Replacing the dead: the politics of reproduction in the postwar Soviet Union
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Oxford University Press
[2021]
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| Beschreibung: | xiv, 327 Seiten |
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| adam_text | Contents Acknowledgments Glossary Introduction ix xiii 1 1. The Patronymic of Her Choice: Nikita S. Khrushchev and Postwar Pronatalist Policy 21 2. Abortion Surveillance and Women’s Medicine 56 3. Postwar Marriage and Divorce: The New Single Mother and Her “Fatherless” Children 88 4. Who Is Responsible for Abortions? Demographic Politics and Postwar Studies of Abortion 123 5. Womens Reproductive Right and the 1955 Re-legalization of Abortion 153 6. Beyond Replacing the Dead: Women’s Welfare and the End of the Soviet Union 186 Epilogue: Reviving Pronatalism in Post- Socialist Russia Notes Bibliography Index 216 223 291 313
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Index All organizations are Soviet unless otherwise indicated. For the benefit ofdigital users, indexed terms that span two pages (eg., 52-53) may, on occasion, appear on only one ofthose pages. abortion. See abo clinical abortion; criminal abortion; anti-abortion campaigns birth rate declines and, 19,123,124-25, 127-28,152,174 curettage and, 1, l-2n.3 eugenics and, 57 infertility and, 1-2,66-67,68,69,138, 144,151,166,167,197-98 rates of, 1-2,16,61-62,126-27,160 socialism and, 8,16,187-88,203 Abramova, A, advocacy for increased aid to single mothers by, 117,118-19,162 report ( 1948) on problems faced by out-of-wedlock children and single mothers by, 114,115-19,123,129, 152,194 tax increase on single men proposed by, 118-20 abstinence, 7-8 Academy ofMedical Sciences (AMS), 80-81, 84,199-200 Akhmatova, Anna, 79-80 Akusherstvo і ginekologiia (Obstetrics and Gynecology, journal), 81 Alexievich, Svetlana, 11,21,92-93 All Union Central Council of Trade Unions (VTsSPS) doctors’ criticisms of, 168 interministerial abortion study of 194849 and, 130-31,150-51 orphanages and, 133-34 proposed reforms to abortion law during 1950s and, 153-54,168 re-legalization of abortion (1955) and, 19 All-Union Family Law. See Family Law of 1968 amenorrhea, 66,67-68,128 anti-abortion campaigns, 5,186-87,202, 218,220-21 anti-Semitism, Holocaust, 2,24-25 Doctors’ Plot, 154,155,157, 157Ո.12,158 Purge of Moscow Institute for Gynecology and Obstetrics, 18,81,82n.l 14 Arkhangel’skii, B. A., 56,66-67,69,70,76 artificial insemination, 68-69 Australia, 188-89 babki, 73,176 babushkas (grandmothers), 205-6,
214-15,220 babyboom/ “babyboomlet”, 22,22n.4,123, 123Ո.1,127-28,128Ո.28 Baranskaia, Nataliia, 204-5,206 Bebel, August, 8 Belarus, or Belorussia 16,21,130-31 Bezlepkina, Liudmila, 217 birth control pill, 184,200-2 birth rate. See also pronatalism abortion cited as reason for decline in, 19,123,124-25,127-28,152,174 census of 1959 and, 193 contraception and, 148,203-4 declines during 1960s and 1970s in, 15, 201,214 ethnic differences in, 163 famine of 1946-47 and, 127-29 loss of traditional gender roles blamed for declines in, 210
314 INDEX birth rate (cont.) military strength and, 9 postwar period (1945-55) and, 10,17-18, 19,21-23,25-27,29,32,35,40-41,45, 85-86,123,126-29,162,163 prewar period and, 9 regional differences in, 163 reproductive health and, 58,65,66 Russian Federation and, 217-18, 219-20,222 socialist views of, 7-9,188,203 Stalin’s industrialization campaigns of the 1930s and, 9-10 Ukraine and, 25-27 welfare systems and, 16-17 Western countries and, 188-89,206, 211-12,213 women’s workforce participation and, 16,201,206,222 World War II and, 27,45,63 blat, 58,73,204,204n.90 Bolshevik Party, 4,8,13-14,55. See also socialism Brezhnev, Leonid, 14-15,208 Burova, M.D., 27 Canada, 188-89,197 Catholic Church, 43-44,183,221 Census census of 1939,123-24 census of 1959,163-64,188,193,201 census of 1970,188,201 census of1989,217-18 Central Asia, 2,16,25,163,182-83,190, 208-9,210-11 Central Committee of Communist Party, 169,179-80,181-82,192-93 Central Lenin Institute for Training Doctors survey (1958-9), 198 Central Statistical Administration (TsSU), 27-28,46-47,126-27,163 childcare babushkas and, 205-6,214-15,220 clinical abortions linked to lack of access to, 198 creches and, 13,30,42-43,123,132-33 criminal abortions linked to lack of access to, 132-33,165-66,167 “double burden” and, 175,204, 208,210-11 expectations of Soviet women regarding, 5-6,10,17,22-23,134-35, 151,172,197,205,207,210-11 facilities for, 7,9,13-14,30,42-43,11617,121-22,123,204,207,208,217 Family Law of 1936 and, 7,9,13-14,42-43 Family Law of 1944 and, 10,22-23,30, 38-39,40-41,64-65,121-22,133-34 legal requirements for two-
parent families and, 38 maternity leaves and, 12-13,46,156-57, 187-88,189,208,212,214 Narkomzdrav and, 42 reform campaigns promoting men’s involvement in, 213 Russian Federation and, 217 socialist ideals and, 7,203-4,213-14 Soviet welfare system guarantees regarding, 12-13 Western countries and, 212-13 women’s choice to limit family size linked to lack of access to, 207 women’s workforce participation and, 133,204 child support 24th Party Congress (1971) and, 208 common law marriage and, 10,38,39-40, 101-3,106-8,112,121 Council of Ministers decree (1970) and, 208-9 divorce provisions and, 39,101,110 Family Law of 1926 and, 39-40 Family Law of 1936 and, 7,10,22-23,40 Family Law of 1944 and, 10,19,30, 37-38,39,45-46,51,53-54,86-87, 88-89,90-91,101-3,106-8,109, 114,121,171 Family Law of 1968 and, 193 reform proposals during 1950s and, 190-91 state support for single mothers and, 24,30 viewed as abortion-reduction strategy, 86-87,137 women’s postwar call for increases in, 36-37
INDEX China, 16,54,183-84 Chukovskii, Kornei, 192 clinical abortion. See also legalized abortion in Central Asia, 182-83 China and, 16,54,183-84 conditions encountered during, 186 criteria for allowance of, 76-78,79,85, 87,148-50,151-52,157,164,167-68, 174-75,218-19 doctor consultations prior to, 181,186 doctors’ advocacy for, 18,56-58,59-60, 65,70,74-75,85,137,147-48,15051,175,182 Eastern European socialist regimes and, 16,183,184-85 economic problems cited as reason for, 136,150,174-75 expectant mothers health cited as reason for, 150,167-68,173-74,221 Family Law of 1936 outlawing, 3-4,7 favoritism and nepotism in access to, 83 fees for, 149,151-52,167 housing problems linked to, 198 increase following legalization (1955) of, 186-87 infertility and, 197-98 Japan and, 4-5,57,85-86 lack of childcare cited as reason for, 198 long-term side effects from, 197-98 out-of-wedlock relationship with father cited as reason for, 136 presence of other small children cited as reason for, 136,167-68,172-73 rape cited as a reason for, 177,221 rates of, 20,60,74,150,186-87,199 reforms during 1950s designed to expand access to, 148-51,153-55, 157,165,168-69,174-77,179 relationship problems cited as reason for, 149,172,173,198 Russian Federation and, 20,216-17, 218-19,220-21 subterfuge used to obtain, 58,73,85 surveillance by the Soviet state and, 14-15,18,57-61,69-73,74,75-76, 78-79,81,85,87 Ukraine and, 33,64,75 315 vacuum aspirations (“mini abortions”) and, 202-3 viability of infant cited as reason for, 167-68 waiting periods as obstacle to, 181,218-19 in Western countries, 197,212-13
women’s rights and, 1,4-5,56,153,155, 175-76,177 Cold War, 5,79-84,124 collective farm, 138-39,162,190 Commissariat of Social Security, 13 Committee on the Question of Women’s Labor and Improvement of the Protection of Motherhood and Childhood (1948), 119-20 common-law marriage. See also out-of-wedlock births child support and, 10,38,39-40,101-3, 106-8,112,121 divorce and, 112,197 Family Law of 1926 and, 9,39-40 Family Law of 1944 and, 40,101-3, 106-8,112,121 prewar registration system and, 38 psychological disadvantages for women and children of, 19 war widow pensions and, 104-5,108 Constitution of the Soviet Union (1936), 12-13 contraception birth control pill and, 184,200-2 birth rate and, 148,203-4 China and, 54,183-84 doctors’ advocacy for improved access to, 19,70,137,148,174-75,187 effectiveness and safety of, 200-1 Family Law of 1936 and, 9 Family Law of 1944 and, 32-33 Kovrigina’s advocacy for, 178 limited availability in Eastern Europe of, 16 limited availability in Soviet Union of, 1-2,16,17,58-59,60,61-62, 121,150,179,187-88,197,200, 201-3,214-15 Malthus and, 7 pronatalism and suppression of, 148
316 INDEX contraception (cont.) reproductive health and, 20,199 Russian Federation and, 216-17,218 sex education and, 199 socialism and, 8-9,203 viewed as means of reducing criminal abortion, 20,145,151-52,182, 197-98,200,202-3 in Western countries, 212-13 womens rights and, 20,197 Council of Ministers (Sovmin) abortion law reform proposals in 1950s and, 157,165,168-69,174,179 child support decree (1970) by, 208-9 divorce reform proposals and, 169-70 Family Law of 1968 and, 193 interministerial abortion study of 1948-49 and, 130,150-51 Council of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 74 Council of Unions and the Council of Nationalities of the Supreme Soviet, 192-93 Court of Honor, 80,80n.l06,81 criminal abortion childcare access cited as reason for, 132-33,165-66,167 contraception viewed as means of reducing, 20,145,151-52,182, 197-98,200,202-3 criteria for exceptions to, 76-78,79,85, 87.148-50,151-52,157,164,167 deaths resulting from, 3,56,62,141, 151,166,167,174,181,187 divorce cited as a reason for, 137,139 doctor-patient trust viewed as means of reducing, 145-47 economic conditions cited as reason for, 77,85-86,132,134-37,139-40,151, 164-65,167 Family Law of 1936 and, 7,9,13-14,33, 58.59.60.63.148-49,151-52,154, 160,164,165-66,176 Family Law of 1944 and, 14,22,23, 30-31,32-33,36,45-46,51 famine of 1946-47 and, 128,129 housing problems cited as reason for, 134-36,151,156-57,165 infertility following, 1-2,144,150,151, 166,167,199 late-term abortions and, 141 married women and, 151 medical problems resulting from, 3,64, 70,73,138-39 out-of-wedlock relationship with father cited as
