secondhand markets, 150 use of by workers, 152-5,417nl02 mass and national operations, see Terror measles, see health of population medical care ofworkers, 180-1 Merkulov, V. N., 218 Mikhailov, N. A., 160,177-8,181-3, 184-5,226-8, Mikoian, A. N.. 16,43,54,83,123,161 military soviets, 397n31 military tribunals, 145,170,231,236,239, 241,242-3,257-8,259,262, 345-6,356,432nl6 milk kitchens, 104,270-2 Mitrofanova, A. V„ 173 mobilization, see labor mobilization Molotov, V. M„ 43,44,161,182,184,218, 233,240,258,309,312,355 address to nation following German invasion, 298-9 Molotov city and Molotov province, 3,66, 77,83,87,97,108,118,150,173, 178,268,273 condition of Central Asian workers in, 204-5,209 deportation of Soviet Germans to, 192 flight from Labor Reserve schools in, 248 housing conditions in, 78 introduction of rationing in, 96-7 population growth in,
76,381table2.1 theft and misappropriation of food supplies in, 135-6,144,145,146, 147,150 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (Hitler-Stalin Pact), 3-4,235 popular reactions towards, 297,298, 301-2,303 Moscow and Moscow province black and gray markets in, 150,152 defense of, 36,308,309,310 evacuation of, 13,21,40-41,43-7 and levelling of ration categories by managers, 142 labor turnover in, 251 -2,254 Moskatov, P. G., 166,169,171,172,240, 246,434n57 mothers on collective farms, 114,179 depiction of in speeches and propaganda, 315-16,319,333 during evacuation and resettlement, 1,57,66,67-8, 73, 74, 76,77, 263-4,328 and early weaning of infants, 270 and family law of July 1944,281 and filtration of population in liberated territories, 347 imprisoned if children evaded mobilization, 243-4 labor mobilization and employment of, 87,170,172,173,175,201,218, 223,305,357 malnutrition of, 70,290 ration entitlements of, 101,110,269 and sick children, 268 and vocational schools, 196 as war widows, 330
INDEX Nasedkin, V. G., 188,422 (ո. 88) nationalist guerrillas, 340 in Belorussia, 340,361 in Ukraine, 340,359-62 Nazism, 4-5,8-9,296,375 atrocities committed by, 296,311,331, 334,338-9,341 and burning of Belorussian villages, 338 and murder of Roma, 13,39 and murder of Soviet Jews, 4,5,8,13,22, 33,39-40,311-12,332,333,338, 340,346,347,348,350,447-8n48 and murder of Soviet POWs, 4,7-8, 312,326,333 See also Germany Nikolaeva, K. L, 133-4,160,184 Nizhnii Tagil condition of Central Asian workers in, 205,210 growth in population of, 76,381table2.1 housing conditions in, 78-80,183,205 labor turnover in, 254 starvation in, 205,254,285-7 use ofLabor Army prisoners in, 191 use of prison labor in, 189,190,191 working conditions in, 277 See also Tagillag, Urals Tank Factory NKVD Bezymianlag labor camp, 189-90 deployment of prison labor by, 6,21,79, 164,188-90,194-5,423nn96,97 and mortality of prisoners, 186,187, 188-90,191,193-4,195,370,373, 386table5.3,423n95 and number of prisoners in camps and colonies, 185-6,386table5.2 and physical condition of prisoners, 187-8,189,195,387table5.4 and rations of prison laborers, 103, 141,410n49 and release of prisoners for the front, 185-6 Tagillag labor camp, 78,190 theft and misappropriation of food and clothing by, 146 See also, deportations, Labor Army Novosibirsk and Novosibirsk province condition of Central Asian workers in, 208 487 mobilization of workers to and from, 170 population growth in, 76,381table2.1 theft and misappropriation of food supplies in, 144,147 tuberculosis in, 284 Novo-Tagil iron and steel works, 78,183 occupied
territories and collaboration with German authorities, 8,300,325,340,341, 345-52,353,354,359,367 destruction in, 314,334,337-9,363,366 evacuation of industry from, 11-56 as share of Soviet agricultural and food production, 94 as share of Soviet population and industry, 12 See also liberated territories, Red Army, Communist Party Odessa and Odessa province, 368 evacuation of, 30,37,63,66, German occupation of, 32-3 labor deserters in, 259,260 labor mobilization in, 356 liberation of, 340 Odessa Massacre, 33 oil industry, 122,236 Central Asian workers in, 203 Gulag prisoners in, 164 Labor Army prisoners in, 193 Omsk and Omsk province deported Soviet Germans in, 326-7 disputes over food supplies in, 124-5 food shortages in, 107-8,161 industrial poisoning in, 278-9 population growth in, 76,381table2.1 potato yields in, 113 theft and misappropriation of food supplies in, 146,147 tuberculosis facilities in, 284 Operation Bagration, 364-5 Operation Barbarossa, 5 opolchenie (home front militia), 7,38,294, 305,309,378-9 organizational conflicts, 376 orgnabor (organized recruitment), 166 orphans, 39,52,53,63,65,101,122,123-4, 140,145,150,161,193,333,376
488 INDEX Osoaviakhim (civil defense organization), 305 OUN/UPA, see nationalist guerrillas ORSy, see Departments of Workers’ Provisioning Ostarbeiter (Nazi slave laborers), 164-5 Paľtsev, G. N., 50,51,304,329 Pamfilov, К., 64 “Panfilov Men,” 310,447n46 partisans, 4,38,39,40,310,312,313,314, 325,331,338,340,341,342,344, 347,350,351,354,367,375 Peoples Courts, see courts peasants access of to medical care, 265 as anti-fascist propagandists, 313-14 attacked by Ukrainian nationalists, 362 attitudes of towards German occupation, 8,26,295 and collective farm markets, see markets and deportation of Volga Germans, 193 entering industry and construction in 1930s, 232 and evacuation, 18,24-7,32,39 exclusion of from rationing system, 97-8 and gray and black markets, see markets and knowledge of food substitutes, 118 labor mobilization of, 2,86,103,126, 167,169,173,196,198,202,208֊ 10,212,213,214,215,218,223-4, 228,291,324,356,359,364,376, 387table6.1 in liberated territories, 349 and monetary reform (December 1947), 163 in occupied territory, 212-13 outlook of reshaped by war, 335 private plots of, 97,99,114,115 pro-German sentiments among, 300-1 and reception of evacuees, 65,75-6,124 as slaves under Nazi Hunger Plan, 4 as special settlers in Gulag system, 187 and trade with evacuees, 77 and trade with factories, 99 See also, collective farms, food supplies, labor shortages Perevoshchikova, A. I., 268 Pervukhin.M. G„ 16 poetry and poets, 121,294,295,297,3068,314-16,337,363,378-9 Pogrebnoi, L. I., 11,20,35,38,53,55,166, 215,223,225 Ponomarenko, P. K., 15 popular attitudes and
complaints about inequality and corrupt officials, 328-30,334,335 and defense of socialism, 335-6,375 and early defeats, 299-304,375 historians’ views on, 294-5 and military strategy, 313-14,333-4 and Nazi atrocities, 313-17,375 and pro- German sentiments, 298, 300-1,324,335 among Soviet German deportees, 326-7 and second front, 314-5 and support for war effort, 304-10, 322-5,334-6,372 towards Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, 297, 298,301-2,303 population statistics, 382table2.1 prison labor, see NKVD prisoners of war (POWs) collaboration of Soviet POWs with Germans, 325 German POWs captured by Red Army, 364 murder of Soviet POWs by Germans, 4, 7-8,312,326,333 numbers captured by Germans, 5, 7,13, 36,394n26 private plots, 97,99,114,115,254 procuracy, see prosecutors and procuracy Pronin, V. P., 14,64 propaganda, 294,295-7,375 and depiction of Nazi Germany, 296-7, 298-9,314 and Holocaust, 311-12 and military situation, 320-1,334 and Nazi atrocities, 311-12,331-3,334 Russian nationalism in, 309-10, 314,320 and Soviet patriotism, 299,309 and suicidal resistance, 310
INDEX and unity between front and rear, 321-3,334 and vengeance propaganda, 314-17, 331-3,334 prosecutors and procuracy, 24,143,148, 186,207,285,349,361, 390table7.2,433n24,447n46 and attacks on national minorities, 211 attitude of towards private trade, 150 attitude of towards theft and illicit distribution, 148,158,160, 161,191 and protests against illegal and improper mobilizations, 220, 255,359 and protests against violations of labor protection laws, 276 and use of sick notes, 279 and wartime labor laws, 9,219,231, 233,236-42,246-52,256-62,354, 356,375 Protopopov, D. Z., 226 public transportation, 46,136,353,370 PURKKA (Political Administration of the Red Army), 22,25,26 Pushkarev, V. S., 162 radio and radio broadcasts, 212,292,294, 295,298,299-300,301,302,307, 310,318,322,323,334,368, railways, 11,14-17,27,28,30,32,33-5, 37,43,51-3,55,58,69,82,168, 188,192,203 railway troops role of in evacuation, 27 rape, 205 by Germans, 312,314 by Red Army soldiers, 332,450nl06 rationing, 6 and ad hoc rationing in 1940,96 and bread shortages, 106-7,117, 129,145, and centrality of bread in, 2,95,96-7, 102,106 during Civil War and 1930s, 96 end of, 377 and forging and misuse of ration cards, 129,147,149-50,151 489 and hierarchies of provisioning, 1, 101-106,383table3.4,384table 4.1 introduction of, 96-8 in liberated territories, 345,352,367 for prison laborers, 103,141,410n49 and privileged allocations for top officials, 138-9,415nn25,27, 384table4.1 and reduction of bread ration (November 1943), 110,114,287 and sale of ration cards by workers, 226,290 and Stakhanovite rations,
103,111,133, 287,288 and trade in ration cards, 115,149-50, 151,154,155 See also diet and nutrition, food supplies, starvation razbazarivanie (squandering), 129, 140,158 Red Army and defense of Moscow, 36,308,309, 310,314 expulsion of Soviet Germans from, 192 and liberation of occupied territories, 32,38,47,53,106,198,212,253, 296,331,337,340,363,364-5 and mass rapes, 332,450nl06 and preparedness of for war, 5,393n24 and release of Gulag prisoners into army, 185,186 retreat of following German invasion, 5, 18,33,35,63,64,302,309,317-18, 320,371 and revelation of Nazi atrocities, 311, 331-2,369,375 and shortages of military equipment, 21 and war losses, 7-8 See also prisoners of war reproductive labor, see family river transport, 32,33,52-3,65 Rokossovskii, K. K., 214 Roma murder of under Nazi occupation, 13,39 Romanov, A. Ia., 208 Rostov-on-Don and Rostov province evacuation of, 55,63,77
