The ecology of plants:
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| Main Authors: | , , |
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| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
New York ; Oxford
Sinauer Associates, Oxford University Press
[2021]
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| Edition: | Third edition |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Physical Description: | xviii, 574, G-14, I-42 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme |
| ISBN: | 9781605358291 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a The ecology of plants |c Jessica Gurevitch (Stony Brook University), Samuel M. Scheiner, Gordon A. Fox (University of New Mexico, University of South Florida) |
| 250 | |a Third edition | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a New York ; Oxford |b Sinauer Associates, Oxford University Press |c [2021] | |
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Brief Contents CHAPTER 1 PARTI The Science of Plant Ecology 1 Individuals and Their Environments 19 CHAPTER 2 Photosynthesis and Light CHAPTER 3 Water Relations and Thermal Energy Balance CHAPTER 4 Soil and Terrestrial Plant Life CHAPTER 5 Ecosystem Processes PARTII 21 83 111 From Individuals to Populations 141 CHAPTER 6 Individual Growth and Reproduction CHAPTER 7 Plant Life Histories CHAPTER 8 Population Structure, Growth, and Decline CHAPTER 9 Evolution: Processes and Change PART III 53 143 177 199 231 Population Interactions and Communities CHAPTER 10 Competition and Other Plant Interactions 261 CHAPTER 11 Herbivory and Other Trophic Interactions 297 CHAPTER 12 Community Diversity and Structure CHAPTER 13 Community Dynamics and Succession CHAPTER 14 Local Abundance, Diversity, and Rarity PART IV 259 333 371 397 From Landscapes to Planet Earth 419 CHAPTER 15 Landscapes: Pattern and Scale 421 CHAPTER 16 Climate, Plants, and Climate Change CHAPTER 17 Paleoecology CHAPTER 18 Biomes and Physiognomy CHAPTER 19 Global Biodiversity Patterns, Loss, and Conservation 447 495 513 543
Contents 1 The Science of Plant Ecology 1 1.1 Ecology Is a Science 2 Where does scientific knowledge come from? 2 Scientific research involves objectivity, subjectivity, choice, and chance 5 Observational studies detect and quantify patterns 5 Experiments are central to research 5 In ecology, "controls" are what you are using for baseline comparisons 8 How do we test theories? 10 Studies can lead to specific results but contribute to general understanding 12 PARTI Science is ultimately consistent, but getting to consistency is a challenge 12 1.2 Ecological Phenomena Are Heterogeneous in Many Ways 12 1.3 Plant Ecology Has Developed through the Interaction of Observation, Measurement, Analysis, Technology, and Theory 14 Plant ecology is situated in the more general theoretical framework of ecology 16 Ecology has a range of subdisciplines 17 Science is a human endeavor 18 Individuals and Their Environments Photosynthesis first evolved about 2.5 billion years ago and has continued to evolve over Earth's history 39 2 Photosynthesis and Light 21 2.1 Photosynthesis Is the Engine of Life on Earth ❁ 22 BOX 2A The Discovery and Elucidation of Photosynthetic Carbon Reduction 19 2.5 C3, C4, and CAM Plants Each Have Distinct Growth Forms, Phenology, and Distributions 26 2.2 Photosynthesis Is Affected by the Environment and by Plant Adaptations 28 The amount of light available limits photosynthesis 28 Carbon uptake is limited by the ways plants respond to their environments 31 Photosynthetic rates can vary among species in different habitats 32 2.6 Plants Possess Many Different
Adaptations to Their Light Environments 46 Many plants can detect the length of daylight and how it is changing seasonally 46 Leaves grown in sunlit and shaded conditions can differ in structure and function 47 2.3 There Are Three Photosynthetic Pathways: C3, C4, and CAM 33 C3 photosynthesis is the most common and original type of photosynthesis 33 ❁ BOX 2B Photorespiration 34 C4 photosynthesis is a specialized adaptation for rapid carbon uptake in warm, bright environments 35 ❁ BOX 2C Stable Isotopes and Photosynthesis 37 Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM photosynthesis) is a specialized adaptation for minimizing water loss but at the cost of reduced photosynthesis and slow growth 38 2.4 C3 Photosynthesis Is the Foundation for the Evolution of C4 and CAM 39 C4 and CAM evolved from C3 photosynthesis many different times in many different plant families 39 42 The three photosynthetic types dominate in different habitats and differ in growth form 42 C3 and C4 plants grow most actively in different seasons 43 C3, C4, and CAM species have different geographic distributions 44 ❁ BOX 2D Blue Color and Iridescence, Structural Coloration, and Anthocyanin Pigments 50 3 Water Relations and Thermal Energy Balance 53 The ancestors of modem plants evolved to live in terrestrial environments 54 3.1 Water Potential Provides a Framework for Understanding How Plants Interact with Water in Their Environment 55 ❁ BOX ЗА Measuring Photosynthesis, Transpiration, and Water Potential 56