reason for, 139-40,144 presence of other small children cited as reason for, 134-35,138-40,143, 165.167 prosecutions for, 59,60,62-63,71-73, 130-31,137-45,157,180-81 punishments for, 59,142,143,156-57 rates of, 116-17,130,131,150,164,166, 187,199 relationship problems cited as reason for, 134-35,137,138,139-41,144֊ 45.151.167 reproductive health harmed by, 58-59, 166,174,175,176-77 Ukraine and, 63,130-31 urban versus rural areas and, 138-39,199 women soldiers in World War II and, 12 working conditions cited as reason for, 135-36,147,156-57 World War II and, 61-64,126 Cuba, 16 Day of Family, 220-21 demographic policy in the Soviet Union. See also specific laws 24th Party Congress (1971) and, 208 25th Party Congress (1976) and, 201 educational campaign stressing traditional gender roles (1980s) and, 210 ethnic groups’ fertility rates and, 203-4,208-10 familialism, 212-14 preferential policies for specific regions and, 209-10 research on women’s choices to limit family size and, 206-8 self-censorship and, 6,124 socialist ideals and, 203 Stalin’s purge of demographers, 15,123-25 Deng Xiaoping, 183-84 Deng Yingchao, 183-84
INDEX Denmark, 197 de-Stalłnization, 154,178,183,187 divorce children’s interests and, 99,100 child support and, 39,101,110 common-law marriages and, 112,197 criminal abortion linked to, 137,139 Family Law of 1918 and, 9 Family Law of 1926 and, 9 Family Law of 1936 and, 7,10,39-40 Family Law of 1944 and, 18-19,22,29, 30-31,39,46,49,50-51,90-91,94101,105-6,108-12,121,154,156, 161-63,169,172,191 Family Law of 1968 and, 193,196-97 fees and, 39,49 infertility and sexual dysfunction cited as reason for, 97-99 infidelity and, 95-98 loss of traditional gender roles blamed for increased rates of, 210 men as more frequent initiators of, 95-97,99 people’s courts and, 108-10 postwar increase in, 12,113 pronatalism and, 98-99 publication of announcements of, 111 -12 restoration of prewar families and, 111 rural marriages and, 50-51 “second families” as reason for, 97 Ukase of 1965 simplifies, 46,193,196, 244Ո.119,278Ո.44 Western countries and, 188-89 World War II and, 88 Dmitrieva, A.I., 4-5,85-86,153,176-77 doctors advocacy for clinical abortion among, 18,56-58,59-60,65,70,74-75,85, 137,147-48,150-51,175,182 advocacy for contraception by, 19,70, 137,148,174-75,187 “Doctors Ploť’ (1953) and, 19,154,157-58 Jewish doctors and, 18,84,154 KR Affair (1947), 58,79-81 punishment for performing criminal abortions and, 142-43,156-57 reproductive health prioritized by, 56, 58,64-66,71,73-75 317 Soviet state’s disciplining of, 18,58, 79-87,154 surveillance system for clinical abortions and, 6,59-63,69,74,75-76, 78-79,81,85,87 World War II and, 6,61-63 “double burden,” 175,204,208,210-11 East
Germany, 56-57,184-85,200 Engels, Friedrich, 7-8,184 Erenburg, Ilia, 11,12,24,191-92 Estonia, 16 Estrin, A.L., 56,71-72,76-77,83 Eugenic Protection Law (Japan), 57 familialism, 212-14 Family Law of 1918,9,22-23,39-40,54 Family Law of 1926,9,39-40 Family Law of 1936 abortion criminalized under, 7,9,13-14, 33,58,59,60,63,148-49,151-52, 154,160,164,165-66,176 childcare facilities expanded through, 7, 9,13-14,42-43 child support provisions in, 7,10, 22-23,40 contraceptive access limited under, 9 divorce restricted under, 7,10,39-40 marriage and, 10,40 pronatalism and, 9-10,176 Stalin and, 3-4,22-23,164 state aid to mothers and, 9-10,13-14, 27-28,49 Family Law of 1944 abortion criminalized under, 14,22,23, 30-31,32-33,36,45-46,51 childcare and, 10,22-23,30,38-39,40-41, 64-65,121-22,133-34 child support and, 10,19,30,37-38,39, 45-46,51,53-54,86-87,88-89,9091,101-3,106-8,109,114,121,171 Committee on the Question of Women’s Labor and Improvement of the Protection of Motherhood and Childhood and, 119-20 common-law marriage, 40,101-3, 106-8,112,121 contraception and, 32-33
318 INDEX Family Law of 1944 (cont.) divorce and, 18-19,22,29,30-31,39, 46,49,50-51,90-91,94-101,105-6, 108-12,121,154,156,161-63,169, 172,191 infanticide penalties in, 32-34, 36,46,51 Khrushchev and, 18,21-22,23,28-36, 40,42,43-44,45-46,47-51,53-54, 105-6,122,126-27,154,164,171, 220-21,222 legal distinctions between one-parent and two-parent families in, 38-39, 44,90-91 marriage and, 12,18-19,29,30,34,39, 40-41,91,94-95,101,103-4,105-6, 108,161-63 maternity leave and, 46 Motherhood Glory order established by, 2-3,47-48,51-52,54 Motherhood Heroine title established by, 2-3,47-51,54 Motherhood Medal established by, 2-3, 51-52,53r, 54 Narkomzdrav and, 45-46,47,49,51,65 out-of-wedlock births and, 17-18, 22-23,24,29,30,34,36-42,43-44, 45-46,52-53,86,88-89,105-6, 107-8,109,114-19,122,154,155, 158-60,161,162,191 patronymic provisions in, 30,38,41, 54,115 People’s Commissariat of Justice’s role in implementing, 105-13 pronatalism ideology and, 2-3,10, 13-14,17-18,22-24,28-36,51, 52-54,77-78,105-7,122,162, 164,196 registration of children of unmarried mothers’ surnames under, 8889,100-1,115,117-18,158, 159-60,169 rest homes for single mothers and, 43 single mothers’ right to leave children at orphanages and, 37,90,133-34 small family taxes and, 30-31,34-35, 36,44,48,49-51,531,143,171, 189,191 Stalin and, 47,49 state aid for pregnant women and, 2, 28-30,42,45,51-52,78-79 state aid to mothers oflarge families and, 42,49,531,54 state support for mothers and, 2-3, 10,22,24,28-42,45,51-54,90, 96-97,114,118-19,121-22,156, 159,162-63 state support for rural mothers and, 47, 49,51,52
Family Law of 1968 child support and, 193 cohabitation and, 196 debate among Communist Party leaders preceding, 191-93 divorce and, 193,196-97 out-of-wedlock births and, 20, 187-88,193-96 public discussion of, 193-94 registration of children’s names under, 195 family planning programs, 20, 216-17,218 famine (1946-47), 124-25,127-29 fatherless children. See . out-of-wedlock births feminist, 4-5,200-1,212,217 fertility. See birth rate; infertility Finland, 4-5,197 France, 89-90,188-89,197 free love, 8,55 Gausner, Zh., 120 Germany. See East Germany; Nazi Germany; West Germany Gorbachev, Mikhail, 15,211-12 Gorshenin, K. R, 143,157,167,169 Gosplan (State Planning Committee), 21-22 Gozulov, A. L, 124 Great Britain. See United Kingdom Great Leap Forward (China), 183-84 Great Patriotic War. See World War II (Great Patriotic War) Great Terror/Great Purge, 2n.8,6, 9-10Ո.50,14,26,8ІП.109, 123-24,123-24Ո.4,166
INDEX Holocaust, 2,24-25 Holodomor, 25ո.16 Home Again (Gausner), 120 Honecker, Erich, 184 household work babushkas (grandmothers), 205-6, 214-15,220 gender ideologies and, 211-12 household appliances and, 208,212-13 men’s refusal to participate in, 205, 207,210 reform campaigns promoting men’s involvement in, 213 socialist ideals regarding, 7,204,214 Western countries and, 212 housing clinical abortion linked to problems with, 198 criminal abortion linked to problems with, 134-36,151,156-57,165 interministerial report of 1948-49 and, 131 reform and, 13n.80 single mothers and, 116-17,123 Soviet shortages in, 17 Soviet welfare system guarantees regarding, 12-13 women’s choice to limit family size linked to, 207 World War II and, 67 Hungary, 16,183,191-92 Huxley, Julian, 124-25 illegal abortion. See criminal abortion illegitimate/illegitimacy, see also outof-wedlock births, 41-42,43-44, 85-86,89,90-91,115,115-16n.97, 122n.119.158,160 infanticide, 32-34,36,43,46,51 infantilism, 66,67 infant mortality rates, 45,66,129 infertility abortion and, 1-2,66-67,68,69,138, 144,151,166,167,197-98 artificial insemination and, 68-69 clinical abortion and, 197-98 criminal abortion and, 1-2,144,150, 151,166,167,199 319 divorce and, 97-99 men and, 66-67,68-69,98 prophylactic measures designed to limit, 75 venereal disease and, 67,68,69 World War II and, 65,66-68 Institute for Obstetrics and Gynecology of the Academy ofMedical Science, 199-200 Institute of Demography (Ukraine), 26 Ireland, 43-44 Italy, 212,221 Iurkevich, N.G., 213 Japan “baby boomlet” after World War II and, 22,85-86 clinical
abortion in, 4-5,57,85-86 decolonization and, 22 Eugenic Protection Law and, 57 female participation in the workforce and, 188-89 Manchuria during World War II and, 57 pronatalism during World War II in, 125 US occupation after World War II and, 57 Jews, see anti-semitism Juviler,Peter,21-22n.3,158n.l3,192-93n,29, 192-93Ո.30 Kaganovich, Lazar, 180n.82,180 Kazakhstan, 16,138,139-40,182-83 Kharchev, A.G., 204 Khrushchev, Nikita 20th Party Congress (1956), 16 anti-alcohol campaign during 1950s and, 190-91 childless taxes (1941) and, 22,26,34, 114,170 Family Law of 1944 and, 21-22,23, 28-36,40,42,43-44,45-46,47-51, 53-54,105-6,122,126-27,154,164, 171,220-21,222 famine of 1946-47 and, 128-29 “kitchen debate” (1959) and, 204 as leader of the Soviet Union, 187
320 INDEX Khrushchev, Nikita (cont.) limited scope of family law reforms under, 14-15,154 ouster (1964) of, 14-15,193 out-of-wedlock births promoted by, 3, 24,36-37,159-60 pronatalism and, 5,21-24,25-27, 28-36,43-44,52-53,105-6,170, 172-73,193 Ptukha and, 26-27 small family taxes and, 35,50-51 Stalin denounced by, 16 on Starovskii, 163 state aid for mothers and, 28-29,31 -32, 37,222 state aid for pregnancy and, 28-29 tax reform during 1950s and, 189,191 Ukraine and, 17-18,21-22,24-27 Virgin Lands and, 170 World War II and, 21,22,25-26 “kitchen debate” (1959), 204 Kliachko, M.M., 71-72,144 Kliueva, Nina G., 58,79-80 kolkhoz, see collective farm Kollontai, Alexandra, 8,22-23,55 Komissarova, T.A., 82 Komsomol, 52n.l52,170 Konstantinov, V.I., 165-68,176,177 Kovrigina, Mariia D. Central Committee of Communist Party position of, 81 Committee on the Question of Women’s Labor and Improvement of the Protection of Motherhood and Childhood and, 119 contraceptive access advocated by, 178 criteria for exceptions to criminal abortion and, 79 Doctors’ Plot (1953) and, 157 Family Law of 1944 and, 45 on importance of increasing birth rate in postwar Soviet Union, 78 on infertility caused by abortions, 144 interministerial study of abortion (1948-49) and, 125,130,137 legalization of abortion (1955) and, 4,153-55,164,167,174-75, 177-81,186 on men’s responsibility for abortion, 123,143,144,152,157 as minister of health, 126 Ministry of Health’s history of Soviet abortion policy and, 165-66 purge of Moscow Institute for Gynecology and Obstetrics and, 81-84 Social-Legal Consultation Office and,