490 INDEX Rostov-on-Don and Rostov province {cont.) expulsion of Soviet Germans from, 192 and filtration of civilian population after liberation, 346-7,348 housing and living conditions in, 328-9 labor mobilization in, 224-5,228,3545,356,358-9,363 labor turnover in, 256,276-7 misappropriation of ration stocks by officials in, 150 occupation and liberation of, 33,38,67, 317.320 privileged allocations to officials in, 139 verification of party members in after liberation, 342 RU (trade schools), see Labor Reserves Russian nationalism in wartime propaganda, 309-10, 314.320 Rzhev salient, 317 “Sacred War” (wartime song), 304,351 Safonov, G. N„ 158 Sanitary-Epidemic Stations (SES), 72 sanitation and sanitary controls, see evacuation, health of population Saratov and Saratov province flight from Labor Reserve schools in, 244-5 theft of food supplies in, 144 scorched earth policy, 17-18,25-6,49,55 second front in Europe, 8,309,327 Soviet attitudes toward, 318-19 Shaklein, I. A., 283-4 Shamberg, M. A., 132,157 Shaposhnikov, B. M., 16 Sharkov, V. L, 120 Shchadenko, E. A., 203,213,216 Sheremetev, A. G., pp. 35-6 Sholokhov, M. A., 314 Shvernik, N. M„ 16,43,54,110,123,131, 160,166,200,203,213,214,215, 216,218,220,233,240 Simonov, K. M., 306,314,316,331-2 Skvortsov, N. A., 225 slave labor in Germany and Japan, 164-5 soap shortage, 81,128,148,149,168,196, 204,219,275,277,292,370 See also, baths and bathhouses social controllers, 159-60 Solov’eva, V V., 210 Soviet for Evacuation, 6,11-13,15,18,20, 21,27-29,51-6,59,60,62,63,64, 65,68,73,76,77,82-5,186,372, 396nn24,25 creation of, 16-17
disbanding of, 53 and evacuation of agriculture, 30-33 and evacuation of civilian population, 39-43 and evacuation of industry, 34-8 soviets and corruption, 145-6 destruction of under German occupation, 340-1 and enforcement of wartime labor laws, 233,247,253,258 and evacuation, 11,13,15,16,17,19,21, 22,23,26,30,39,55,58 and filtration of population in liberated territories, 349,352 and individual house building campaign, 80 and labor mobilization, 4,166,171, 174-5,176,199,200,213,216,219, 220-1,224,228,253,354,358,362, 374,376 and organization of childcare facilities, 305 and organization of collective farm markets, 114,124 and organization of individual and collective gardens, 112 and organization of subsidiary farms, 99,112,411n90 and organizational conflicts over food supplies, 121 and placement of evacuated enterprises, 274 and reception of evacuees, 74, 76 and reconstruction of liberated territories, 107,362 and special parcels for local officials, 135 and wartime propaganda, 325
INDEX Soviet of People’s Commissars, 6,14, 16,17,21,32,34,64,79,80,82, 103,107,109,110,112,123,133, 139,143,156,166,170,171,173, 175,182,200,214,218,224,225, 228,256,270,298,352,363,364, 365,411n90 Soviet Union war losses in, 7-8,377,394n26 Sovnarkom, see Soviet of Peoples Commissars Spanish Civil War political significance ofin USSR, 297 treatment of refugees from, 123-4 Special Construction and Erection Units (OSMCh), 86-8,206,209,406n88, 424nl02 Stakhanovites, 322 and Stakhanovite rations, 103,111, 133,287-8 Stalin, Joseph, 8,13,43,161,184,191, 212,213,308,312,331,335,347, 371,377 and alleged “Doctors’ Plot,” 327 and citizen appeals, 21,22,23,26,85 dissolves Communist International, 447n44 and efficacy of evacuation following German invasion, 15 and evacuation of Moscow, 43,44,47 and knowledge of German atrocities, 311 and need to evacuate Belorussia, 15 and Not One Step Back” order, 319-20 and prewar plans for evacuation, 14 and retreat from Kiev, 36 speeches and “talking points” of, 297, 299,309-10,314 and USSR’s preparedness for war, 3-6,393n24 and wage egalitarianism (1931), 140 Stalin motor vehicle factory (ZiS), 46,83, 87,218,241 Stalingrad battle of, 10,196-7,198,211,212,2267,317,319,320,322,334-5,336, 347,371,372,375 distribution of food supplies in, 141 evacuation from, 54 491 evacuees in, 64-5 labor turnover in, 227,258,259,436n82 mobilization of workers from, 172,222 reconstruction of, 211 -12,222, 226-7,364 Stalino evacuation of, 35-8 labor desertion in, 435n69 reconstruction of, 213 starvation and malnutrition, 7,100-1,105, 122,195-6,214,263,264-5,272,
273,275,287,371,373 among Central Asian workers, 205,208, 209,226 among evacuees and refugees, 57,58, 62,68-70,123-4 among women, 104 as cause of labor turnover, 291 in Cheliabinsk, 110,129,255,285,288 diagnosis and treatment of, 290 and interaction with tuberculosis, 264-5,284-5 in Leningrad, 117,119-20,290,406n4 mortality from, 285-6,290,443n90 and role of Lend-Lease food aid, 290.291 and supplementary food, 111, 141, 142,161 in Sverdlovsk and Sverdlovsk province, 161,255 wage system as factor in, 288-90, 443Ш05 State Committee for Defense, see GKO State Sanitary Inspectorate (GSI), 72, 264.292 strikes during early five-year plans, 232 in Ivanovo province, 48,50-1,303-4 subsidiary farms, 95,99,105,107,111-13, 123,126,129,131,135,145,159, 161-2,163,190,382table3.1, 408n28,411n90 Supreme Court, 186,220 Sverdlovsk and Sverdlovsk province, 327, 331,336,368 abuses of rationing system in, 131, 137, !40, condition of Central Asian workers in, 205,207,210,
492 INDEX Sverdlovsk and Sverdlovsk province {cont.) deportation of Soviet Germans to, 192 evacuees in, 61,400nl47 flight from Labor Reserve schools in, 244,245 general mortality in, 267 housing conditions in, 80-81,205 infant and child mortality in, 267, 268,272-3 introduction of rationing in, 96-7 labor turnover in, 254-5 milk shortages in, 271,272 mobilization of workers to and from, 170,172,248 placement of evacuated factories in, 83-4,86 population growth in, 76,381table2.1 starvation and hunger in, 119,161,255, 272-3,287,439n21 tuberculosis in, 284 use of prison labor in, 189-90, See also Nizhnii Tagil, Uralmash Tadevosian, V. S., 244 Tadzhikistan, see Central Asian workers Tagillag labor camp, 78,190 tank industry labor turnover in, 254-5 working and living conditions in, 180,182 Tatariia, see Kazan’ teenagers budgets of, 153-5 and evacuation, 32,52,70 and fear of starvation, 291 health of, 284 illegal employment of, 276-7 mobilization of from liberated territories, 213 mobilized for defense installations, 48 murder of by Ukrainian nationalists, 360,361 provisioning of, 103 ration allowances of, 101 as share ofworkforce, 425-6n 117 See also labor mobilization, Labor Reserves, labor turnover Telepnev, B. L, 166 Terror (1935-1939), 5,22,42,43,51,187, 295,301,302,307,325,335,343 textile industry evacuation of, 42,52-3 housing and living conditions in, 184 labor shortage in, 215-16 labor turnover in, 241-2,255 mood of workers in, 48-51,303-4,318 and production targets, 126-7 and shift from civilian to military production, 77-8 wages in, 289-90 working conditions in, 280
See also Ivanovo theft efforts to combat, 155-60 of food and basic consumer goods, 143-8,150 from young workers, 219 Tikhonov, N., 306 Toropov, G„ 257-8 trade between factories and local producers, 80,99,112,116,149 “countertrade,” 149 “hand-to-hand trade,” 150 petty trade, 152 See also Trade under Commissariats; markets transport, see public transportation, railways, river transport Trekhgornaia Manufaktura textile factory, 73-4,120 Treťíakov, A. F„ 269 tuberculosis, see health of population Turkmenistan, see Central Asian workers Tvardovskii, A. T., 337,363 Ufa and Bashkiriia bread shortages in, 107 labor turnover in, 256 milk shortages in, 271 mobilization of workers from, 202, 209,212 population growth in, 76,381table2.1
INDEX State of canteens in, 108 theft and misappropriation of food supplies in, 147 Ukraine deportation of Soviet Germans from, 192, evacuation of, 26,31,38,41,52,56,57, 78,83,373 filtration of citizens in after liberation, 345-6,348 German occupation of, 5,11,309,312, 337,338 labor turnover in, 255-6,258,356-7, 435n69,436n79 liberation of, 212,228,340,378 mobilization of workers in, 359-61, 363-5,367 prewar medical personnel in, 265 reconstruction of, 255,359 reconstitution of Communist Party in, 343 See also evacuation Ukrainian nationalists, see nationalist guerrillas Undasynov, Ñutas, 225 unions All-Union Central Council of Unions (VTsSPS), 16,110, 111, 125,131, 133,140-1,160,166,180,184, Ammunition Workers, 140,288-9 Armament Workers, 81,275 Aviation Workers, 131,134 Cement Workers, 109 Iron and Steel Workers of the East, 131 Public Catering Workers, 117,119, 337,352-4 Shipbuilding Workers, 102,115,122 and attempts to improve workers’ provisioning, 110-11,131,140-1, 155,159 and attempts to improve working and living conditions, 227-8,376 and campaign to clamp down on issue of sick notes, 279-80 and complaints over workers’ low wages, 289 and enforcing law against labor desertion, 251-2 493 and gardening commissions, 112-13 and ration allowances for union officials, 131,137-8,415n25 and search for food substitutes, 117 and starvation of workers, 285-6,288 and verification of former members from liberated territories, 340,367 United States war losses in, 8 Uralmash Factory (Uralmashzavod), 85, 118,183,205,210,368 labor turnover in, 254-5 Urals Tank Factory, Nizhnii
Tagil, 78-9, 191,205,370 Uzbekistan, 68,94 deportation of Crimean Tatars to, 364 evacuation of children to, 56 housing and living conditions of workers in, 179 number of evacuees received by, 59 See also Central Asian workers Vakhrushev, V. V., 37 Vannikov, B. L, 156-7 Victory Day, 229,378 Vlasov, A. A., 325 vocational students, see Labor Reserves voenkomaty, see draft boards Volga Germans, see deportations, Labor Army Volga river, 30,32,35,40,52,54,60,62, 64,65,68, 75,88,89,189,196-7, 215,320, Volin, A. A., 143,148 Voroshilov, K. E„ 43 Voznesenskii, N. A, 16,32,43,233 war losses, 7-8,377,394n26 war narratives in Soviet Union and post-Soviet Russia, 8,378-9 in West, 8 Werth, Alexander, 308,310,314,337 women build defense installations, 45 on collective farms, 178,247 and condition of Leningrad evacuees, 68