viii Contents 4.4 The Basic Building Blocks of Plants are C, H, and О from Air and Water, and Macronutrients and Micronutrients from the Soil 101 3.2 Water Moves through a Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum 57 3.3 Plants Manage Transpiration and Water Loss 59 Plants have different strategies for adapting to water availability 60 Water use efficiency is a measure of carbon gain versus water loss 62 Plants have different adaptations for coping with reduced water availability 62 Plants have complex physiological adaptations to drought 65 The anatomy and physiology of stomata shape plant responses to water loss 67 Leaf anatomy can be adaptive for survival and growth in arid environments 68 Roots, stems, and their tissues have adaptations for controlling plant water relations 71 3.4 Everything in the Universe Has a Thermal Energy Balance 75 Radiant energy is always being exchanged between plants and their surroundings 76 ❁ BOX 3B Why the Sky Is Blue and the Setting Sun Is Red 77 Energy flows between plants and air, water and soil via conduction and convection 77 Water loss is accompanied by latent heat loss 78 Putting it all together: what determines leaf and whole-plant temperature? 78 Plants may have adaptations to extreme temperature regimes 80 4 Soil and Terrestrial Plant Life 83 ❁ BOX 4C Symbioses and Mutualisms 105 Phosphorus is limiting for plant growth in many environments 108 5 Ecosystem Processes 111 5.1 Ecosystem Processes Set the Stage for Life in a Salt Marsh 112 5.2 Ecosystem Pools and Fluxes Form Cycles of Nutrients and Energy 114 ❁ BOX 5A Biogeochemical Cycles:
Quantifying Pools and Fluxes 114 5.3 Carbon Is the Foundation of Life on Earth 116 ‘ Productivity measures how carbon moves between living things and their nonliving environment 116 Carbon is stored in the living and nonliving components of ecosystems 119 Soil food webs are the recycling engine of terrestrial ecosystems 122 Soil organic matter revisited: Bacteria are an essential component of soil organic matter 125 Primary productivity can be measured or estimated in a variety of ways 125 ❁ BOX 5B Using Remote Sensing and Eddy 4.1 Soils Have Distinct and Varied Composition, Characteristics, and Structure 84 It takes many thousands of years to create soil The stoichiometry of elements in plants and soils regulates many ecological processes 104 Nitrogen is often the limiting nutrient for plant growth 104 In some plants nitrogen comes from fixation by symbiotes 105 85 ❁ BOX 4A Serpentine Soils 85 Soil texture determines many of the properties of soils that affect plants 89 Soil pH has profound but indirect effects 92 Soils are characterized by horizons—layers with distinctive properties 94 ❁ BOX 4B Soil Conservation Is a Major Global Environmental Issue 96 Soils are the unique product of living organisms acting on soil parent material 97 4.2 The Rhizosphere Is a Unique Environment Created by Roots and Their Interaction with Microorganisms 98 4.3 Water Moves through the Soil to Reach Plants 99 Covariance Methods to Estimate NPP 126 5.4 The Nitrogen Cycle Is an Essential Component of Ecosystems 127 Bacteria mineralize organic N to inorganic forms taken up by plants 129 Nitrogen
is lost from ecosystems through denitrification and leaching 131 Decomposition can immobilize soil nitrogen when N03~ or NH4+ are sequestered in bacterial biomass 132 5.5 Nitrogen Deposition and Acid Precipitation Can Alter Ecosystems 132 ❁ BOX 5C The Haber Process, the Green Revolution, and Nitrogen in Ecosystems 134 5.6 Cycles of Phosphorus and Other Elements Play Important Roles in Ecosystems 135 Microorganisms make phosphorus available for plants 135 Sulfur is critical for certain plant compounds 136
Contents Calcium is necessary for many plant processes and structures 136 Water cycles at local and regional scales 137 Local water cycles can affect global cycles 139 5.7 The Water Cycle Is Central to Life and Climate PART II 137 From Individuals to Populations 6 Individual Growth and Reproduction 143 The structures of seeds and fruits affect their dispersal 170 Plants can disperse across time via seed banks 174 144 6.2 Plants Grow by Adding Repeated Units to Their Bodies 144 7 Plant Life Histories 177 6.3 Plant Growth Affects Resource Acquisition 146 7.1 Trade-Offs Are a Central Cause of Variation in Life History Patterns 178 Shoot architecture determines light interception 146 The growth of clonal plants affects their ability to take up patchy resources 147 6.4 Plants Reproduce both Sexually and Asexually 149 Many plants reproduce vegetatively 149 Some plants produce seeds asexually 150 The sexual life cycles of plants involve alternation of generations 150 The pollen of many plants is moved by the wind 153 Visual displays are important for attracting animal visitors 154 Animal visitors are attracted to plants with floral odors or acoustic guides 156 Plants often need to limit unwanted visits 158 How strongly are floral characteristics associated with particular pollinators? 158 BOX 6A Specialized Plants and Pollinators 159 • BOX 6B Some Complex Plant-Pollinator 160 Aquatic plants have special adaptations for pollination 161 Ш BOX 6C Is There a Pollinator Crisis? How long a plant lives and when it does its growing is part of its life history strategy 182 7.3 Several