147 Soviet state disciplining of doctors and, 18,79-87,154 on subterfuge to obtain clinical abortions, 58 surveillance system for clinical abortions and, 69,76,78 woman’s right to abortion and, 1,4,153, 155,177 KR Affair (1947), 58,79-81 Latvia, 16,191 legalized abortion. See also clinical abortion advocates during early 1950s for, 174-81 cancellation of women’s criminal responsibility (1954), 14,144-45, 164,171-72,175 initial era (1920-1936) of, 3-4,9,166, 176,179 re-establishment (1955) of, 3-5,14, 15-16,19,180-81 Lenin, Vladimir L, 8 Leningrad, 74 Leningrad Institute for Gynecology and Obstetrics, 84 Lithuania, 130-31 LiuShaoqi, 183-84 Malenkov, G.M.,68,155-56, 160-61,171-72 Malinovskú, M.S., 65,67,81-84 Malthus, Thomas/anti-Malthusian, 7-8 Mao Zedong, 183-84 marriage. See also common-law marriage Family Law of 1918 and, 9 Family Law of 1926 and, 9,39-40 Family Law of 1936 and, 10,40
INDEX Family Law of 1944 and, 12,18-19,29, 30,34,39,40-41,91,94-95,101, 103-4,105-6,108,161-63 Soviet womens desire for, 5-6,18-19 Marx, Karl, 7-8 maternity leave Constitution of 1936 and, 12-13 extensions during 1970s and 80s of, 187-88,208,214 Family Law of 1944 and, 46 reform proposals during 1950s and, 156-57,189 Western countries and, 212 Matsepanova, O.D., 78-79 Medvedev, Dmitrii, 219 Medvedeva, Svetlana, 220-21 Merkov, A.M., 45 Mikhailov, V.P., 67-68,83,176-77 Mikoyan, Anastas, 180,208-9 Mikoyan commission (1950s), 208-9 military of the Soviet Union. See also World War II (Great Patriotic War) birth rates and the long-term strength of, 9 rapes during World War II by members of, 56-57 romantic relationships during World War II and, 10-12,61-62,91-94, 96-97,121 Soviet victories over Nazi Germany and, 27 taxes on members of, 35,50 women enlisted in, 2,11-12,61-62, 92-94,121 Ministry of Health (MZ), see also People’s Commissariat of Health for events prior to 1946 clinical abortion’s legalization (1955) and, 180-81 Committee on the Question ofWomen’s Labor and Improvement of the Protection of Motherhood and Childhood and, 119-20 Court of Honor at, 80-81 Doctors’ Plot (1953) and, 157 history of Soviet abortion policy reviewed (1955) by, 165-67 321 interministerial study of abortion (1948-49) and, 125-26,130-31, 135-36,137,150-51,152 Kliueva and Roskin trial at, 80-81 Moscow Institute and, 84 orphanage study by, 117,134 prophylactic approach to public health emphasized during 1950s by, 145,150-52 proposed reforms to abortion law during 1950s and, 153-55, 168,174-77
proposed reforms to improve women’s socioeconomic conditions and, 155-57,189 Ministry of Justice (MIu), See also People’s Commissariat of Justice for events prior to 1946 abortion surveillance system and, 129,130 divorce reforms advocated by, 169 interministerial study of abortion (1948-49) and, 125-26, 130-31,150-51 proposed reforms to abortion law during 1950s and, 153-55,164,168 proposed reforms to improve women’s socioeconomic conditions and, 155-56 prosecutions for criminal abortion and, 137-45 reforms to aid out-of-wedlock children and, 191 reforms to Family Law of 1944 and, 150-51 re-legalization of abortion (1955) and, 19 Ministry of Social Welfare, 157 miscarriages clinical abortions and later incidents of, 197-98 famine of 1946-47 and, 128 induced miscarriages and, 63,140 infantilism and, 67 medical problems following, 73 prophylactic measures designed to limit, 75 World War II and, 65,67
322 INDEX Miterev, Georgil, 28,45,66,75-76,79-80 Molotov, Vyacheslav, 27-28,51,109,172 Mongolia, 16 morning-after pill, 221 Moscow Does not Believe in Tears (film), 55 Moscow Institute for Gynecology and Obstetrics (MIGO), 58,81-84,147 Mother Heroine title, 2-3,16,47-51, 54,208-9 motherhood capital law (Russia, 2006), 219-20 Motherhood Glory order, 47-48,51-52, 54,208-9 Motherhood Medal, 2-3,51-52,53r, 54,208-9 The Mother’s Notebook (Pamiatka Materi), 172 Muslim women in the Soviet Union, 15-16,182-83 Narkomfin, see Peoples Commissariat of Finance Narkomiust, see People’s Commissariat of Justice Narkomzdrav, see People’s Commissariat of Health “Nastia” (Ketlinskaia), 94-95 Nazi Germany. See also World War II (Great Patriotic War) abortion and, 33 forced labor and, 33 France occupied by, 89-90 Soviet military victory over, 27 Soviet territories occupied by, 2,12,21, 24,25-26,31,33,96-97 Nikolaev, A.P., 67,70-71,76,84 Nixon, Richard, 204 NKVD, see People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs non-clinical abortion. See criminal abortion Norway, 197 Once, Twenty Years Later (film), 209 oral contraception, 155,200-2 Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), 25 orphanages (dom rebenka and detskii dom) health conditions of children at, 117, 121-22,134 increased postwar population in, 133 Ministry of Health study of, 117,134 single mothers’ right to leave children at, 37,90,133-34 taxes supporting, 22,26,34-35 in Ukraine, 34-35 World War II and, 24-25,26 Orthodox Church, 218-19,220-21 out-of-wedlock births. See also child support Committee on the Question of Women’s Labor and
Improvement of the Protection of Motherhood and Childhood and, 119-20 criminal abortion linked to, 139-40,144 decline following re-legalization of abortion (1955) in, 181 definition of, 89 Family Law of 1918 and, 54 Family Law of 1944 and, 17-18,22-23, 24,29,30,34,36-42,43-44,45-46, 52-53,86,88-89,105-6,107-8,109, 114-19,122,154,155,158-60,161, 162,191 Family Law of 1968 and, 20, 187-88,193-96 Khrushchev’s promotion of, 3,24, 36-37,159-60 physical challenges faced by children of, 117 pronatalist policy encouraging, 3,5-6 psychological disadvantages for women and children of, 19,106,114-18, 119-20,122,144,158,159-60,195 registration of, 106,107-8 rural regions and, 163 Russian Federation and, 220 Soviet rates (1945-54) of, 3 state aid proposals regarding, 191 statistics regarding extent of, 90, 115-16,122 “Parental Glory” order (2008), 219 Parin, V.V., 79-80
INDEX Party Congress 20th Party Congress (1956), 16,183,189 24th Party Congress (1971), 208 25th Party Congress (1976), 201,208 Party Control Commission (KPK), 114 patronymic Committee on the Question of Women’s Labor and Improvement of the Protection of Motherhood and Childhood and, 119-20 cultural representations of, 55 Family Law of 1944 and, 30,38,41, 54,115 Family Law of 1968,195 incestual relationships prevented by, 115 registered marriages and, 38 pension reform, 13n.80 People’s Commissariat of Finance, (Narkomfin or NKFin), 28,47 People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs (NKVD), 25 People’s Commissariat of Justice (Narkomiust, NKIu) child support cases and, 101-3 criminal prosecutions of abortion and, 59,130-31 divorce procedures and, 100,108-10 Family Law of 1944 implemented by, 105-13 surveillance system for clinical abortions and, 75-76 Peoples Commissariat of Health, (Narkomzdrav or NKZ) abortion climes and, 64 childcare facilities and, 42 criminal prosecutions of abortion and, 59,62,63 Family Law of 1944 and, 45-46,47, 49,51,65 First Joint Plenum ( 1944), 62,86 maternity leave and, 46 pronatalism and, 27-28 Second Plenum for the Council of Obstetrics and Gynecology (1945), 68 state aid to mothers and, 28 state aid to pregnant women and, 28 323 surveillance system for clinical abortions and, 76 working conditions for pregnant women and, 46 People’s court, 28-29,49,102,105-6, 108-9,110,139,141-42,193 Poland, 24-25,183,184,221 Popova, N.V., 167,180 premature births clinical abortions and later incidents of, 197-98 infantilism and, 67 late-term abortion attempts
and, 140-41 prophylactic measures designed to limit, 75 state aid to pregnant women as means of reducing, 28 World War II and, 28,65,67,74 pronatalism. See also birth rate Brezhnev era and, 203-15 China and, 16,183-84 Cold War and, 5 contraceptives suppressed under, 148 definition of, 9-10Ո.50 divorce and, 98-99 Family Law of 1936 and, 7,9-10,176 Family Law of 1944 and, 2-3,10, 13-14,17-18,22-24,28-36,51, 52-54,77-78,105-7,122,162, 164,196 Khrushchev and, 5,21-24,25-27, 28-36,43-44,52-53,105-6,170, 172-73,193 postwar period and, 17-18 prewar period and, 9-10,61 Putin and, 20,216,218-19,220-21,222 Russian Federation and, 20,216,218-19, 220-21,222 Ukraine and, 17-18,21-22 World War II mass casualties as reason for, 2-3 prosecutor/state prosecutor abortion statistics and 33-34Ո.69,59n.ll abortion studies of the late 1940s and 1950 and, 129,130, ІЗОп.36, 141-42,145
324 INDEX prosecutor/state prosecutor (cont.) criminalized abortion (1936) and, 59, 60,62,63 Family Law of 1944 and, 51 Legalization of abortion (1955) and, 19,155,164 Postwar abortion surveillance and, 71-73,75-76, 79,84 Reform of criminalized abortion and, 150-51,153-54 Ptukha, Mikhail V., 26-27 Putin, Vladimir Orthodox Church, 218-19 pronatalism and, 20,216,218-19, 220-21,222 restriction on clinical abortion and, 218-19,220-21 state aid for mothers and, 219-20,222 rape anti-abortion campaign in post socialist Poland and, 221 as a ground for legal abortion, 77,177 of German women, 56-57 of Japanese women, 57 Red Army. See military of the Soviet Union reproductive health. See also infertility amenorrhea and, 66,67-68,128 birth rate and, 58,65,66 contraception viewed as means of improving, 20,199 criminalization of abortion’s impact on, 58-59,166,174,175,176-77 doctors’ prioritization of, 56,58,64-66, 71,73-75 infantilism and, 66,67 infant mortality rates and, 45,66,129 prophylactic approach to, 69,74,75, 145,150-52,180 socialist approach to, 182-85,187-88 World War II and, 25-26,64-65 Romania, 16,183 Roskin, Grigoril L, 58,79-80 Russian Federation (post 1991) abortion rates in, 16 birth rate in, 217-18,219-20,222 childcare in, 217 clinical abortion in, 20,216-17, 218-19,220-21 contraception and, 216-17,218 family planning programs and, 216-17,218 household work and, 217 market economy and, 216-17 out-of-wedlock births and, 220 population demographics in, 217-18 pronatalism and, 20,216,218-19, 220-21,222 sex education and, 20 state aid for mothers and, 219-20 women’s