494 INDEX women {cont.) depiction of in wartime speeches and propaganda, 316,332, diet and nutrition of, 102-3,289-90 during evacuation and resettlement, 2, 24,44,48,58,61,77 and family law of July 1944,280-1 and filtration of population in liberated territories, 347 and health of women workers, 280-1 initiatives of, 294,322-3,324,353 in Labor Army, 192-3 labor mobilization of, 87,169,170, 171-3,175,194,198,200,201,212, 213,221,356-7,358-9,364 and legacy of war, 377 low wages of, 289-90 lower starvation rates of, 104 mobilization of into army, 171-2 question Allies’ commitment to war, 318 as percentage of labor force, 165,169,198,280,420n25, 425-бпІ 17,441n75 as percentage of Party membership, 341 ration entitlements of, 104 remain in occupied territory to care for dependent family, 342 and reconstruction of Stalingrad, 211-12 unpaid labor of, 179 volunteer for army, 299 volunteer to enter industry, 168-9,305 and wartime labor laws, 241-2,258 and worker protests in Ivanovo, 48-51,303-4 See also mothers workers attitudes of towards illicit redistribution of food supplies, 161,163 budgets of, 152-5,417ПІ02 fitness of for physical labor, 172,174, 203,204,209,224,226,276 industrial accidents and diseases of, 149,174,263,265,274-80 and low wages ofyoung workers, 289 and protests at official abuses of supply system, 128-9,130-1, 136-7,156-7 share rations with dependent family members, 286 theft of factory property by, 148, 151,154 wages of, 126,288-90 and wartime working hours, 167,275 and working conditions ofyoung workers, 182 See also, diet and nutrition, housing and living
conditions Zelenko, G. L, 169,181 Zelenskii, G. N., 166 Zhenotdel, 133 ZhU (trade schools for railways), see Labor Reserves Zlatoust Central Asian workers in, 207 housing conditions in, 81 labor turnover in, 254 mortality in, 283 starvation and malnutrition in, 263,272 Zotov, V. P.,20,30,33
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Contents Acknowledgments Terms and Abbreviations Units ofMeasurement Major Wartime Commissariats Cities Whose Wartime Names Have Changed Introduction: Total War ix xi xv xvii xxi 1 1. Panic, Scorched Earth, and Evacuation 11 2. Rolling East and Resettlement 57 3. The Staff of Life: Feeding the People 94 4. Illicit Provisioning: Inequality, Leveling, and Black Markets 128 5. “All for the Front”: Free Labor, Prisoners, and Deportees 164 6. The Labor System in Crisis: The Limits of Mobilization 198 7. Coercion Constrained: The Wartime Labor Laws 231 8. The Public’s Health 263 9. “Our Cause Is Just”: Loyalty, Propaganda, and Popular Moods 294 10. “Brick Dust and Ashes”: Liberation and Reconstruction 337 Conclusion 369 Appendix: Tables Notes Bibliography Index 381 391 457 475
Bibliography Archives Archive holdings for the Peoples Commissariats are catalogued under their postwar title of Ministries. GARF (Gosudarstvennyi arkhivRossiiskoi federatsii—State Archive of the Russian Federation) Main Reading Room f. 5451 All-Union Soviet of Trade Unions (Vsesoiuznyi sovet professionaľnikh profsoiuzov) f. 5452 Central Committees of the Unions of Workers in State Trade, Public Catering, and Consumer Cooperatives (Tsentral’nye komitety profsoiuzov rabotnikov gosudarstvennoi torgovli, obshchestvennogo pitaniia i potrebiteľskoi kooperatsii) f. 6822 Soviet for Evacuation under the USSR Soviet of People’s Commissars (Sovet po evakuatsii pri SNK SSSR) f. 7416 Central Committees of the Unions of Workers in the Coal Industry (Tsentral’nye komitety profsoiuzov rabochikh ugol’noi promyshlennosti) f. 7676 Opis’ 14 Central Committee of the Union of Workers in the Automotive and Tractor Industry (Tsentral’nyi komitet profsoiuza rabochikh avtomobil’noi і traktornoi promyshlennosti) f. 7678 Central Committees of the Unions of Workers in Aviation and Defense Industry (Tsentral’nye komitety profsoiuzov rabochikh aviatsionnoi і oboronnoi promyshlennostei) f. 8009 Ministry of Public Health of the USSR (Ministerstvo zdravookhraneniia SSSR) f. 8114 Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee (Evreiskii antifashistskii komitet) £ 8131 Procuracy of the USSR (Prokuratura SSSR) f. 9226 State Sanitary Inspectorate of the USSR Commissariat of Public Health (Gosudarstvennaia sanitarnaia inspektsiia Komissariata zdravookhraneniia SSSR) f. 9507 Ministry of Labour Reserves of the USSR (Ministerstvo
trudovykh rezervov SSSR) f. 9517 Committee to Enumerate and Distribute the Labor Force under the USSR Soviet of People’s Commissars (Komitet po uchetu i raspredeleniiu rabochei sily pri SNK SSSR) Reading Room 2 f. A-327 Chief Administration of Resettlement under the Council of Ministers of the RSFSR and Its Predecessors (Glavnoe pereselencheskoe upravlenie pri SM RSFSR i ego predshestvenniki) f. A-374 Statistical Administration of the RSFSR (Statisticheskoe upravlenie RSFSR) f. A-482 Ministry ofPublic Health ofthe RSFSR (Narodnyi komissariat zdravookhraneniia RSFSR)
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Index absenteeism, 105,167,209,231,232,235֊ 6,237,240-1,243,246,259,261, 274,374-5,388-9table7.1,434ո48 See also labor laws, labor turnover and absenteeism Aleksandrov, A., 304 Aleksandrov, G. E, 318,327-8,333,334, 450n95,450-ІПІ09 All-Union Central Council of Unions (VTsSPS), see unions amnesties of Gulag prisoners, 201,374 in honor ofvictory over Nazi Germany, 232,261,433n24,436-7n86 of labor deserters, 238,260-1,433n24 of peasants in liberated territories, 349 of Poles, 42 Andreev, A. A., 182 anti-cosmopolitan campaign, 327-8,334 anti-Semitism, 68,75,326-8,334, 335,351,366-7,378,450n95, 450-ІПІ09 See also Jews armaments and ammunition industries Central Asian workers in, 203,205,208 evacuation of, 21,52,83-4 housing and living conditions in, 183 labor mobilization to, 167,171,173, 201,212,218,363 labor turnover in, 254,259 rations and provisioning in, 109,120, 122,128-9,140,141,156-7 starvation and malnutrition in, 111, 254,285-6,287,288 wages in, 289 working conditions in, 275,277,280 atrocities, see Nazism aviation industry, 61 child workers in, 196 evacuation of, 35,52,83-4,88-91 housing and living conditions in, 182-3 labor mobilization to, 167,365 labor turnover in, 256 number of workers in, 432-3n20 rationing and provisioning in, 102,103, 107-8,110,131-3,134,135-6, 140,146,161 use of prison labor in, 189-90 wages in, 288-9,409n37 women workers in, 280,441n75 working conditions in, 80 Bab’i Yar (Babi Yar), 19,332 Backe, Herbert, see Hunger Plan bakeries, 2,97,106-7,116,117,129,145, 324,328,352,408n28 Bashkiriia, see Ufa baths and bathhouses, 2,69,72-3,75,77,
80,81,90,110,128,153,171,180, 183,196,206,227,245,265,292, 328,338,355,370,417nl02 See also, soap shortage Bednov, I. A., 128-9,130-1,156,163 Belorussia filtration of citizens in after liberation, 348 German massacres in, 39,40, 312,338-9 German occupation of, 5,24,34, 309,337 liberation of, 331,340,364 mobilization of workers in, 228,354, 361-2,363,367 nationalist resistance in, 340,361 See also evacuation Berezovskaia, S. G., 241-2 Berggol’ts, Olga, 306,307-8,335 Beria, L. P„ 16,63,152,161,208,215, 233,422n88
476 INDEX Bezymianlag labor camp, 189-90 black and gray markets, 129-30, 149-55,162 Bochkov, V. M„ 208,240 bombing of Soviet cities and evacuation routes, 5,7,12,20,27,28,30,31, 35,40,52,54,58,63,211,301,324, Braithwaite, Rodric, 8 bread, see rationing bread (ration) cards forgery and theft of, 129,147 issue of in liberated territories, 345 trade in, 115,149-50,151,154,155 used as currency, 130 workers selling, 226,290 budgets, see workers canteens and public dining rooms, 94,98, 102,103,106-111,140-1,159, 160,186,287,373,376,41 ln90 and differential provision of officials and workers, 132-4,135,138-9, 161,163,207 and experiments with food substitutes, 116-21 and feeding prisoner workers, 188,195 and restoration of canteen network in liberated territories, 352-4 and special canteens for Central Asian workers, 207 theft from, 128,129,143,146,147 See also food supplies Central Asian workers, 86,253,284, 286.355 demand to end mobilization of, 225-6 labor turnover among, 206,226,240 mobilization of, 198,202-3,211,212, 213,215,216 poor health and mortality among, 203-4,205,206,208-9,210,225, 226.355 racism encountered by, 198,199, 209-11,226 working and living conditions of, 199, 204-9,229 Central Committee of the Communist Party, see Communist Party Central Statistical Administration (TsSU), 103,200,233,274,279, 383table3.4,408n28,415n27, 417nl02,432n20 Cheliabinsk and Cheliabinsk province black and gray markets in, 151 condition of Central Asian workers in, 207,209,211 evacuees in, 61,62,73 factories evacuated to, 83,84-5,91 flight from Labor Reserve schools in, 244,245
housing and living conditions in, 81, 128,153,180-82,218-19 introduction of rationing in, 96-7 labor turnover in, 180,240,254-5 low wages in, 289 misappropriation of consumer goods by officials in, 130-1 mortality in, 283,285 population growth in, 76,381table 2.1 provisioning of workers in, 133-4 starvation in, 110,129,255,285,288 theft and misappropriation of food supplies in, 134,145,146, 147,156-7 tuberculosis in, 284 use of markets by workers in, 152-5, 417ПІ02 use of prison labor in, 189 working conditions in, 204 Cheliabinsk Tractor Factory (ChTZ), see Kirov factory, Cheliabinsk chemical industry, 38, 78,83,101,104, 111,142,171,203,212,236 women workers in, 280 working conditions in, 276,278 Chernyshev, V. V, 203 Chief Administration of Labor Reserves, 166,201 See also Labor Reserves childcare, 6,74,105,110,159,201,242, 268,269,270,271,272-3,281,305, 357,374 children and child workers, 196 cannot attend school for lack of clothing, 228 of deported Soviet Germans, 193 evacuation of, 12,15,20,23,24,31,39, 41,44,48,49,52,56,58,60,61,63,