workforce participation and, 217 Rychkov, N. M„ 107-8,111,113 Sadvokasova, E.A., 207 Sakevich, Viktoriia, 216-17 Scandinavian countries, 212-13,221 Scientific Research Institute for Physiology and Pathology of Women, 199-200 Semashko, N. A., 77 Serebrovskaia, Elena on out-of-wedlock children, 155, 158-60,191 reform efforts regarding Family Law of 1944 and, 19,154,155,169, 171-72,193 sex education, 20,199,218 sexually transmitted diseases. See venereal disease Shostakovich, Dmitrii, 191-92,194 Simonov, Konstantin, 10 single mothers, see aho unmarried mothers abortion and, 85,86,136,138,143-44, 150-51,156,165 Abramova’s report on, 115-20, 121-22Ո.105,129 access to government aid and, 121-22 childcare and, 132-34,132-33n.51 Family Law of 1944 and, 2-3,38-39, 51-54,55Ո.161,90,91,114 Family Law reform campaign (1954) and, 155,158,159-60 Family Law reform campaign (1956), 195
INDEX Family Law of 1968 and, 196,197 Khrushchev’s proposal and, 24,30,34-35, 37,38,41-42,43-44 letters written to Khrushchev by, 171 Narkomfin and, 47 NKZ and, 45 post-socialist and, 217n.ll, 220 pronaialism in the 1970s and 1980s and, 208-9 reduction in government aid (1947) and, 53-54,90,121-22 Reform proposals of Family Law of 1944 and, 156-57,158,191 Revision of Khrushchev’s draft proposal and, 47Ո.126,48,49,50 Tax reform of the 1950s and, 189 TsSU and, 46,122,161,162-63 Variety of paths to, 121 Slavic women in the Soviet Union, 188, 190,193,203-4 Smirnov, Efim L, 79-80,81-82,157 Smith, Walter Bedell, 79-80 socialism. See also Bolshevik Party abortion and, 8,16,187-88,203 birth rate and, 7-9,188,203 childcare and, 7,203-4,213-14 contraception and, 8-9,203 Eastern European regimes and, 16 free love and, 8 gender equality ideals and, 7,9, 13,214-15 household work and, 7,204,214 Malthusianism and, 7-8 reproductive health and, 182-85,187-88 welfare system and, 12-13 women’s workforce participation and, 13,213 social-legal consultation office, 147-48 Spain, 212,221 Speranskii, G.N., 191-92,194 spravka (informational note), 18,28-44, ՅՕո.49,34Ո.75,50,51,52 Stalin, Լ V. census of 1939 and, 123-24 childless tax (1941) and, 22,26,34,170 classification of demographic data as state secret by, 124-25 325 clinical abortion criminalized (1936) by, 3-4 collectivization of agricultural sector under, 9-10 death of, 14,16,19,87,152,154,155, 158,169 de-Stalinization and, 154,178,183,187 Doctors’ Plot under, 154,155,157-58 Family Law of 1936 and, 3-4,9, 22-23,164 Family Law of 1944 and,
47,49 famine of 1946-47 and, 124-25,128-29 intelligentsia targeted by, 79-80 Khrushchev’s denunciation of, 16 purges of demographers under 15,123-24 purges of Moscow Institute for Gynecology and Obstetrics under, 18, 81,82Ո.114 pronatalism and, 52 welfare system of the Soviet Union and, 12-13 Starovskii, V.N. birth rate and abortion linked by, 19, 123,124-25,127-28,152 census of 1939 and, 123-24 census of 1959 and, 163-64,188 on Family Law of 1944 and divorce, 154 famine of 1946-47 and, 124-25,127-29 interministerial abortion study of 1948-49 and, 19 Khrushchev and, 163 On the Increase of Registered Marriages” report (1954) by, 160-64 on out-of-wedlock births, 46-47,154, 161,162 on postwar birth decline, 123 postwar birth rate projections by, 46-47, 126,193 self-censorship practiced by, 124-25,128-29 state aid for mothers Committee on the Question of Women’s Labor and Improvement of the Protection of Motherhood and Childhood and, 119 reduction (1947) in, 53-54,90,121-22
326 INDEX state aid for mothers (cont.) Family Law of 1936 and, 9-10,13-14, 27-28,49 Family Law of 1944 and, 10,22,24, 28-30,31-32,34,37-38,118-19, 156,159,162-63 Khrushchev and, 24,28-29,31 -32, 37,222 Stepmother (film), 55 stillbirths, 67,141 Strumilin, S.G. 124n.7 Sweden, 4-5,188-89,197 Tadzhikistan, 130-31 taxes Abramova’s proposal regarding single men and, 118-20 childless tax (1941) and, 22,26,31, 34-35,114,118-19,170 Khrushchev’s reforms regarding, 189,191 single mothers’ payment of, 118, 143,189 small family taxes and, 30-31,34-35, 36,44,48,49-51,53Ѓ, 143,171, 189,191 vodka excise taxes and, 190-91 Thaw, 154,154n.l, 154n.2,155,178 TsSU, see Central Statistical Administration Ukraine abortion rates in, 16,33 birth rates in, 25-27 clinical abortions in, 33,64,75 collectivization and famine during 1930s in, 26 criminal abortions in, 63,130-31 divorce in, 95,97-98,109-10 famine of 1946-47 and, 129 Holocaust and, 24-25 Holodomor, 24n.l6 independence movement during World War II in, 25-26 infanticide in, 33-34 Khrushchev and, 17-18,21-22,24-27 Nazi occupation of, 12,21,24-25,33,63 orphanages in, 34-35 population demographics in, 25-27 pronatalism and, 17-18,21-22 World War II casualty levels in, 24-25,27 Umniagina, Tamara S., 11,92 underground abortion. See criminal abortion United Kingdom, 4-5,165-66, 188-89,197 United Nations, 16,124-25 Fourth World Conference on Women (1995) sponsored by, 217 United States “babyboom” during postwar era in, 22 birth control pill in, 200-1 clinical abortion in, 4-5,197 divorce rate in, 196-97 Japanese occupation after World War II and,
57 population control and attitudes toward African Americans in, 125 women’s rights movement and, 4-5 women’s workforce participation and, 188-89 unmarried mothers, see aho single mothers childcare and, 133 Family Law of 1918 and, 9 Family Law of 1944 and, 17-18,19,54, 89-90,122 Khrushchev’s proposal and, 37,38,41-42, 43,53-54 The number of, 122 Party investigation of, 6-7 Tax reform of the 1950s and, 190,191 TsSU and, 46-47 women’s avoidance of, 6,89 Urlanis, Boris Ts., 205-6 US Agency for International Development (USAID), 216-17 Uzbekistan, 98,182-83 Vaksberg, Arkadii E., 192 venereal disease, 57-58,67,68,69,97-99 Vietnam, 16 Virgin Lands, 170 Voroshilov, K.E., 159-60,171-72 Voznesenskii, N.A., 27
INDEX war widow pensions, 103-5,108 A Week Like Any Other Week” (Baranskaia), 204-6 welfare state, 12-13,12-13n.76,16-17, 211-12,212Ո.126,214-15 West Germany, 56-57,184-85,188-89, 197,212 Womens Department (Zhenotdel), 13-14 women’s rights, language of, 175 the 1920 legalization of abortion and, 4 the 1955 legalization of abortion and, 4, 5,5n.22,174,178-79,181-82 outside the USSR, 4-5,4֊5n.21, 188-89,206 woman’s right vs, 4-5,175 women’s workforce participation birth rates and, 16,201,206,222 childcare and, 133,204 “double burden” and, 5-6,175,204, 208,210-11 Gorbachev and, 15 during industrialization drives of 1930s, 9 Russian Federation and, 217 socialist ideals and, 13,213 Soviet Union in comparative international perspective and, 17 welfare system and, 16-17 Western countries and, 188-89, 206,212-13 World Health Organization, 200 World War II (Great Patriotic War) abortions during, 33,56,61-64,74 birth rate during, 27,45,63 327 casualty levels in, 2,22,24-25,124 divorce and, 88 doctors and, 61-63 family separations and, 2,10-11,22,56, 88,94-95,97,100-2,106, 111, 121 Holocaust and, 2,24-25 mass mobilization for, 2 Nazi occupation of Soviet territories during, 12,21,24-25,33,63 orphanages and, 24-25,26 population loss and gender imbalances following, 2,5-6,20,21,22,24-27, 31, 32,44,52-53,88,91,116,120-21, 164,171 premature births and, 28,65,67,74 prostitution during, 12 rapes during, 56-57 reproductive health and, 25-26,64-65 wartime relationships and, 10-12,6162,91-94,96-97,121 war widow pensions and, 103-5 women soldiers in, 2,11-12,61-62, 92-94,121 Yeltsin, Boris,
216-17 Young Communist League, see Komsomol. ZAGS (The office of marriages, births, and deaths), 39,41,49,108,115-16,169 zhdanovshchina (Zhdanovism), 79-80 Zhenotdel (Women’s Department in Bolshevik Party), 13-14 Zhiromskaia, V.B., 113 Zoshchenko, Mikhail, 79-80 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek՛ München
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Contents Acknowledgments Glossary Introduction ix xiii 1 1. The Patronymic of Her Choice: Nikita S. Khrushchev and Postwar Pronatalist Policy 21 2. Abortion Surveillance and Women’s Medicine 56 3. Postwar Marriage and Divorce: The New Single Mother and Her “Fatherless” Children 88 4. Who Is Responsible for Abortions? Demographic Politics and Postwar Studies of Abortion 123 5. Womens Reproductive Right and the 1955 Re-legalization of Abortion 153 6. Beyond Replacing the Dead: Women’s Welfare and the End of the Soviet Union 186 Epilogue: Reviving Pronatalism in Post- Socialist Russia Notes Bibliography Index 216 223 291 313
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Index All organizations are Soviet unless otherwise indicated. For the benefit ofdigital users, indexed terms that span two pages (eg., 52-53) may, on occasion, appear on only one ofthose pages. abortion. See abo clinical abortion; criminal abortion; anti-abortion campaigns birth rate declines and, 19,123,124-25, 127-28,152,174 curettage and, 1, l-2n.3 eugenics and, 57 infertility and, 1-2,66-67,68,69,138, 144,151,166,167,197-98 rates of, 1-2,16,61-62,126-27,160 socialism and, 8,16,187-88,203 Abramova, A, advocacy for increased aid to single mothers by, 117,118-19,162 report ( 1948) on problems faced by out-of-wedlock children and single mothers by, 114,115-19,123,129, 152,194 tax increase on single men proposed by, 118-20 abstinence, 7-8 Academy ofMedical Sciences (AMS), 80-81, 84,199-200 Akhmatova, Anna, 79-80 Akusherstvo і ginekologiia (Obstetrics and Gynecology, journal), 81 Alexievich, Svetlana, 11,21,92-93 All Union Central Council of Trade Unions (VTsSPS) doctors’ criticisms of, 168 interministerial abortion study of 194849 and, 130-31,150-51 orphanages and, 133-34 proposed reforms to abortion law during 1950s and, 153-54,168 re-legalization of abortion (1955) and, 19 All-Union Family Law. See Family Law of 1968 amenorrhea, 66,67-68,128 anti-abortion campaigns, 5,186-87,202, 218,220-21 anti-Semitism, Holocaust, 2,24-25 Doctors’ Plot, 154,155,157, 157Ո.12,158 Purge of Moscow Institute for Gynecology and Obstetrics, 18,81,82n.l 14 Arkhangel’skii, B. A., 56,66-67,69,70,76 artificial insemination, 68-69 Australia, 188-89 babki, 73,176 babushkas (grandmothers), 205-6,
214-15,220 babyboom/ “babyboomlet”, 22,22n.4,123, 123Ո.1,127-28,128Ո.28 Baranskaia, Nataliia, 204-5,206 Bebel, August, 8 Belarus, or Belorussia 16,21,130-31 Bezlepkina, Liudmila, 217 birth control pill, 184,200-2 birth rate. See also pronatalism abortion cited as reason for decline in, 19,123,124-25,127-28,152,174 census of 1959 and, 193 contraception and, 148,203-4 declines during 1960s and 1970s in, 15, 201,214 ethnic differences in, 163 famine of 1946-47 and, 127-29 loss of traditional gender roles blamed for declines in, 210
314 INDEX birth rate (cont.) military strength and, 9 postwar period (1945-55) and, 10,17-18, 19,21-23,25-27,29,32,35,40-41,45, 85-86,123,126-29,162,163 prewar period and, 9 regional differences in, 163 reproductive health and, 58,65,66 Russian Federation and, 217-18, 219-20,222 socialist views of, 7-9,188,203 Stalin’s industrialization campaigns of the 1930s and, 9-10 Ukraine and, 25-27 welfare systems and, 16-17 Western countries and, 188-89,206, 211-12,213 women’s workforce participation and, 16,201,206,222 World War II and, 27,45,63 blat, 58,73,204,204n.90 Bolshevik Party, 4,8,13-14,55. See also socialism Brezhnev, Leonid, 14-15,208 Burova, M.D., 27 Canada, 188-89,197 Catholic Church, 43-44,183,221 Census census of 1939,123-24 census of 1959,163-64,188,193,201 census of 1970,188,201 census of1989,217-18 Central Asia, 2,16,25,163,182-83,190, 208-9,210-11 Central Committee of Communist Party, 169,179-80,181-82,192-93 Central Lenin Institute for Training Doctors survey (1958-9), 198 Central Statistical Administration (TsSU), 27-28,46-47,126-27,163 childcare babushkas and, 205-6,214-15,220 clinical abortions linked to lack of access to, 198 creches and, 13,30,42-43,123,132-33 criminal abortions linked to lack of access to, 132-33,165-66,167 “double burden” and, 175,204, 208,210-11 expectations of Soviet women regarding, 5-6,10,17,22-23,134-35, 151,172,197,205,207,210-11 facilities for, 7,9,13-14,30,42-43,11617,121-22,123,204,207,208,217 Family Law of 1936 and, 7,9,13-14,42-43 Family Law of 1944 and, 10,22-23,30, 38-39,40-41,64-65,121-22,133-34 legal requirements for two-
parent families and, 38 maternity leaves and, 12-13,46,156-57, 187-88,189,208,212,214 Narkomzdrav and, 42 reform campaigns promoting men’s involvement in, 213 Russian Federation and, 217 socialist ideals and, 7,203-4,213-14 Soviet welfare system guarantees regarding, 12-13 Western countries and, 212-13 women’s choice to limit family size linked to lack of access to, 207 women’s workforce participation and, 133,204 child support 24th Party Congress (1971) and, 208 common law marriage and, 10,38,39-40, 101-3,106-8,112,121 Council of Ministers decree (1970) and, 208-9 divorce provisions and, 39,101,110 Family Law of 1926 and, 39-40 Family Law of 1936 and, 7,10,22-23,40 Family Law of 1944 and, 10,19,30, 37-38,39,45-46,51,53-54,86-87, 88-89,90-91,101-3,106-8,109, 114,121,171 Family Law of 1968 and, 193 reform proposals during 1950s and, 190-91 state support for single mothers and, 24,30 viewed as abortion-reduction strategy, 86-87,137 women’s postwar call for increases in, 36-37
INDEX China, 16,54,183-84 Chukovskii, Kornei, 192 clinical abortion. See also legalized abortion in Central Asia, 182-83 China and, 16,54,183-84 conditions encountered during, 186 criteria for allowance of, 76-78,79,85, 87,148-50,151-52,157,164,167-68, 174-75,218-19 doctor consultations prior to, 181,186 doctors’ advocacy for, 18,56-58,59-60, 65,70,74-75,85,137,147-48,15051,175,182 Eastern European socialist regimes and, 16,183,184-85 economic problems cited as reason for, 136,150,174-75 expectant mothers health cited as reason for, 150,167-68,173-74,221 Family Law of 1936 outlawing, 3-4,7 favoritism and nepotism in access to, 83 fees for, 149,151-52,167 housing problems linked to, 198 increase following legalization (1955) of, 186-87 infertility and, 197-98 Japan and, 4-5,57,85-86 lack of childcare cited as reason for, 198 long-term side effects from, 197-98 out-of-wedlock relationship with father cited as reason for, 136 presence of other small children cited as reason for, 136,167-68,172-73 rape cited as a reason for, 177,221 rates of, 20,60,74,150,186-87,199 reforms during 1950s designed to expand access to, 148-51,153-55, 157,165,168-69,174-77,179 relationship problems cited as reason for, 149,172,173,198 Russian Federation and, 20,216-17, 218-19,220-21 subterfuge used to obtain, 58,73,85 surveillance by the Soviet state and, 14-15,18,57-61,69-73,74,75-76, 78-79,81,85,87 Ukraine and, 33,64,75 315 vacuum aspirations (“mini abortions”) and, 202-3 viability of infant cited as reason for, 167-68 waiting periods as obstacle to, 181,218-19 in Western countries, 197,212-13
women’s rights and, 1,4-5,56,153,155, 175-76,177 Cold War, 5,79-84,124 collective farm, 138-39,162,190 Commissariat of Social Security, 13 Committee on the Question of Women’s Labor and Improvement of the Protection of Motherhood and Childhood (1948), 119-20 common-law marriage. See also out-of-wedlock births child support and, 10,38,39-40,101-3, 106-8,112,121 divorce and, 112,197 Family Law of 1926 and, 9,39-40 Family Law of 1944 and, 40,101-3, 106-8,112,121 prewar registration system and, 38 psychological disadvantages for women and children of, 19 war widow pensions and, 104-5,108 Constitution of the Soviet Union (1936), 12-13 contraception birth control pill and, 184,200-2 birth rate and, 148,203-4 China and, 54,183-84 doctors’ advocacy for improved access to, 19,70,137,148,174-75,187 effectiveness and safety of, 200-1 Family Law of 1936 and, 9 Family Law of 1944 and, 32-33 Kovrigina’s advocacy for, 178 limited availability in Eastern Europe of, 16 limited availability in Soviet Union of, 1-2,16,17,58-59,60,61-62, 121,150,179,187-88,197,200, 201-3,214-15 Malthus and, 7 pronatalism and suppression of, 148
316 INDEX contraception (cont.) reproductive health and, 20,199 Russian Federation and, 216-17,218 sex education and, 199 socialism and, 8-9,203 viewed as means of reducing criminal abortion, 20,145,151-52,182, 197-98,200,202-3 in Western countries, 212-13 womens rights and, 20,197 Council of Ministers (Sovmin) abortion law reform proposals in 1950s and, 157,165,168-69,174,179 child support decree (1970) by, 208-9 divorce reform proposals and, 169-70 Family Law of 1968 and, 193 interministerial abortion study of 1948-49 and, 130,150-51 Council of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 74 Council of Unions and the Council of Nationalities of the Supreme Soviet, 192-93 Court of Honor, 80,80n.l06,81 criminal abortion childcare access cited as reason for, 132-33,165-66,167 contraception viewed as means of reducing, 20,145,151-52,182, 197-98,200,202-3 criteria for exceptions to, 76-78,79,85, 87.148-50,151-52,157,164,167 deaths resulting from, 3,56,62,141, 151,166,167,174,181,187 divorce cited as a reason for, 137,139 doctor-patient trust viewed as means of reducing, 145-47 economic conditions cited as reason for, 77,85-86,132,134-37,139-40,151, 164-65,167 Family Law of 1936 and, 7,9,13-14,33, 58.59.60.63.148-49,151-52,154, 160,164,165-66,176 Family Law of 1944 and, 14,22,23, 30-31,32-33,36,45-46,51 famine of 1946-47 and, 128,129 housing problems cited as reason for, 134-36,151,156-57,165 infertility following, 1-2,144,150,151, 166,167,199 late-term abortions and, 141 married women and, 151 medical problems resulting from, 3,64, 70,73,138-39 out-of-wedlock relationship with father cited as
reason for, 139-40,144 presence of other small children cited as reason for, 134-35,138-40,143, 165.167 prosecutions for, 59,60,62-63,71-73, 130-31,137-45,157,180-81 punishments for, 59,142,143,156-57 rates of, 116-17,130,131,150,164,166, 187,199 relationship problems cited as reason for, 134-35,137,138,139-41,144֊ 45.151.167 reproductive health harmed by, 58-59, 166,174,175,176-77 Ukraine and, 63,130-31 urban versus rural areas and, 138-39,199 women soldiers in World War II and, 12 working conditions cited as reason for, 135-36,147,156-57 World War II and, 61-64,126 Cuba, 16 Day of Family, 220-21 demographic policy in the Soviet Union. See also specific laws 24th Party Congress (1971) and, 208 25th Party Congress (1976) and, 201 educational campaign stressing traditional gender roles (1980s) and, 210 ethnic groups’ fertility rates and, 203-4,208-10 familialism, 212-14 preferential policies for specific regions and, 209-10 research on women’s choices to limit family size and, 206-8 self-censorship and, 6,124 socialist ideals and, 203 Stalin’s purge of demographers, 15,123-25 Deng Xiaoping, 183-84 Deng Yingchao, 183-84
INDEX Denmark, 197 de-Stalłnization, 154,178,183,187 divorce children’s interests and, 99,100 child support and, 39,101,110 common-law marriages and, 112,197 criminal abortion linked to, 137,139 Family Law of 1918 and, 9 Family Law of 1926 and, 9 Family Law of 1936 and, 7,10,39-40 Family Law of 1944 and, 18-19,22,29, 30-31,39,46,49,50-51,90-91,94101,105-6,108-12,121,154,156, 161-63,169,172,191 Family Law of 1968 and, 193,196-97 fees and, 39,49 infertility and sexual dysfunction cited as reason for, 97-99 infidelity and, 95-98 loss of traditional gender roles blamed for increased rates of, 210 men as more frequent initiators of, 95-97,99 people’s courts and, 108-10 postwar increase in, 12,113 pronatalism and, 98-99 publication of announcements of, 111 -12 restoration of prewar families and, 111 rural marriages and, 50-51 “second families” as reason for, 97 Ukase of 1965 simplifies, 46,193,196, 244Ո.119,278Ո.44 Western countries and, 188-89 World War II and, 88 Dmitrieva, A.I., 4-5,85-86,153,176-77 doctors advocacy for clinical abortion among, 18,56-58,59-60,65,70,74-75,85, 137,147-48,150-51,175,182 advocacy for contraception by, 19,70, 137,148,174-75,187 “Doctors' Ploť’ (1953) and, 19,154,157-58 Jewish doctors and, 18,84,154 KR Affair (1947), 58,79-81 punishment for performing criminal abortions and, 142-43,156-57 reproductive health prioritized by, 56, 58,64-66,71,73-75 317 Soviet state’s disciplining of, 18,58, 79-87,154 surveillance system for clinical abortions and, 6,59-63,69,74,75-76, 78-79,81,85,87 World War II and, 6,61-63 “double burden,” 175,204,208,210-11 East