INDEX 65,68,70,73-4,75,77,79,87,264, 282.372 homeless and unsupervised, 245,247 illegal mobilization of, 220-1 illness and mortality of, 71,73,263, 265-6,267-8,270,272,281,282, 283,293,437n7 provisioning and nutrition of, 68,70,94, 99,101,102,104-5,106,110, 111, 122,123-4,131,140,144-5,159, 194,268-73,290,304,353,370-1, 373,383table3.4 sanitary education of, 292-3 and Spanish Civil War orphans, 123-4 as victims of Nazi atrocities, 312, 316,331-2 See also orphans Chuikov, V. S„ 196-7,320 clothing and footwear shortages, 53,77-8, 81,87,98,131,137,146,151,168, 174,180,181,183,184,191,204, 208,228,239,241,242,243,244, 245,337,353,370,376 coal industry, 173-4 accidents in, 276-7 dependence of on labor deserters 257-8 evacuation of, 36-8 housing and living conditions in, 182-3 Labor Army prisoners in, 192,193 labor shortage in, 224,228,365 labor turnover in, 174,256,260,435n69 mobilization for, 78,173-4,213,255, 355-7,363,365 of Central Asian workers, 203, 211,216 use of prison labor in, 188 women workers in, 441n75 working conditions in, 265 coercion limits of, 231,233, in mobilizing workers, 175,358, 361.372 role of in shaping attitudes to war effort, 9,374,395n33 collaboration and collaborators, 8,300, 325,340,341-3,344,345-52,353, 354,359,367 collective farms attitudes of towards evacuees, 75-6 477 and concealment of labor deserters, 233, 247-52,374 and contracts with industrial enterprises and local soviets, 99, 112,116,149 damage to under German occupation, 338 deportation of Soviet Germans to, 326 and exclusion of peasants from rationing system, 97,115 flight from during
first five-year plans, 232 labor shortage in, 114,198,223, 291,358 and mobilization of rural population, 169,202,214,215,223-4,229, 387table6.1 and private plots, 114 See also harvests, markets, peasants collective security, 3 Commissar Order, 4,5 Commissariats Ammunition, 83,171,173,183 Armaments, 218 Aviation, 84,365,432n20 Chemical Industry, 171 Coal Industry, 37,38,174,216,224,365 Construction, 86,88,157,206,366 Defense, 27,202,205,216,224,225, 234,346,386table5.1 Electric Power Stations, 21,223 Electrical Industry, 85 Health, 6,72,172,270,271,274,279, 281,282 Internal Affairs, see NKVD Justice, 244 Light Industry, 228 Medium-Sized Machine-Building, 170 Oil Industry, 122 Paper Industry, 83 Procurements, 124 Railways, 11,15,28,30,33,37,51,52, 53,82,168,192 See also railways River Fleet, 52,171 Rubber Industry, 98 Shipbuilding, 20, State Control, 63,222,223 State Security (NKGB), 348
478 INDEX Commissariats (cont.) Tank Industry, 182 Textile Industry, 48,140,255 Timber Industry, 214 Trade, 98,99,107,108,113-14,121, 122,123,125,126,149,150-1, 152,155,157,158-9,181,286, 408n28,409n40 and ban on self-provisioning by officials, 137-9 and Departments of Workers’ Provisioning, 111 and organization of rationing on home front, 6,96,98,373 and organization of rationing in liberated territories, 352 and search for food substitutes, 116-18,120 Commissions for Workers’ Provisioning, see social controllers Committee to Enumerate and Distribute the Labor Force (Komitet), see labor mobilization Communist Party and alienation of party officials from workers, 156 and betrayal oflocal activists to Gestapo, 352 Central Committee of and anti-Semitism, 327 and complaints over food supplies, 123,128,131-3,136,156-7,163 and complaints about regional leaders, 304 and complaints over working and living conditions, 182,204-5, 207-8,209,219,227,417nl02 creates Commissariat of State Security (NKGB), 348 and evacuation, 14,16,17,22,25,26, 30,34,50 and filtration ofpopulation of liberated territories, 351-2 and gardens and subsidiary farms, 112,411n90 and labor mobilization, 173,225, 226,227 and organization of food supplies in liberated territories, 352 warns local leaders against “diversionists” and spies, 325 and wartime labor laws, 241 and wartime propaganda, 295,297, 311,317,318,319 changes in membership of during war, 341 collaboration of members with Nazi occupation, 8,341-3,344 and loss of activists to front, 303 and murder of members under Nazi occupation, 4,340 and party
officials and black market trading, 162 and complaints about workers’ conditions, 205,206,208, 228,328-9 and corruption, 145 during evacuation, 11,15,17,18,21, 22,23,26,30,52,55,65 during Ivanovo strikes, 48,51 and enforcement of wartime labor laws, 233,246,247,258 and filtration ofpopulation in liberated territories, 349 and labor mobilization, 199,217,224, 227,243 organize collective farm markets, 114,124 raise alarm about worker starvation, 285 and reconstruction of liberated territories, 107 report on popular attitudes, 317,319 and reports of anti-Soviet sentiments, 301 witness Nazi atrocities, 311 and role of local activists disseminating propaganda, 297,314, 319,323,325,375 during evacuation, 7,17,22,43,50, 54,55,65,373 improving conditions for workers, 174,205 in labor mobilization, 174,216 mobilizing civilian defense initiatives, 323,324 in reconstruction of liberated territories, 340
INDEX and self-provisioning by local party and state officials, 130-9 and theft of food supplies by local party officials, 145-6 vetting of party members who remained in occupied territory, 342-4, 345.367 courts, 25,158-9,181,186,219,220,230, 235,236,240-1,244,246,249,251, 262,332,345-6,347,348,349,354, 356,376,389table7.1 See also military tribunals currency reform (December 1947), 162-3 decentralized procurement, see food supplies Departments of Workers’ Provisioning (ORSy), 111-12,117,121,128, 129,130,135,138,139,143,144, 147,150,157,159,286 deportations, 164,187 of Chechens, 192,325-6 of Crimean Tatars, 192,325-6,364 during 1930s, 42,187,404n37 from liberated territories, 347, 349.367 from Moscow, 43,192 of Soviet Germans, 42-3,60,64,65, 67,187,192-3,325-7,335,364, 424nl02,449n91 from territories annexed under Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, 42 See also Labor Army diet and nutrition of children, 68,70,101,102,104-5,106, 110, 111, 123-4,131,140,144-5, 159,194,268-73,290,304,353, 370-1,373 of collective farmers, 114 deterioration of during war, 1,100, 107-8,263,383table3.3, 408-9Ո.28 and extra food for the malnourished, 100-1,111,141,142,290, 291,373 and impact on productivity, 126-7 and role of hunger in revolutions, 95 and use of markets to combat hunger, 153-5 479 See also food supplies, health of population, rationing, starvation Dietrich, Otto, 38 Dnepropetrovsk and Dnepropetrovsk province evacuation of, 11-12,31-2,34-5,37 evacuees from, 77 German occupation of, 11,12,36,353 labor mobilization in after liberation, 358.359.363 liberation of, 32 Donbass, 34,67 evacuation of,
12,35-8 German occupation of, 106,173 labor desertion in, 258 labor mobilization for, 213,255-6, 356.363 draft boards (voenkomaty), 299,301 role of in labor mobilization, 6,167,172, 185,202,203,204,229,240,374 Dubrovin, N, E, 15,17,20,21,28,43,44, 46,54,55,396n23 Dvorson, L. G„ 66 Ehrenburg, Ilya (Il’ia Erenburg), 314,316, 332-3,450-1Ш09 electric power stations, 12,21,37,101, 203,212,217,320,325 epidemics, see health of population Erickson, John, 55 Ershov, V. A., 55 evacuation as agent of modernization, 59,88-91 of agriculture, 30-33,55,56,398n81, 399ПІ03 and amalgamation of factories, 59, 82-6,88-91 of Belorussia, 13,24,30,40 of Caucasus, 54-5 of children, 12,15,20,23,24,31,39,41, 44,48,49,52,56,58,60,61,63,65, 68,70,73-4,75,77,79,87,264, 282,372 and deterioration of working conditions, 274 of Dnepropetrovsk, 11-12,31-2, 34-5,37 of Donbass, 12,35-8 first and second phases of, 13,54-5
480 INDEX evacuation (cont.) of industry, 34-8,165,372-3 of Kiev, 1,19,34,35,37,57,60,86 of Latvia, 15 from Leningrad, 13,20,21,29,40-42, 68-72,76 of Moscow, 13,21,40-41,43-7 panic during early phase of, 21-9 and population growth ofhome front cities, 76,77,381table2.1 prewar plans for, 14 problems of, 20-29,51-3 role of workers in, 7,54,55,63 sanitary crisis created by, 58,63-4, 65,69,72-4,114,263-4,291-2, 370,373 and scorched earth policy, 18 and spread of epidemic diseases, 6,59, 72-4,77 of Stalingrad province, 54 worker protests against in Ivanovo, 48-51,303 of Zaporozhe, 35-6,37 See also, evacuees, Soviet for Evacuation evacuation centres (evakopunkty), 17,39, 43,66,71,74-5,76,77 evacuees and refugees conditions faced by, 58-81,103, 122,263 health and mortality among, 2,57-8, 59,62,64,68-71,267,269, 284,287 numbers and age composition of, 59-61,403n3 reception of by peasants, 65,75-6 return of to liberated territories, 350-1, 363,364 See also Leningrad family and assumption of domestic care by workplace, 6-7,126,181,195,374 and factory as surrogate family for orphaned workers, 323 and unpaid domestic labor of women, 179 family law of July 1944,280-1 fascism, 3,5,296,300,329 and anti-fascism as motivation for support of war effort, 295,299, 304,309,312,334,375-6 and Soviet role in defeat of, 8 and struggle against, 378,379 film, 298,348 filtration of population in liberated territories, 345-52 food substitutes, see food supplies food supplies and collective farm markets, 95,99,112, 113-16,124,125,129,149,190, 271,383table3.3 and decentralized procurement, 95,99,