Germany, 56-57,184-85,200 Engels, Friedrich, 7-8,184 Erenburg, Ilia, 11,12,24,191-92 Estonia, 16 Estrin, A.L., 56,71-72,76-77,83 Eugenic Protection Law (Japan), 57 familialism, 212-14 Family Law of 1918,9,22-23,39-40,54 Family Law of 1926,9,39-40 Family Law of 1936 abortion criminalized under, 7,9,13-14, 33,58,59,60,63,148-49,151-52, 154,160,164,165-66,176 childcare facilities expanded through, 7, 9,13-14,42-43 child support provisions in, 7,10, 22-23,40 contraceptive access limited under, 9 divorce restricted under, 7,10,39-40 marriage and, 10,40 pronatalism and, 9-10,176 Stalin and, 3-4,22-23,164 state aid to mothers and, 9-10,13-14, 27-28,49 Family Law of 1944 abortion criminalized under, 14,22,23, 30-31,32-33,36,45-46,51 childcare and, 10,22-23,30,38-39,40-41, 64-65,121-22,133-34 child support and, 10,19,30,37-38,39, 45-46,51,53-54,86-87,88-89,9091,101-3,106-8,109,114,121,171 Committee on the Question of Women’s Labor and Improvement of the Protection of Motherhood and Childhood and, 119-20 common-law marriage, 40,101-3, 106-8,112,121 contraception and, 32-33
318 INDEX Family Law of 1944 (cont.) divorce and, 18-19,22,29,30-31,39, 46,49,50-51,90-91,94-101,105-6, 108-12,121,154,156,161-63,169, 172,191 infanticide penalties in, 32-34, 36,46,51 Khrushchev and, 18,21-22,23,28-36, 40,42,43-44,45-46,47-51,53-54, 105-6,122,126-27,154,164,171, 220-21,222 legal distinctions between one-parent and two-parent families in, 38-39, 44,90-91 marriage and, 12,18-19,29,30,34,39, 40-41,91,94-95,101,103-4,105-6, 108,161-63 maternity leave and, 46 Motherhood Glory order established by, 2-3,47-48,51-52,54 Motherhood Heroine title established by, 2-3,47-51,54 Motherhood Medal established by, 2-3, 51-52,53r, 54 Narkomzdrav and, 45-46,47,49,51,65 out-of-wedlock births and, 17-18, 22-23,24,29,30,34,36-42,43-44, 45-46,52-53,86,88-89,105-6, 107-8,109,114-19,122,154,155, 158-60,161,162,191 patronymic provisions in, 30,38,41, 54,115 People’s Commissariat of Justice’s role in implementing, 105-13 pronatalism ideology and, 2-3,10, 13-14,17-18,22-24,28-36,51, 52-54,77-78,105-7,122,162, 164,196 registration of children of unmarried mothers’ surnames under, 8889,100-1,115,117-18,158, 159-60,169 rest homes for single mothers and, 43 single mothers’ right to leave children at orphanages and, 37,90,133-34 small family taxes and, 30-31,34-35, 36,44,48,49-51,531,143,171, 189,191 Stalin and, 47,49 state aid for pregnant women and, 2, 28-30,42,45,51-52,78-79 state aid to mothers oflarge families and, 42,49,531,54 state support for mothers and, 2-3, 10,22,24,28-42,45,51-54,90, 96-97,114,118-19,121-22,156, 159,162-63 state support for rural mothers and, 47, 49,51,52
Family Law of 1968 child support and, 193 cohabitation and, 196 debate among Communist Party leaders preceding, 191-93 divorce and, 193,196-97 out-of-wedlock births and, 20, 187-88,193-96 public discussion of, 193-94 registration of children’s names under, 195 family planning programs, 20, 216-17,218 famine (1946-47), 124-25,127-29 fatherless children. See . out-of-wedlock births feminist, 4-5,200-1,212,217 fertility. See birth rate; infertility Finland, 4-5,197 France, 89-90,188-89,197 free love, 8,55 Gausner, Zh., 120 Germany. See East Germany; Nazi Germany; West Germany Gorbachev, Mikhail, 15,211-12 Gorshenin, K. R, 143,157,167,169 Gosplan (State Planning Committee), 21-22 Gozulov, A. L, 124 Great Britain. See United Kingdom Great Leap Forward (China), 183-84 Great Patriotic War. See World War II (Great Patriotic War) Great Terror/Great Purge, 2n.8,6, 9-10Ո.50,14,26,8ІП.109, 123-24,123-24Ո.4,166
INDEX Holocaust, 2,24-25 Holodomor, 25ո.16 Home Again (Gausner), 120 Honecker, Erich, 184 household work babushkas (grandmothers), 205-6, 214-15,220 gender ideologies and, 211-12 household appliances and, 208,212-13 men’s refusal to participate in, 205, 207,210 reform campaigns promoting men’s involvement in, 213 socialist ideals regarding, 7,204,214 Western countries and, 212 housing clinical abortion linked to problems with, 198 criminal abortion linked to problems with, 134-36,151,156-57,165 interministerial report of 1948-49 and, 131 reform and, 13n.80 single mothers and, 116-17,123 Soviet shortages in, 17 Soviet welfare system guarantees regarding, 12-13 women’s choice to limit family size linked to, 207 World War II and, 67 Hungary, 16,183,191-92 Huxley, Julian, 124-25 illegal abortion. See criminal abortion illegitimate/illegitimacy, see also outof-wedlock births, 41-42,43-44, 85-86,89,90-91,115,115-16n.97, 122n.119.158,160 infanticide, 32-34,36,43,46,51 infantilism, 66,67 infant mortality rates, 45,66,129 infertility abortion and, 1-2,66-67,68,69,138, 144,151,166,167,197-98 artificial insemination and, 68-69 clinical abortion and, 197-98 criminal abortion and, 1-2,144,150, 151,166,167,199 319 divorce and, 97-99 men and, 66-67,68-69,98 prophylactic measures designed to limit, 75 venereal disease and, 67,68,69 World War II and, 65,66-68 Institute for Obstetrics and Gynecology of the Academy ofMedical Science, 199-200 Institute of Demography (Ukraine), 26 Ireland, 43-44 Italy, 212,221 Iurkevich, N.G., 213 Japan “baby boomlet” after World War II and, 22,85-86 clinical
abortion in, 4-5,57,85-86 decolonization and, 22 Eugenic Protection Law and, 57 female participation in the workforce and, 188-89 Manchuria during World War II and, 57 pronatalism during World War II in, 125 US occupation after World War II and, 57 Jews, see anti-semitism Juviler,Peter,21-22n.3,158n.l3,192-93n,29, 192-93Ո.30 Kaganovich, Lazar, 180n.82,180 Kazakhstan, 16,138,139-40,182-83 Kharchev, A.G., 204 Khrushchev, Nikita 20th Party Congress (1956), 16 anti-alcohol campaign during 1950s and, 190-91 childless taxes (1941) and, 22,26,34, 114,170 Family Law of 1944 and, 21-22,23, 28-36,40,42,43-44,45-46,47-51, 53-54,105-6,122,126-27,154,164, 171,220-21,222 famine of 1946-47 and, 128-29 “kitchen debate” (1959) and, 204 as leader of the Soviet Union, 187
320 INDEX Khrushchev, Nikita (cont.) limited scope of family law reforms under, 14-15,154 ouster (1964) of, 14-15,193 out-of-wedlock births promoted by, 3, 24,36-37,159-60 pronatalism and, 5,21-24,25-27, 28-36,43-44,52-53,105-6,170, 172-73,193 Ptukha and, 26-27 small family taxes and, 35,50-51 Stalin denounced by, 16 on Starovskii, 163 state aid for mothers and, 28-29,31 -32, 37,222 state aid for pregnancy and, 28-29 tax reform during 1950s and, 189,191 Ukraine and, 17-18,21-22,24-27 Virgin Lands and, 170 World War II and, 21,22,25-26 “kitchen debate” (1959), 204 Kliachko, M.M., 71-72,144 Kliueva, Nina G., 58,79-80 kolkhoz, see collective farm Kollontai, Alexandra, 8,22-23,55 Komissarova, T.A., 82 Komsomol, 52n.l52,170 Konstantinov, V.I., 165-68,176,177 Kovrigina, Mariia D. Central Committee of Communist Party position of, 81 Committee on the Question of Women’s Labor and Improvement of the Protection of Motherhood and Childhood and, 119 contraceptive access advocated by, 178 criteria for exceptions to criminal abortion and, 79 Doctors’ Plot (1953) and, 157 Family Law of 1944 and, 45 on importance of increasing birth rate in postwar Soviet Union, 78 on infertility caused by abortions, 144 interministerial study of abortion (1948-49) and, 125,130,137 legalization of abortion (1955) and, 4,153-55,164,167,174-75, 177-81,186 on men’s responsibility for abortion, 123,143,144,152,157 as minister of health, 126 Ministry of Health’s history of Soviet abortion policy and, 165-66 purge of Moscow Institute for Gynecology and Obstetrics and, 81-84 Social-Legal Consultation Office and,
147 Soviet state disciplining of doctors and, 18,79-87,154 on subterfuge to obtain clinical abortions, 58 surveillance system for clinical abortions and, 69,76,78 woman’s right to abortion and, 1,4,153, 155,177 KR Affair (1947), 58,79-81 Latvia, 16,191 legalized abortion. See also clinical abortion advocates during early 1950s for, 174-81 cancellation of women’s criminal responsibility (1954), 14,144-45, 164,171-72,175 initial era (1920-1936) of, 3-4,9,166, 176,179 re-establishment (1955) of, 3-5,14, 15-16,19,180-81 Lenin, Vladimir L, 8 Leningrad, 74 Leningrad Institute for Gynecology and Obstetrics, 84 Lithuania, 130-31 LiuShaoqi, 183-84 Malenkov, G.M.,68,155-56, 160-61,171-72 Malinovskú, M.S., 65,67,81-84 Malthus, Thomas/anti-Malthusian, 7-8 Mao Zedong, 183-84 marriage. See also common-law marriage Family Law of 1918 and, 9 Family Law of 1926 and, 9,39-40 Family Law of 1936 and, 10,40
INDEX Family Law of 1944 and, 12,18-19,29, 30,34,39,40-41,91,94-95,101, 103-4,105-6,108,161-63 Soviet womens desire for, 5-6,18-19 Marx, Karl, 7-8 maternity leave Constitution of 1936 and, 12-13 extensions during 1970s and 80s of, 187-88,208,214 Family Law of 1944 and, 46 reform proposals during 1950s and, 156-57,189 Western countries and, 212 Matsepanova, O.D., 78-79 Medvedev, Dmitrii, 219 Medvedeva, Svetlana, 220-21 Merkov, A.M., 45 Mikhailov, V.P., 67-68,83,176-77 Mikoyan, Anastas, 180,208-9 Mikoyan commission (1950s), 208-9 military of the Soviet Union. See also World War II (Great Patriotic War) birth rates and the long-term strength of, 9 rapes during World War II by members of, 56-57 romantic relationships during World War II and, 10-12,61-62,91-94, 96-97,121 Soviet victories over Nazi Germany and, 27 taxes on members of, 35,50 women enlisted in, 2,11-12,61-62, 92-94,121 Ministry of Health (MZ), see also People’s Commissariat of Health for events prior to 1946 clinical abortion’s legalization (1955) and, 180-81 Committee on the Question ofWomen’s Labor and Improvement of the Protection of Motherhood and Childhood and, 119-20 Court of Honor at, 80-81 Doctors’ Plot (1953) and, 157 history of Soviet abortion policy reviewed (1955) by, 165-67 321 interministerial study of abortion (1948-49) and, 125-26,130-31, 135-36,137,150-51,152 Kliueva and Roskin trial at, 80-81 Moscow Institute and, 84 orphanage study by, 117,134 prophylactic approach to public health emphasized during 1950s by, 145,150-52 proposed reforms to abortion law during 1950s and, 153-55, 168,174-77