107,113,124,125,382table3.1, 383table3.3 decline of before the war, 100 and erosion of division between agriculture and industry, 126 evacuation of, 30-33 and food production, 382table3.2 and food substitutes, 95-6,116-21 and gardens, 95,99-100,107,111-13, 114,117,119,125,126,141, 162,190,275,286-7,291,359, 382table3.1 importance of potatoes in, 113,126,287 and Lend-Lease food aid, 125, 290-91,373 and leveling of food hierarchies by officials, 129,139-43,158,160, 161,163 losses of in occupied territories, 94,100, 382table3.2 and milk shortages, 99,100,104,112, 114,131,268-73,384table4.1 organizational conflicts over, 121-5 and private plots, 97,99,114,115, 254 and privileged allocations for top officials, 138-9,415nn25,27, 384table4.1 role of black and gray markets in, 149-55,162 role of state in, 95-6,125,373 and self-provisioning by managers, state, and party officials, 129, 130-9,156,160,414nl4
INDEX social control of by workers and unions, 159-61 sources of, 382table3.1 and subsidiary farms, 95,99,105, 107,111-13,123,126,129,131, 135,145,159,161-2,163,190, 382table3.1,408n28,41 ln90 theft and misappropriation of, 129, 143-7,150,156-60 See also, canteens, diet and nutrition, rationing, starvation France, 95,437n7,447n48 fall of, 235 and policy of appeasement, 3 and Soviet attitudes toward, 431n9 war losses in, 8 fuel shortages, 2,77,79-80,81,82,90,94, 105,106-7,108,109,126,127,136, 145,160,183,216,223-4,228,276, 292,319,320,322,328,340,353, 365,367 FZO (factory training schools), see Labor Reserves gardens and gardening, 95,99-100,107, 111-13,114,117,119,125,126, 141,162,190,275,286-7,291,359, 382table3.1 Gastello, N. F., 310 Germany defeat and occupation of, 332,334, 450nl06 and Nazi plan for occupation of Soviet Union, 4-5 and partition of Poland, 3-4 Soviet food exports to, 100 starvation in during World War I, 284 surrender of, 367-8 war losses in, 8 See also Jews, Nazism, Red Army GKO (State Committee for Defense), 6,16,29,30,31,37,43,53,54,82, 83,87,125,147,155,156,157, 159,166,170,172,186,199,200, 202,206,208,213,215,216,218, 225,227,346,347,355,397n31, 429nl21 481 Glavpromstroi (NKVD department for industrial construction), 187, 386table5.3 Goncharov, G. A., 190,424nl02 Goring, Hermann, 4 Gor’kii and Gor’kii province bread shortages in, 106-7 flight from Labor Reserve schools in, 245,247 food shortages in, 269 industrial accidents and diseases in, 278 introduction of rationing in, 96-7 labor turnover in, 259-60 and levelling of ration hierarchies by
managers, 142 mobilization of workers from, 216, 217,221 mortality in, 267 population growth in, 381table2.1 sanitary conditions in, 328 theft and misappropriation of food supplies in, 145 Gor’kii Motor Vehicle Factory (GAZ), 215,275,276,410n49 Gorshenin, K. R, 220,221,258-9 Gorshkov, M„ 37 Gosplan (State Planning Commission), 28,32,166,171,174,200,203,233, 235,363,432֊3n20 Granovskii, G. M., 193-4 Great Britain, 118,164,302 Soviet attitudes toward, 431n9 and delays opening second front, 318 and Lend-Lease food aid, 125,290 and policy of appeasement, 3 war losses in, 8 Grossman, Vasily, 40, 314,332 Gulag (Chief Administration of Camps), see NKVD harvests, 99,100,110,114,115,173,178, 224,287,290,356,358,376 evacuation of, 25,30 from subsidiary farms and gardens, 112 health of population, 263 and adult mortality, 264-5,267, 282-6
482 INDEX health of population (cont.) and campaign to curb sick notes, 279-80 and child nutrition, 68,70,102,104-5, 110, 111, 123-4,140,144-5,159, 268-73,290,304,353,370-1,373 and contraction of medical personnel and facilities, 266 and epidemic control measures, 266 and epidemics during World War I and Civil War, 264 and industrial accidents and diseases, 149,174,263,265,274-80 and “industrial principle” of administering healthcare, 273-4 and infant and child mortality, 71,73, 263,265-6,267-8,270,272,281, 282,283,293,437n7 and major diseases dysentery, 6,68, 71,265,268,282 malaria, 203,266 measles, 6,59,71,74,77,264,267-8, 373,438nl3 pneumonia, 68,71,181,204,205, 208,209,264,266,268,273,278 rickets, 70,268,272-3 tuberculosis, 6,68, 71,101,104,141, 204,208-9,264,265,266,268,270, 272,273,275,283-5,437n7 typhus, 6,59,65,71,72,73,74,264, 282,292,338,373,437n2 prewar, 265-6,291-2 and sanitation and sanitary controls, 7, 58,65,71-2,239,263-4,265,266, 268,275,282,283,291-2,328 and teenagers, 284 and training of new doctors, 282 and women workers, 280-1 See also diet and nutrition, evacuation, evacuees, starvation Himmler, Heinrich, 4 Hitler, Adolf, 3,4,36,47,50,235,298,299, 314,327,333,393n24 and pro-German sentiments among Soviet population, 26,300,302,326 Hitler-Stalin pact, see Molotov-Ribbentrop pact Holocaust, 40,447n48 See also Jews home front and contribution to war effort, 2-3,7, 369,371,372,375 population of major cities in, 381table2.1 homeless children, 245,247 horses, 88,152,174,304,362 evacuation of, 26,31,33,399nl03 and mobilization for carting, 213-14,224
requisitioned by army, 178 shortage of, 80,100,247,338,353 housing and living conditions, 1,2,7,59, 78-82,89,174,178-84,196,21819,227-8,370-1,374,377 Hunger Plan (German plan for occupation of Soviet Union), 4 “immortal regiments,” 378 infant and child mortality, see health of population intelligentsia, 130,319 as target of anti-cosmopolitan campaign, 327 iron and steel industry, 78,81,85,86,878,112,131,151,274 evacuation of, 34-6 labor turnover in, 254,255-6,361 production difficulties in, 320 reconstruction of in liberated territories, 213,363 use of Central Asian workers in, 203,207 use of prison labor in, 189,190,192 women workers in, 280,441n75 work hazards in, 276,277 See also Kuznetsk iron and steel combine, Magnitogorsk iron and steel combine, Novo-Tagil iron and steel works “Internationale,” 309,310,447n44 Ivanovo and Ivanovo province Central Asian workers in, 203-4,225 health of children in, 272 introduction of rationing in, 96-7 labor turnover in, 241 -3 living conditions in, 184
INDEX mood of workers in, 303-4,318,328, 329-30,373 population growth in, 38 ltable2.1 theft and misappropriation of supplies in, 136-7,143,147 worker protests in, 48-51,303-4 See also textile industry Japan war losses in, 8 Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, 311 Jews and anti-Semitism, 68,75,326-8,334, 335,351,366-7,378,450n95, 450-ІПІ09 murder of under Nazi occupation, 4,5, 8,13,22,33,39-40,311-12,332, 333,338,340,346,347,348,350, 447-8Ո48 murder of by Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), 360 number rescued through evacuation, 19 and refusal to evacuate, 18-19 Kaganovich, L. M., 16,17 Kalinin and Kalinin province evacuation of, 26-7,32,52,62,87 German occupation of, 53,313 and Kalinin front, 192,317 labor desertion in, 259-60 and labor mobilization, 176-7,178,255 liberation of, 47,325,352-3 Kalinin, Mikhail, 328,358 Kazakhstan deportation of Crimean Tatars to, 326 deportation of Soviet Germans to and from, 43,192-3 evacuation of children to, 56 evacuation of industry to, 16,42 number of evacuees received by, 59-60 See also Central Asian workers Kazan’ and Tatariia, 324 collective farm markets in, 115 evacuated factories in, 88-91 evacuees in, 61,66,102 food shortages in, 122,161-2 introduction of rationing in, 96-7 483 and levelling of ration categories by managers, 142-3 mobilization of teenagers for Labor Reserve schools in, 177 mobilization of workers in, 202,212 mortality in, 267 population growth in, 76,381table2.1 privileges of top officials in, 139 theft of food supplies in, 143,158 Khrushchev, N. S. and attack on Stalin, 5,36,318,448n64 Kiev and Kiev province bread
shortages in after liberation, 352 enumeration of population of after liberation, 355 evacuation of, 1,19,34,35,37,57,60,86 German occupation of, 36 filtration of population of after liberation, 349-50 liberation of, 212 Kirghiziia, see Central Asian workers Kirov, S. M„ 306 Kirov and Kirov province abuse of rationing system in, 132-3 evacuees in, 70-1 food shortages in, 107-8,109,269-70,272 labor turnover in, 259 mobilization of workers from, 201, 216,244 mortality in, 267,268,270,283 population growth in, 381table2.1 Kirov factory, Cheliabinsk, 61,62,83,87, 91,108-9,133-4,141,151,180, 182,254-5,285 labor turnover at, 179 Komitet (Committee to Enumerate and Distribute the Labor Force), see labor mobilization Komsomol and complaints over conditions, 81, 110-11,131,155,160,177-8,180֊ 3,226-7,241,285,376 and failure to enforce wartime labor laws, 252 members volunteer for Red Army, 299 and ration allowances for Komsomol officials, 137-8,415n25 soldiers joining, 309
484 INDEX Korneichuk, A. E., 306 Kosiachenko, G. R, 203 Kosmodemianskaia, Zoia, 310 Kosygin, A. N., 16,43,44,54,143 Kovalev, G. V., 43 Kovalev, I. V., 27 Kovalevskii, M. M., 210 Kudriavtsev, P., 434-5n57 Kuibyshev and Kuibyshev province condition of Central Asian workers in, 206-7,209-10 flight from Labor Reserve schools in, 244 housing conditions in, 81 milk shortages in, 272 population growth in, 76,381table2.1 use of prison labor in, 189-90 Kursk and Kursk province battle of, 212,214 evacuation of, 52,144 German occupation of, 25,309 theft of food in, 144 Kuznetsk iron and steel combine, 85, 151,276 Labor Army, 6,86,164,188,190-94,195, 196,373,424ПІ02 See also deportations labor desertion, see labor laws, labor turnover labor discipline, see labor laws, labor turnover labor laws decrees and edicts Decree of November 15,1932,235 Decree of December 28,1938,431n3 Edict of June 26,1940 (willful quitting), 167,170,231,232,235, 420nl6,43ІПІ0 Edict of December 28,1940 (flight from Labor Reserve schools), 246, 249,434n48 Edict of December 26,1941 (labor desertion), 169-70,231,232, 236-7,421n29,43ІПІ4,432nl7 Edicts of April 15,1943 and May 9,1943 (militarization of rail and water transport), 236-7, 432Ш1І6,17 Edict of December 30,1944 (partial amnesty oflabor deserters), 260, 261,436n85 Edict of July 7,1945 (general amnesty), 260,261,436-7n86 and acquittals and rejection of cases by Military Tribunals, 239,242-3, 257,259 and concealment of labor deserters by rural officials, 233,247-52,374 convictions under, 231-2,236, 237-8,246,257,262,374-5, 388-9table7.1,390table7.2,
433nn22,24,25 enforcement of Edict of June 26,1940, 236,240 enforcement of Edict of December 28, 1940,243-51 enforcement of Edict of December 26, 1941,231-3,239-43,252,256-62, 356-7,375,436nn78,79 Procuracy attitudes towards, 231,233, 236-42,246-52,256-62,354, 356,375 and reduction of bread ration for absenteeism, 105,209,237,375 See also, labor mobilization, labor turnover labor mobilization, 6,372,374 and breakdown of mobilization system, 199,211-21,222-5,228,232, 252-3,356 of Central Asian workers, 202-11,225֊ 6,229,240,355 of child workers, 196 during 1930s, 165-6 during first years of the war, 167-75 Edict of February 13,1942,170-1, 175,421n30 evasion of, 219-21,237,355,359,361 and formation of Komitet, 166 from juvenile labor colonies and reception centres, 201-2 to and from Labor Reserve schools, 2,6,114,164,166,167,168,170, 176-84,194,195,196,201,233-4, 243-4,374,385table5.1,419nl, 420nl2,454n88 in liberated territories, 228,354-63
INDEX and mobilization of previously exempt groups, 200-2 numbers mobilized, 164,167,233-4, 244,363-4,365,385table5.1, 387table6.1,419nl and poor health of those mobilized, 172, 180-1,203-4,205,206,208-9, 210,224,226,229,255 for reconstruction of liberated territories, 213,354-66,367 from rural population, 2,169,202,214, 215,223-4,229,387table6.1 of urban residents for agricultural work, 224 See also Labor Army, labor laws, Labor Reserves Labor Reserves and Labor Reserve schools, 6,164,167,175,201 attacks on by Ukrainian nationalists, 361-2 evacuation of, 52,70 and flight of young workers, see labor turnover and housing and living conditions, 81, 137,180-4,218-19,229 illegal mobilization for, 220-1 and low wages, 289 mobilization for, see labor mobilization and sanitary education, 292-3 and working conditions, 182,276-7 See also labor laws labor shortage, 165,199 in agriculture, 178,214,215,223,224 See also labor mobilization labor turnover and absenteeism, 186, 199,228,229,230,233,234-5, 274,374 age composition of, 253-4,435n60 in ammunition industry, 254 in armaments industry, 254 among Central Asian workers, 206, 226,240 in Cheliabinsk and Cheliabinsk province, 180,219,240,244-5,254-5 in coal industry, 173,174,256 in Donbass, 255-6,356-7,435n69 during prewar five-year plans, 232 food shortages as cause of, 215,291 in iron and steel industry, 254,256 485 by Labor Reserve students and young workers, 177-80,181,184,195, 219,231,232,233-4,243-51 in Moscow and Moscow province, 251-2,255 in nonferrous metals industry, 188 in Sverdlovsk and Sverdlovsk province, 254-5 in tank
industry, 254-5 in textile industry, 241-3,255 Lebedev-Kumach, V., 304 Leder, Mary, 46,264,270 Lend-Lease food aid, 125,290,291,373 Leningrad condition of evacuees from, 42,48,51, 59,62,68-71,123 siege of, 5,8,13,340,363 See also, evacuation, evacuees, starvation Leonov, L. M„ 306 leveling (uravnilovka), 104,129,139-43, 158,160,161,163 Levitan, Iu. B., 323 liberated territories and filtration of population, 345-52 labor mobilization to and from, 199, 213,216,228,229,253,255,340, 354-66,367 labor turnover in, 252,257-9, 356-7,435n69 nationalist groups in, 340,359-62, 367 reconstruction of, 74,107,212,213 restoration of canteen network in, 352-4,367 restoration of party organizations in, 341-4 See also occupied territories Litvinov, M. M., 3 Liubimov, A. V., 97,111,116,126,146, 152,155,162,207,410n49 looting, 22,25,27 loyalty, 6,136,187,253,295 machine-building industry, 37-8,84,101, 170,217,236,294,363 See also Uralmash Magnitogorsk labor turnover in, 259,436n83 population growth in, 381table2.1
486 INDEX Magnitogorsk (cont.) starvation and malnutrition in, 281 theft by workers in, 148 See abo Cheliabinsk and Cheliabinsk province, Magnitogorsk iron and steel combine Magnitogorsk iron and steel combine, 85, 113,151 housing and working conditions at, 179-80,181,440n50 Makhachkala, 54,57,63,64,68 Maksimov, M. D., 378-9 Malenkov, G. M., 21,157,161,205,209, 225,226,227,233 malnutrition, see diet and nutrition, starvation Markarov, L, 121 markets, 75,130,136,144,160,163,228, 287,305 black and gray markets, 7,149-55, 162,376 collective farm markets, 95,99,103, 112,113-16,124,125,129,149, 190,271,383table3.3 in occupied territory, 340 and sale of stolen goods, 143,144, 145,148 and sale of stolen ration cards, 147 secondhand markets, 150 use of by workers, 152-5,417nl02 mass and national operations, see Terror measles, see health of population medical care ofworkers, 180-1 Merkulov, V. N., 218 Mikhailov, N. A., 160,177-8,181-3, 184-5,226-8, Mikoian, A. N. 16,43,54,83,123,161 military soviets, 397n31 military tribunals, 145,170,231,236,239, 241,242-3,257-8,259,262, 345-6,356,432nl6 milk kitchens, 104,270-2 Mitrofanova, A. V„ 173 mobilization, see labor mobilization Molotov, V. M„ 43,44,161,182,184,218, 233,240,258,309,312,355 address to nation following German invasion, 298-9 Molotov city and Molotov province, 3,66, 77,83,87,97,108,118,150,173, 178,268,273 condition of Central Asian workers in, 204-5,209 deportation of Soviet Germans to, 192 flight from Labor Reserve schools in, 248 housing conditions in, 78 introduction of rationing in, 96-7 population growth in,
76,381table2.1 theft and misappropriation of food supplies in, 135-6,144,145,146, 147,150 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (Hitler-Stalin Pact), 3-4,235 popular reactions towards, 297,298, 301-2,303 Moscow and Moscow province black and gray markets in, 150,152 defense of, 36,308,309,310 evacuation of, 13,21,40-41,43-7 and levelling of ration categories by managers, 142 labor turnover in, 251 -2,254 Moskatov, P. G., 166,169,171,172,240, 246,434n57 mothers on collective farms, 114,179 depiction of in speeches and propaganda, 315-16,319,333 during evacuation and resettlement, 1,57,66,67-8, 73, 74, 76,77, 263-4,328 and early weaning of infants, 270 and family law of July 1944,281 and filtration of population in liberated territories, 347 imprisoned if children evaded mobilization, 243-4 labor mobilization and employment of, 87,170,172,173,175,201,218, 223,305,357 malnutrition of, 70,290 ration entitlements of, 101,110,269 and sick children, 268 and vocational schools, 196 as war widows, 330
INDEX Nasedkin, V. G., 188,422 (ո. 88) nationalist guerrillas, 340 in Belorussia, 340,361 in Ukraine, 340,359-62 Nazism, 4-5,8-9,296,375 atrocities committed by, 296,311,331, 334,338-9,341 and burning of Belorussian villages, 338 and murder of Roma, 13,39 and murder of Soviet Jews, 4,5,8,13,22, 33,39-40,311-12,332,333,338, 340,346,347,348,350,447-8n48 and murder of Soviet POWs, 4,7-8, 312,326,333 See also Germany Nikolaeva, K. L, 133-4,160,184 Nizhnii Tagil condition of Central Asian workers in, 205,210 growth in population of, 76,381table2.1 housing conditions in, 78-80,183,205 labor turnover in, 254 starvation in, 205,254,285-7 use ofLabor Army prisoners in, 191 use of prison labor in, 189,190,191 working conditions in, 277 See also Tagillag, Urals Tank Factory NKVD Bezymianlag labor camp, 189-90 deployment of prison labor by, 6,21,79, 164,188-90,194-5,423nn96,97 and mortality of prisoners, 186,187, 188-90,191,193-4,195,370,373, 386table5.3,423n95 and number of prisoners in camps and colonies, 185-6,386table5.2 and physical condition of prisoners, 187-8,189,195,387table5.4 and rations of prison laborers, 103, 141,410n49 and release of prisoners for the front, 185-6 Tagillag labor camp, 78,190 theft and misappropriation of food and clothing by, 146 See also, deportations, Labor Army Novosibirsk and Novosibirsk province condition of Central Asian workers in, 208 487 mobilization of workers to and from, 170 population growth in, 76,381table2.1 theft and misappropriation of food supplies in, 144,147 tuberculosis in, 284 Novo-Tagil iron and steel works, 78,183 occupied
territories and collaboration with German authorities, 8,300,325,340,341, 345-52,353,354,359,367 destruction in, 314,334,337-9,363,366 evacuation of industry from, 11-56 as share of Soviet agricultural and food production, 94 as share of Soviet population and industry, 12 See also liberated territories, Red Army, Communist Party Odessa and Odessa province, 368 evacuation of, 30,37,63,66, German occupation of, 32-3 labor deserters in, 259,260 labor mobilization in, 356 liberation of, 340 Odessa Massacre, 33 oil industry, 122,236 Central Asian workers in, 203 Gulag prisoners in, 164 Labor Army prisoners in, 193 Omsk and Omsk province deported Soviet Germans in, 326-7 disputes over food supplies in, 124-5 food shortages in, 107-8,161 industrial poisoning in, 278-9 population growth in, 76,381table2.1 potato yields in, 113 theft and misappropriation of food supplies in, 146,147 tuberculosis facilities in, 284 Operation Bagration, 364-5 Operation Barbarossa, 5 opolchenie (home front militia), 7,38,294, 305,309,378-9 organizational conflicts, 376 orgnabor (organized recruitment), 166 orphans, 39,52,53,63,65,101,122,123-4, 140,145,150,161,193,333,376