proposed reforms to improve women’s socioeconomic conditions and, 155-57,189 Ministry of Justice (MIu), See also People’s Commissariat of Justice for events prior to 1946 abortion surveillance system and, 129,130 divorce reforms advocated by, 169 interministerial study of abortion (1948-49) and, 125-26, 130-31,150-51 proposed reforms to abortion law during 1950s and, 153-55,164,168 proposed reforms to improve women’s socioeconomic conditions and, 155-56 prosecutions for criminal abortion and, 137-45 reforms to aid out-of-wedlock children and, 191 reforms to Family Law of 1944 and, 150-51 re-legalization of abortion (1955) and, 19 Ministry of Social Welfare, 157 miscarriages clinical abortions and later incidents of, 197-98 famine of 1946-47 and, 128 induced miscarriages and, 63,140 infantilism and, 67 medical problems following, 73 prophylactic measures designed to limit, 75 World War II and, 65,67
322 INDEX Miterev, Georgil, 28,45,66,75-76,79-80 Molotov, Vyacheslav, 27-28,51,109,172 Mongolia, 16 morning-after pill, 221 Moscow Does not Believe in Tears (film), 55 Moscow Institute for Gynecology and Obstetrics (MIGO), 58,81-84,147 Mother Heroine title, 2-3,16,47-51, 54,208-9 motherhood capital law (Russia, 2006), 219-20 Motherhood Glory order, 47-48,51-52, 54,208-9 Motherhood Medal, 2-3,51-52,53r, 54,208-9 The Mother’s Notebook (Pamiatka Materi), 172 Muslim women in the Soviet Union, 15-16,182-83 Narkomfin, see Peoples Commissariat of Finance Narkomiust, see People’s Commissariat of Justice Narkomzdrav, see People’s Commissariat of Health “Nastia” (Ketlinskaia), 94-95 Nazi Germany. See also World War II (Great Patriotic War) abortion and, 33 forced labor and, 33 France occupied by, 89-90 Soviet military victory over, 27 Soviet territories occupied by, 2,12,21, 24,25-26,31,33,96-97 Nikolaev, A.P., 67,70-71,76,84 Nixon, Richard, 204 NKVD, see People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs non-clinical abortion. See criminal abortion Norway, 197 Once, Twenty Years Later (film), 209 oral contraception, 155,200-2 Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), 25 orphanages (dom rebenka and detskii dom) health conditions of children at, 117, 121-22,134 increased postwar population in, 133 Ministry of Health study of, 117,134 single mothers’ right to leave children at, 37,90,133-34 taxes supporting, 22,26,34-35 in Ukraine, 34-35 World War II and, 24-25,26 Orthodox Church, 218-19,220-21 out-of-wedlock births. See also child support Committee on the Question of Women’s Labor and
Improvement of the Protection of Motherhood and Childhood and, 119-20 criminal abortion linked to, 139-40,144 decline following re-legalization of abortion (1955) in, 181 definition of, 89 Family Law of 1918 and, 54 Family Law of 1944 and, 17-18,22-23, 24,29,30,34,36-42,43-44,45-46, 52-53,86,88-89,105-6,107-8,109, 114-19,122,154,155,158-60,161, 162,191 Family Law of 1968 and, 20, 187-88,193-96 Khrushchev’s promotion of, 3,24, 36-37,159-60 physical challenges faced by children of, 117 pronatalist policy encouraging, 3,5-6 psychological disadvantages for women and children of, 19,106,114-18, 119-20,122,144,158,159-60,195 registration of, 106,107-8 rural regions and, 163 Russian Federation and, 220 Soviet rates (1945-54) of, 3 state aid proposals regarding, 191 statistics regarding extent of, 90, 115-16,122 “Parental Glory” order (2008), 219 Parin, V.V., 79-80
INDEX Party Congress 20th Party Congress (1956), 16,183,189 24th Party Congress (1971), 208 25th Party Congress (1976), 201,208 Party Control Commission (KPK), 114 patronymic Committee on the Question of Women’s Labor and Improvement of the Protection of Motherhood and Childhood and, 119-20 cultural representations of, 55 Family Law of 1944 and, 30,38,41, 54,115 Family Law of 1968,195 incestual relationships prevented by, 115 registered marriages and, 38 pension reform, 13n.80 People’s Commissariat of Finance, (Narkomfin or NKFin), 28,47 People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs (NKVD), 25 People’s Commissariat of Justice (Narkomiust, NKIu) child support cases and, 101-3 criminal prosecutions of abortion and, 59,130-31 divorce procedures and, 100,108-10 Family Law of 1944 implemented by, 105-13 surveillance system for clinical abortions and, 75-76 Peoples Commissariat of Health, (Narkomzdrav or NKZ) abortion climes and, 64 childcare facilities and, 42 criminal prosecutions of abortion and, 59,62,63 Family Law of 1944 and, 45-46,47, 49,51,65 First Joint Plenum ( 1944), 62,86 maternity leave and, 46 pronatalism and, 27-28 Second Plenum for the Council of Obstetrics and Gynecology (1945), 68 state aid to mothers and, 28 state aid to pregnant women and, 28 323 surveillance system for clinical abortions and, 76 working conditions for pregnant women and, 46 People’s court, 28-29,49,102,105-6, 108-9,110,139,141-42,193 Poland, 24-25,183,184,221 Popova, N.V., 167,180 premature births clinical abortions and later incidents of, 197-98 infantilism and, 67 late-term abortion attempts
and, 140-41 prophylactic measures designed to limit, 75 state aid to pregnant women as means of reducing, 28 World War II and, 28,65,67,74 pronatalism. See also birth rate Brezhnev era and, 203-15 China and, 16,183-84 Cold War and, 5 contraceptives suppressed under, 148 definition of, 9-10Ո.50 divorce and, 98-99 Family Law of 1936 and, 7,9-10,176 Family Law of 1944 and, 2-3,10, 13-14,17-18,22-24,28-36,51, 52-54,77-78,105-7,122,162, 164,196 Khrushchev and, 5,21-24,25-27, 28-36,43-44,52-53,105-6,170, 172-73,193 postwar period and, 17-18 prewar period and, 9-10,61 Putin and, 20,216,218-19,220-21,222 Russian Federation and, 20,216,218-19, 220-21,222 Ukraine and, 17-18,21-22 World War II mass casualties as reason for, 2-3 prosecutor/state prosecutor abortion statistics and 33-34Ո.69,59n.ll abortion studies of the late 1940s and 1950 and, 129,130, ІЗОп.36, 141-42,145
324 INDEX prosecutor/state prosecutor (cont.) criminalized abortion (1936) and, 59, 60,62,63 Family Law of 1944 and, 51 Legalization of abortion (1955) and, 19,155,164 Postwar abortion surveillance and, 71-73,75-76, 79,84 Reform of criminalized abortion and, 150-51,153-54 Ptukha, Mikhail V., 26-27 Putin, Vladimir Orthodox Church, 218-19 pronatalism and, 20,216,218-19, 220-21,222 restriction on clinical abortion and, 218-19,220-21 state aid for mothers and, 219-20,222 rape anti-abortion campaign in post socialist Poland and, 221 as a ground for legal abortion, 77,177 of German women, 56-57 of Japanese women, 57 Red Army. See military of the Soviet Union reproductive health. See also infertility amenorrhea and, 66,67-68,128 birth rate and, 58,65,66 contraception viewed as means of improving, 20,199 criminalization of abortion’s impact on, 58-59,166,174,175,176-77 doctors’ prioritization of, 56,58,64-66, 71,73-75 infantilism and, 66,67 infant mortality rates and, 45,66,129 prophylactic approach to, 69,74,75, 145,150-52,180 socialist approach to, 182-85,187-88 World War II and, 25-26,64-65 Romania, 16,183 Roskin, Grigoril L, 58,79-80 Russian Federation (post 1991) abortion rates in, 16 birth rate in, 217-18,219-20,222 childcare in, 217 clinical abortion in, 20,216-17, 218-19,220-21 contraception and, 216-17,218 family planning programs and, 216-17,218 household work and, 217 market economy and, 216-17 out-of-wedlock births and, 220 population demographics in, 217-18 pronatalism and, 20,216,218-19, 220-21,222 sex education and, 20 state aid for mothers and, 219-20 women’s
workforce participation and, 217 Rychkov, N. M„ 107-8,111,113 Sadvokasova, E.A., 207 Sakevich, Viktoriia, 216-17 Scandinavian countries, 212-13,221 Scientific Research Institute for Physiology and Pathology of Women, 199-200 Semashko, N. A., 77 Serebrovskaia, Elena on out-of-wedlock children, 155, 158-60,191 reform efforts regarding Family Law of 1944 and, 19,154,155,169, 171-72,193 sex education, 20,199,218 sexually transmitted diseases. See venereal disease Shostakovich, Dmitrii, 191-92,194 Simonov, Konstantin, 10 single mothers, see aho unmarried mothers abortion and, 85,86,136,138,143-44, 150-51,156,165 Abramova’s report on, 115-20, 121-22Ո.105,129 access to government aid and, 121-22 childcare and, 132-34,132-33n.51 Family Law of 1944 and, 2-3,38-39, 51-54,55Ո.161,90,91,114 Family Law reform campaign (1954) and, 155,158,159-60 Family Law reform campaign (1956), 195
INDEX Family Law of 1968 and, 196,197 Khrushchev’s proposal and, 24,30,34-35, 37,38,41-42,43-44 letters written to Khrushchev by, 171 Narkomfin and, 47 NKZ and, 45 post-socialist and, 217n.ll, 220 pronaialism in the 1970s and 1980s and, 208-9 reduction in government aid (1947) and, 53-54,90,121-22 Reform proposals of Family Law of 1944 and, 156-57,158,191 Revision of Khrushchev’s draft proposal and, 47Ո.126,48,49,50 Tax reform of the 1950s and, 189 TsSU and, 46,122,161,162-63 Variety of paths to, 121 Slavic women in the Soviet Union, 188, 190,193,203-4 Smirnov, Efim L, 79-80,81-82,157 Smith, Walter Bedell, 79-80 socialism. See also Bolshevik Party abortion and, 8,16,187-88,203 birth rate and, 7-9,188,203 childcare and, 7,203-4,213-14 contraception and, 8-9,203 Eastern European regimes and, 16 free love and, 8 gender equality ideals and, 7,9, 13,214-15 household work and, 7,204,214 Malthusianism and, 7-8 reproductive health and, 182-85,187-88 welfare system and, 12-13 women’s workforce participation and, 13,213 social-legal consultation office, 147-48 Spain, 212,221 Speranskii, G.N., 191-92,194 spravka (informational note), 18,28-44, ՅՕո.49,34Ո.75,50,51,52 Stalin, Լ V. census of 1939 and, 123-24 childless tax (1941) and, 22,26,34,170 classification of demographic data as state secret by, 124-25 325 clinical abortion criminalized (1936) by, 3-4 collectivization of agricultural sector under, 9-10 death of, 14,16,19,87,152,154,155, 158,169 de-Stalinization and, 154,178,183,187 Doctors’ Plot under, 154,155,157-58 Family Law of 1936 and, 3-4,9, 22-23,164 Family Law of 1944 and,