488 INDEX Osoaviakhim (civil defense organization), 305 OUN/UPA, see nationalist guerrillas ORSy, see Departments of Workers’ Provisioning Ostarbeiter (Nazi slave laborers), 164-5 Paľtsev, G. N., 50,51,304,329 Pamfilov, К., 64 “Panfilov Men,” 310,447n46 partisans, 4,38,39,40,310,312,313,314, 325,331,338,340,341,342,344, 347,350,351,354,367,375 Peoples Courts, see courts peasants access of to medical care, 265 as anti-fascist propagandists, 313-14 attacked by Ukrainian nationalists, 362 attitudes of towards German occupation, 8,26,295 and collective farm markets, see markets and deportation of Volga Germans, 193 entering industry and construction in 1930s, 232 and evacuation, 18,24-7,32,39 exclusion of from rationing system, 97-8 and gray and black markets, see markets and knowledge of food substitutes, 118 labor mobilization of, 2,86,103,126, 167,169,173,196,198,202,208֊ 10,212,213,214,215,218,223-4, 228,291,324,356,359,364,376, 387table6.1 in liberated territories, 349 and monetary reform (December 1947), 163 in occupied territory, 212-13 outlook of reshaped by war, 335 private plots of, 97,99,114,115 pro-German sentiments among, 300-1 and reception of evacuees, 65,75-6,124 as slaves under Nazi Hunger Plan, 4 as special settlers in Gulag system, 187 and trade with evacuees, 77 and trade with factories, 99 See also, collective farms, food supplies, labor shortages Perevoshchikova, A. I., 268 Pervukhin.M. G„ 16 poetry and poets, 121,294,295,297,3068,314-16,337,363,378-9 Pogrebnoi, L. I., 11,20,35,38,53,55,166, 215,223,225 Ponomarenko, P. K., 15 popular attitudes and
complaints about inequality and corrupt officials, 328-30,334,335 and defense of socialism, 335-6,375 and early defeats, 299-304,375 historians’ views on, 294-5 and military strategy, 313-14,333-4 and Nazi atrocities, 313-17,375 and pro- German sentiments, 298, 300-1,324,335 among Soviet German deportees, 326-7 and second front, 314-5 and support for war effort, 304-10, 322-5,334-6,372 towards Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, 297, 298,301-2,303 population statistics, 382table2.1 prison labor, see NKVD prisoners of war (POWs) collaboration of Soviet POWs with Germans, 325 German POWs captured by Red Army, 364 murder of Soviet POWs by Germans, 4, 7-8,312,326,333 numbers captured by Germans, 5, 7,13, 36,394n26 private plots, 97,99,114,115,254 procuracy, see prosecutors and procuracy Pronin, V. P., 14,64 propaganda, 294,295-7,375 and depiction of Nazi Germany, 296-7, 298-9,314 and Holocaust, 311-12 and military situation, 320-1,334 and Nazi atrocities, 311-12,331-3,334 Russian nationalism in, 309-10, 314,320 and Soviet patriotism, 299,309 and suicidal resistance, 310
INDEX and unity between front and rear, 321-3,334 and vengeance propaganda, 314-17, 331-3,334 prosecutors and procuracy, 24,143,148, 186,207,285,349,361, 390table7.2,433n24,447n46 and attacks on national minorities, 211 attitude of towards private trade, 150 attitude of towards theft and illicit distribution, 148,158,160, 161,191 and protests against illegal and improper mobilizations, 220, 255,359 and protests against violations of labor protection laws, 276 and use of sick notes, 279 and wartime labor laws, 9,219,231, 233,236-42,246-52,256-62,354, 356,375 Protopopov, D. Z., 226 public transportation, 46,136,353,370 PURKKA (Political Administration of the Red Army), 22,25,26 Pushkarev, V. S., 162 radio and radio broadcasts, 212,292,294, 295,298,299-300,301,302,307, 310,318,322,323,334,368, railways, 11,14-17,27,28,30,32,33-5, 37,43,51-3,55,58,69,82,168, 188,192,203 railway troops role of in evacuation, 27 rape, 205 by Germans, 312,314 by Red Army soldiers, 332,450nl06 rationing, 6 and ad hoc rationing in 1940,96 and bread shortages, 106-7,117, 129,145, and centrality of bread in, 2,95,96-7, 102,106 during Civil War and 1930s, 96 end of, 377 and forging and misuse of ration cards, 129,147,149-50,151 489 and hierarchies of provisioning, 1, 101-106,383table3.4,384table 4.1 introduction of, 96-8 in liberated territories, 345,352,367 for prison laborers, 103,141,410n49 and privileged allocations for top officials, 138-9,415nn25,27, 384table4.1 and reduction of bread ration (November 1943), 110,114,287 and sale of ration cards by workers, 226,290 and Stakhanovite rations,
103,111,133, 287,288 and trade in ration cards, 115,149-50, 151,154,155 See also diet and nutrition, food supplies, starvation razbazarivanie (squandering), 129, 140,158 Red Army and defense of Moscow, 36,308,309, 310,314 expulsion of Soviet Germans from, 192 and liberation of occupied territories, 32,38,47,53,106,198,212,253, 296,331,337,340,363,364-5 and mass rapes, 332,450nl06 and preparedness of for war, 5,393n24 and release of Gulag prisoners into army, 185,186 retreat of following German invasion, 5, 18,33,35,63,64,302,309,317-18, 320,371 and revelation of Nazi atrocities, 311, 331-2,369,375 and shortages of military equipment, 21 and war losses, 7-8 See also prisoners of war reproductive labor, see family river transport, 32,33,52-3,65 Rokossovskii, K. K., 214 Roma murder of under Nazi occupation, 13,39 Romanov, A. Ia., 208 Rostov-on-Don and Rostov province evacuation of, 55,63,77
490 INDEX Rostov-on-Don and Rostov province {cont.) expulsion of Soviet Germans from, 192 and filtration of civilian population after liberation, 346-7,348 housing and living conditions in, 328-9 labor mobilization in, 224-5,228,3545,356,358-9,363 labor turnover in, 256,276-7 misappropriation of ration stocks by officials in, 150 occupation and liberation of, 33,38,67, 317.320 privileged allocations to officials in, 139 verification of party members in after liberation, 342 RU (trade schools), see Labor Reserves Russian nationalism in wartime propaganda, 309-10, 314.320 Rzhev salient, 317 “Sacred War” (wartime song), 304,351 Safonov, G. N„ 158 Sanitary-Epidemic Stations (SES), 72 sanitation and sanitary controls, see evacuation, health of population Saratov and Saratov province flight from Labor Reserve schools in, 244-5 theft of food supplies in, 144 scorched earth policy, 17-18,25-6,49,55 second front in Europe, 8,309,327 Soviet attitudes toward, 318-19 Shaklein, I. A., 283-4 Shamberg, M. A., 132,157 Shaposhnikov, B. M., 16 Sharkov, V. L, 120 Shchadenko, E. A., 203,213,216 Sheremetev, A. G., pp. 35-6 Sholokhov, M. A., 314 Shvernik, N. M„ 16,43,54,110,123,131, 160,166,200,203,213,214,215, 216,218,220,233,240 Simonov, K. M., 306,314,316,331-2 Skvortsov, N. A., 225 slave labor in Germany and Japan, 164-5 soap shortage, 81,128,148,149,168,196, 204,219,275,277,292,370 See also, baths and bathhouses social controllers, 159-60 Solov’eva, V V., 210 Soviet for Evacuation, 6,11-13,15,18,20, 21,27-29,51-6,59,60,62,63,64, 65,68,73,76,77,82-5,186,372, 396nn24,25 creation of, 16-17
disbanding of, 53 and evacuation of agriculture, 30-33 and evacuation of civilian population, 39-43 and evacuation of industry, 34-8 soviets and corruption, 145-6 destruction of under German occupation, 340-1 and enforcement of wartime labor laws, 233,247,253,258 and evacuation, 11,13,15,16,17,19,21, 22,23,26,30,39,55,58 and filtration of population in liberated territories, 349,352 and individual house building campaign, 80 and labor mobilization, 4,166,171, 174-5,176,199,200,213,216,219, 220-1,224,228,253,354,358,362, 374,376 and organization of childcare facilities, 305 and organization of collective farm markets, 114,124 and organization of individual and collective gardens, 112 and organization of subsidiary farms, 99,112,411n90 and organizational conflicts over food supplies, 121 and placement of evacuated enterprises, 274 and reception of evacuees, 74, 76 and reconstruction of liberated territories, 107,362 and special parcels for local officials, 135 and wartime propaganda, 325
INDEX Soviet of People’s Commissars, 6,14, 16,17,21,32,34,64,79,80,82, 103,107,109,110,112,123,133, 139,143,156,166,170,171,173, 175,182,200,214,218,224,225, 228,256,270,298,352,363,364, 365,411n90 Soviet Union war losses in, 7-8,377,394n26 Sovnarkom, see Soviet of Peoples Commissars Spanish Civil War political significance ofin USSR, 297 treatment of refugees from, 123-4 Special Construction and Erection Units (OSMCh), 86-8,206,209,406n88, 424nl02 Stakhanovites, 322 and Stakhanovite rations, 103,111, 133,287-8 Stalin, Joseph, 8,13,43,161,184,191, 212,213,308,312,331,335,347, 371,377 and alleged “Doctors’ Plot,” 327 and citizen appeals, 21,22,23,26,85 dissolves Communist International, 447n44 and efficacy of evacuation following German invasion, 15 and evacuation of Moscow, 43,44,47 and knowledge of German atrocities, 311 and need to evacuate Belorussia, 15 and "Not One Step Back” order, 319-20 and prewar plans for evacuation, 14 and retreat from Kiev, 36 speeches and “talking points” of, 297, 299,309-10,314 and USSR’s preparedness for war, 3-6,393n24 and wage egalitarianism (1931), 140 Stalin motor vehicle factory (ZiS), 46,83, 87,218,241 Stalingrad battle of, 10,196-7,198,211,212,2267,317,319,320,322,334-5,336, 347,371,372,375 distribution of food supplies in, 141 evacuation from, 54 491 evacuees in, 64-5 labor turnover in, 227,258,259,436n82 mobilization of workers from, 172,222 reconstruction of, 211 -12,222, 226-7,364 Stalino evacuation of, 35-8 labor desertion in, 435n69 reconstruction of, 213 starvation and malnutrition, 7,100-1,105, 122,195-6,214,263,264-5,272,
273,275,287,371,373 among Central Asian workers, 205,208, 209,226 among evacuees and refugees, 57,58, 62,68-70,123-4 among women, 104 as cause of labor turnover, 291 in Cheliabinsk, 110,129,255,285,288 diagnosis and treatment of, 290 and interaction with tuberculosis, 264-5,284-5 in Leningrad, 117,119-20,290,406n4 mortality from, 285-6,290,443n90 and role of Lend-Lease food aid, 290.291 and supplementary food, 111, 141, 142,161 in Sverdlovsk and Sverdlovsk province, 161,255 wage system as factor in, 288-90, 443Ш05 State Committee for Defense, see GKO State Sanitary Inspectorate (GSI), 72, 264.292 strikes during early five-year plans, 232 in Ivanovo province, 48,50-1,303-4 subsidiary farms, 95,99,105,107,111-13, 123,126,129,131,135,145,159, 161-2,163,190,382table3.1, 408n28,411n90 Supreme Court, 186,220 Sverdlovsk and Sverdlovsk province, 327, 331,336,368 abuses of rationing system in, 131, 137, !40, condition of Central Asian workers in, 205,207,210,
492 INDEX Sverdlovsk and Sverdlovsk province {cont.) deportation of Soviet Germans to, 192 evacuees in, 61,400nl47 flight from Labor Reserve schools in, 244,245 general mortality in, 267 housing conditions in, 80-81,205 infant and child mortality in, 267, 268,272-3 introduction of rationing in, 96-7 labor turnover in, 254-5 milk shortages in, 271,272 mobilization of workers to and from, 170,172,248 placement of evacuated factories in, 83-4,86 population growth in, 76,381table2.1 starvation and hunger in, 119,161,255, 272-3,287,439n21 tuberculosis in, 284 use of prison labor in, 189-90, See also Nizhnii Tagil, Uralmash Tadevosian, V. S., 244 Tadzhikistan, see Central Asian workers Tagillag labor camp, 78,190 tank industry labor turnover in, 254-5 working and living conditions in, 180,182 Tatariia, see Kazan’ teenagers budgets of, 153-5 and evacuation, 32,52,70 and fear of starvation, 291 health of, 284 illegal employment of, 276-7 mobilization of from liberated territories, 213 mobilized for defense installations, 48 murder of by Ukrainian nationalists, 360,361 provisioning of, 103 ration allowances of, 101 as share ofworkforce, 425-6n 117 See also labor mobilization, Labor Reserves, labor turnover Telepnev, B. L, 166 Terror (1935-1939), 5,22,42,43,51,187, 295,301,302,307,325,335,343 textile industry evacuation of, 42,52-3 housing and living conditions in, 184 labor shortage in, 215-16 labor turnover in, 241-2,255 mood of workers in, 48-51,303-4,318 and production targets, 126-7 and shift from civilian to military production, 77-8 wages in, 289-90 working conditions in, 280
See also Ivanovo theft efforts to combat, 155-60 of food and basic consumer goods, 143-8,150 from young workers, 219 Tikhonov, N., 306 Toropov, G„ 257-8 trade between factories and local producers, 80,99,112,116,149 “countertrade,” 149 “hand-to-hand trade,” 150 petty trade, 152 See also Trade under Commissariats; markets transport, see public transportation, railways, river transport Trekhgornaia Manufaktura textile factory, 73-4,120 Treťíakov, A. F„ 269 tuberculosis, see health of population Turkmenistan, see Central Asian workers Tvardovskii, A. T., 337,363 Ufa and Bashkiriia bread shortages in, 107 labor turnover in, 256 milk shortages in, 271 mobilization of workers from, 202, 209,212 population growth in, 76,381table2.1
INDEX State of canteens in, 108 theft and misappropriation of food supplies in, 147 Ukraine deportation of Soviet Germans from, 192, evacuation of, 26,31,38,41,52,56,57, 78,83,373 filtration of citizens in after liberation, 345-6,348 German occupation of, 5,11,309,312, 337,338 labor turnover in, 255-6,258,356-7, 435n69,436n79 liberation of, 212,228,340,378 mobilization of workers in, 359-61, 363-5,367 prewar medical personnel in, 265 reconstruction of, 255,359 reconstitution of Communist Party in, 343 See also evacuation Ukrainian nationalists, see nationalist guerrillas Undasynov, Ñutas, 225 unions All-Union Central Council of Unions (VTsSPS), 16,110, 111, 125,131, 133,140-1,160,166,180,184, Ammunition Workers, 140,288-9 Armament Workers, 81,275 Aviation Workers, 131,134 Cement Workers, 109 Iron and Steel Workers of the East, 131 Public Catering Workers, 117,119, 337,352-4 Shipbuilding Workers, 102,115,122 and attempts to improve workers’ provisioning, 110-11,131,140-1, 155,159 and attempts to improve working and living conditions, 227-8,376 and campaign to clamp down on issue of sick notes, 279-80 and complaints over workers’ low wages, 289 and enforcing law against labor desertion, 251-2 493 and gardening commissions, 112-13 and ration allowances for union officials, 131,137-8,415n25 and search for food substitutes, 117 and starvation of workers, 285-6,288 and verification of former members from liberated territories, 340,367 United States war losses in, 8 Uralmash Factory (Uralmashzavod), 85, 118,183,205,210,368 labor turnover in, 254-5 Urals Tank Factory, Nizhnii
Tagil, 78-9, 191,205,370 Uzbekistan, 68,94 deportation of Crimean Tatars to, 364 evacuation of children to, 56 housing and living conditions of workers in, 179 number of evacuees received by, 59 See also Central Asian workers Vakhrushev, V. V., 37 Vannikov, B. L, 156-7 Victory Day, 229,378 Vlasov, A. A., 325 vocational students, see Labor Reserves voenkomaty, see draft boards Volga Germans, see deportations, Labor Army Volga river, 30,32,35,40,52,54,60,62, 64,65,68, 75,88,89,189,196-7, 215,320, Volin, A. A., 143,148 Voroshilov, K. E„ 43 Voznesenskii, N. A, 16,32,43,233 war losses, 7-8,377,394n26 war narratives in Soviet Union and post-Soviet Russia, 8,378-9 in West, 8 Werth, Alexander, 308,310,314,337 women build defense installations, 45 on collective farms, 178,247 and condition of Leningrad evacuees, 68
494 INDEX women {cont.) depiction of in wartime speeches and propaganda, 316,332, diet and nutrition of, 102-3,289-90 during evacuation and resettlement, 2, 24,44,48,58,61,77 and family law of July 1944,280-1 and filtration of population in liberated territories, 347 and health of women workers, 280-1 initiatives of, 294,322-3,324,353 in Labor Army, 192-3 labor mobilization of, 87,169,170, 171-3,175,194,198,200,201,212, 213,221,356-7,358-9,364 and legacy of war, 377 low wages of, 289-90 lower starvation rates of, 104 mobilization of into army, 171-2 question Allies’ commitment to war, 318 as percentage of labor force, 165,169,198,280,420n25, 425-бпІ 17,441n75 as percentage of Party membership, 341 ration entitlements of, 104 remain in occupied territory to care for dependent family, 342 and reconstruction of Stalingrad, 211-12 unpaid labor of, 179 volunteer for army, 299 volunteer to enter industry, 168-9,305 and wartime labor laws, 241-2,258 and worker protests in Ivanovo, 48-51,303-4 See also mothers workers attitudes of towards illicit redistribution of food supplies, 161,163 budgets of, 152-5,417ПІ02 fitness of for physical labor, 172,174, 203,204,209,224,226,276 industrial accidents and diseases of, 149,174,263,265,274-80 and low wages ofyoung workers, 289 and protests at official abuses of supply system, 128-9,130-1, 136-7,156-7 share rations with dependent family members, 286 theft of factory property by, 148, 151,154 wages of, 126,288-90 and wartime working hours, 167,275 and working conditions ofyoung workers, 182 See also, diet and nutrition, housing and living
conditions Zelenko, G. L, 169,181 Zelenskii, G. N., 166 Zhenotdel, 133 ZhU (trade schools for railways), see Labor Reserves Zlatoust Central Asian workers in, 207 housing conditions in, 81 labor turnover in, 254 mortality in, 283 starvation and malnutrition in, 263,272 Zotov, V. P.,20,30,33 |
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| author | Goldman, Wendy Z. 1956- Filtzer, Donald A. 1948- |
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| spelling | Goldman, Wendy Z. 1956- Verfasser (DE-588)124368352 aut Fortress dark and stern the Soviet home front during World War II Wendy Z. Goldman and Donald Flitzer New York Oxford University Press [2021] © 2021 xx, 494 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme, Karten, Portraits (schwarz-weiß) txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Heimatfront (DE-588)4424738-2 gnd rswk-swf Russlandfeldzug 1941-1945 (DE-588)4076906-9 gnd rswk-swf Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 gnd rswk-swf Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 g Russlandfeldzug 1941-1945 (DE-588)4076906-9 s Heimatfront (DE-588)4424738-2 s DE-604 Filtzer, Donald A. 1948- Verfasser (DE-588)128425873 aut Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, EPUB 978-0-19-061843-8 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032657854&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032657854&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Literaturverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032657854&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Goldman, Wendy Z. 1956- Filtzer, Donald A. 1948- Fortress dark and stern the Soviet home front during World War II Heimatfront (DE-588)4424738-2 gnd Russlandfeldzug 1941-1945 (DE-588)4076906-9 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4424738-2 (DE-588)4076906-9 (DE-588)4077548-3 |
| title | Fortress dark and stern the Soviet home front during World War II |
| title_auth | Fortress dark and stern the Soviet home front during World War II |
| title_exact_search | Fortress dark and stern the Soviet home front during World War II |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Fortress dark and stern the Soviet home front during World War II |
| title_full | Fortress dark and stern the Soviet home front during World War II Wendy Z. Goldman and Donald Flitzer |
| title_fullStr | Fortress dark and stern the Soviet home front during World War II Wendy Z. Goldman and Donald Flitzer |
| title_full_unstemmed | Fortress dark and stern the Soviet home front during World War II Wendy Z. Goldman and Donald Flitzer |
| title_short | Fortress dark and stern |
| title_sort | fortress dark and stern the soviet home front during world war ii |
| title_sub | the Soviet home front during World War II |
| topic | Heimatfront (DE-588)4424738-2 gnd Russlandfeldzug 1941-1945 (DE-588)4076906-9 gnd |
| topic_facet | Heimatfront Russlandfeldzug 1941-1945 Sowjetunion |
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