47,49 famine of 1946-47 and, 124-25,128-29 intelligentsia targeted by, 79-80 Khrushchev’s denunciation of, 16 purges of demographers under 15,123-24 purges of Moscow Institute for Gynecology and Obstetrics under, 18, 81,82Ո.114 pronatalism and, 52 welfare system of the Soviet Union and, 12-13 Starovskii, V.N. birth rate and abortion linked by, 19, 123,124-25,127-28,152 census of 1939 and, 123-24 census of 1959 and, 163-64,188 on Family Law of 1944 and divorce, 154 famine of 1946-47 and, 124-25,127-29 interministerial abortion study of 1948-49 and, 19 Khrushchev and, 163 On the Increase of Registered Marriages” report (1954) by, 160-64 on out-of-wedlock births, 46-47,154, 161,162 on postwar birth decline, 123 postwar birth rate projections by, 46-47, 126,193 self-censorship practiced by, 124-25,128-29 state aid for mothers Committee on the Question of Women’s Labor and Improvement of the Protection of Motherhood and Childhood and, 119 reduction (1947) in, 53-54,90,121-22
326 INDEX state aid for mothers (cont.) Family Law of 1936 and, 9-10,13-14, 27-28,49 Family Law of 1944 and, 10,22,24, 28-30,31-32,34,37-38,118-19, 156,159,162-63 Khrushchev and, 24,28-29,31 -32, 37,222 Stepmother (film), 55 stillbirths, 67,141 Strumilin, S.G. 124n.7 Sweden, 4-5,188-89,197 Tadzhikistan, 130-31 taxes Abramova’s proposal regarding single men and, 118-20 childless tax (1941) and, 22,26,31, 34-35,114,118-19,170 Khrushchev’s reforms regarding, 189,191 single mothers’ payment of, 118, 143,189 small family taxes and, 30-31,34-35, 36,44,48,49-51,53Ѓ, 143,171, 189,191 vodka excise taxes and, 190-91 Thaw, 154,154n.l, 154n.2,155,178 TsSU, see Central Statistical Administration Ukraine abortion rates in, 16,33 birth rates in, 25-27 clinical abortions in, 33,64,75 collectivization and famine during 1930s in, 26 criminal abortions in, 63,130-31 divorce in, 95,97-98,109-10 famine of 1946-47 and, 129 Holocaust and, 24-25 Holodomor, 24n.l6 independence movement during World War II in, 25-26 infanticide in, 33-34 Khrushchev and, 17-18,21-22,24-27 Nazi occupation of, 12,21,24-25,33,63 orphanages in, 34-35 population demographics in, 25-27 pronatalism and, 17-18,21-22 World War II casualty levels in, 24-25,27 Umniagina, Tamara S., 11,92 underground abortion. See criminal abortion United Kingdom, 4-5,165-66, 188-89,197 United Nations, 16,124-25 Fourth World Conference on Women (1995) sponsored by, 217 United States “babyboom” during postwar era in, 22 birth control pill in, 200-1 clinical abortion in, 4-5,197 divorce rate in, 196-97 Japanese occupation after World War II and,
57 population control and attitudes toward African Americans in, 125 women’s rights movement and, 4-5 women’s workforce participation and, 188-89 unmarried mothers, see aho single mothers childcare and, 133 Family Law of 1918 and, 9 Family Law of 1944 and, 17-18,19,54, 89-90,122 Khrushchev’s proposal and, 37,38,41-42, 43,53-54 The number of, 122 Party investigation of, 6-7 Tax reform of the 1950s and, 190,191 TsSU and, 46-47 women’s avoidance of, 6,89 Urlanis, Boris Ts., 205-6 US Agency for International Development (USAID), 216-17 Uzbekistan, 98,182-83 Vaksberg, Arkadii E., 192 venereal disease, 57-58,67,68,69,97-99 Vietnam, 16 Virgin Lands, 170 Voroshilov, K.E., 159-60,171-72 Voznesenskii, N.A., 27
INDEX war widow pensions, 103-5,108 "A Week Like Any Other Week” (Baranskaia), 204-6 welfare state, 12-13,12-13n.76,16-17, 211-12,212Ո.126,214-15 West Germany, 56-57,184-85,188-89, 197,212 Womens Department (Zhenotdel), 13-14 women’s rights, language of, 175 the 1920 legalization of abortion and, 4 the 1955 legalization of abortion and, 4, 5,5n.22,174,178-79,181-82 outside the USSR, 4-5,4֊5n.21, 188-89,206 woman’s right vs, 4-5,175 women’s workforce participation birth rates and, 16,201,206,222 childcare and, 133,204 “double burden” and, 5-6,175,204, 208,210-11 Gorbachev and, 15 during industrialization drives of 1930s, 9 Russian Federation and, 217 socialist ideals and, 13,213 Soviet Union in comparative international perspective and, 17 welfare system and, 16-17 Western countries and, 188-89, 206,212-13 World Health Organization, 200 World War II (Great Patriotic War) abortions during, 33,56,61-64,74 birth rate during, 27,45,63 327 casualty levels in, 2,22,24-25,124 divorce and, 88 doctors and, 61-63 family separations and, 2,10-11,22,56, 88,94-95,97,100-2,106, 111, 121 Holocaust and, 2,24-25 mass mobilization for, 2 Nazi occupation of Soviet territories during, 12,21,24-25,33,63 orphanages and, 24-25,26 population loss and gender imbalances following, 2,5-6,20,21,22,24-27, 31, 32,44,52-53,88,91,116,120-21, 164,171 premature births and, 28,65,67,74 prostitution during, 12 rapes during, 56-57 reproductive health and, 25-26,64-65 wartime relationships and, 10-12,6162,91-94,96-97,121 war widow pensions and, 103-5 women soldiers in, 2,11-12,61-62, 92-94,121 Yeltsin, Boris,
216-17 Young Communist League, see Komsomol. ZAGS (The office of marriages, births, and deaths), 39,41,49,108,115-16,169 zhdanovshchina (Zhdanovism), 79-80 Zhenotdel (Women’s Department in Bolshevik Party), 13-14 Zhiromskaia, V.B., 113 Zoshchenko, Mikhail, 79-80 ' Bayerische Staatsbibliothek՛ München |
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| author | Nakachi, Mie ca. 20./21. Jh |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1096252716 |
| author_facet | Nakachi, Mie ca. 20./21. Jh |
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| author_sort | Nakachi, Mie ca. 20./21. Jh |
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| building | Verbundindex |
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| classification_rvk | NQ 8294 NW 8100 NW 8150 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1250468901 (DE-599)BVBBV047116199 |
| discipline | Geschichte |
| discipline_str_mv | Geschichte |
| era | Geschichte 1944-1955 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1944-1955 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Sowjetunion |
| id | DE-604.BV047116199 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-03T16:27:38Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-10T09:03:05Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9780190635138 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-032522587 |
| oclc_num | 1250468901 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-11 DE-29 DE-578 DE-12 DE-Re13 DE-BY-UBR DE-M352 |
| owner_facet | DE-11 DE-29 DE-578 DE-12 DE-Re13 DE-BY-UBR DE-M352 |
| physical | xiv, 327 Seiten |
| psigel | BSB_NED_20220321 |
| publishDate | 2021 |
| publishDateSearch | 2021 |
| publishDateSort | 2021 |
| publisher | Oxford University Press |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Nakachi, Mie ca. 20./21. Jh. Verfasser (DE-588)1096252716 aut Replacing the dead the politics of reproduction in the postwar Soviet Union Mie Nakachi New York, NY Oxford University Press [2021] © 2021 xiv, 327 Seiten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Geschichte 1944-1955 gnd rswk-swf Familienpolitik (DE-588)4016418-4 gnd rswk-swf Familienrecht (DE-588)4016419-6 gnd rswk-swf Schwangerschaftsabbruch (DE-588)4053732-8 gnd rswk-swf Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 gnd rswk-swf Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 g Familienpolitik (DE-588)4016418-4 s Schwangerschaftsabbruch (DE-588)4053732-8 s Familienrecht (DE-588)4016419-6 s Geschichte 1944-1955 z DE-604 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, EPUB 978-0-19-063515-2 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe 978-0-19-063516-9 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032522587&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032522587&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Literaturverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032522587&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Nakachi, Mie ca. 20./21. Jh Replacing the dead the politics of reproduction in the postwar Soviet Union Familienpolitik (DE-588)4016418-4 gnd Familienrecht (DE-588)4016419-6 gnd Schwangerschaftsabbruch (DE-588)4053732-8 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4016418-4 (DE-588)4016419-6 (DE-588)4053732-8 (DE-588)4077548-3 |
| title | Replacing the dead the politics of reproduction in the postwar Soviet Union |
| title_auth | Replacing the dead the politics of reproduction in the postwar Soviet Union |
| title_exact_search | Replacing the dead the politics of reproduction in the postwar Soviet Union |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Replacing the dead the politics of reproduction in the postwar Soviet Union |
| title_full | Replacing the dead the politics of reproduction in the postwar Soviet Union Mie Nakachi |
| title_fullStr | Replacing the dead the politics of reproduction in the postwar Soviet Union Mie Nakachi |
| title_full_unstemmed | Replacing the dead the politics of reproduction in the postwar Soviet Union Mie Nakachi |
| title_short | Replacing the dead |
| title_sort | replacing the dead the politics of reproduction in the postwar soviet union |
| title_sub | the politics of reproduction in the postwar Soviet Union |
| topic | Familienpolitik (DE-588)4016418-4 gnd Familienrecht (DE-588)4016419-6 gnd Schwangerschaftsabbruch (DE-588)4053732-8 gnd |
| topic_facet | Familienpolitik Familienrecht Schwangerschaftsabbruch Sowjetunion |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032522587&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032522587&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032522587&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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