Theories Address Life History Strategies 184 Demographic life history theory is based on evolutionary principles 184 r- and К-selection theory was influential in earlier thinking about life histories 184 r- and fC-strategy theory was extended to the ecology of plants 185 Grime's triangular model focuses on the ecological conditions favoring different life history strategies 185 Demographic life history theory has been tied to patterns of reproductive allocation 186 Other theories of life history strategies are based on examining plant traits 188 7.4 Year-to-Year Variation in the Environment Shapes Life Histories 189 161 6.6 Plants Have Complicated Mating Systems Trade-offs are difficult to measure 178 An important trade-off is in the size and number of seeds 179 7.2 Evolution Acts on the Schedule of Survival and Reproduction 181 6.5 The Movement of Pollen Is an Important Aspect of a Plant's Life Cycle 153 Interactions 141 6.7 Fruit and Seed Characteristics Affect Dispersal across Space and Time 170 6.1 Growth Begins with Seed Germination Ш ix 162 Inbreeding is mating between close relatives 162 Plants may vary in gender 163 • BOX 6D Pollination Experiments 164 Competition occurs among plants and among pollen grains 165 Most mating is between neighboring individuals 166 Plants may mate preferentially with individuals with similar phenotypes 166 Fitness can depend on a population's composition 167 Mating systems have other important consequences 168 Among-year demographic variation reduces fitness 189 Bet-hedging strategies can reduce the variance in fitness 190 Seed
germination is triggered by many factors 191 Masting can result in synchronization of flowering among individuals 192 7.5 Phenology Is the Within-Year Schedule of Growth and Reproduction 193 The timing of growth is driven by both abiotic and biotic factors 194 The timing of reproduction may be due to abiotic factors 195
x Contents The timing of reproduction may be due to biotic factors 196 8.5 Population Growth Fluctuates Randomly over Time 222 8 Population Structure, Growth, and Decline 199 8.1 Plant Biology Creates Special Issues for Population Studies 200 Ш BOX 8A Genets and Ramets: What Is an Individual? 201 8.2 Plant Populations Are Structured by Age, Size, and Developmental Stage 202 Plant population structure is complicated because plants can change size or form at variable rates 203 8.3 Studying Population Growth Usually Involves Models of Changes in Population Structure 205 Life cycle graphs are useful models of plant demography and its relationship to data acquisition 206 Estimating vital rates can be done several ways 207 Ш BOX 8B How to Construct a Life Table 208 • BOX 8C Borrowing the Mark-Recapture Method from Animal Ecology 209 Ш BOX 8D Obtaining Data for Survival Studies 210 There are several approaches to building models for structured populations 211 • BOX 8E Constructing Matrix Models 212 Analyzing demographic models gives information on population growth rates and population composition 213 Ш BOX 8F Demography of an Endangered Cactus 213 • BOX 8G Multiplying a Population Vector by a Matrix 214 Measuring lifetime reproduction gives us the net reproductive rate of the population 215 Reproductive value is the contribution of each stage to population growth 215 • BOX 8H Reproductive Value 216 Sensitivity and elasticity indicate how individual matrix elements affect population growth 217 Life table response experiments can examine the demographic differences among
populations 218 Ш BOX 81 How Do Changes in Transition Probabilities Affect the Population Growth Rate? 219 Ecologists are beginning to study demography at larger spatial scales 219 There are additional approaches to modeling plant demography 220 Plant populations are heterogeneous 220 8.4 Demographic Studies of Long-Lived Plants Require Creative Methods 221 There are two general types of random variation 223 Random fluctuations reduce long-term growth rates 225 Studying variable population growth requires data recorded over many years 227 8.6 Demographic Models Have Strengths and Limitations 228 9 Evolution: Processes and Change 231 9.1 Natural Selection Is a Primary Cause of Evolutionary Change 232 Variation in phenotype is necessary for natural selection 233 Three conditions are necessary for evolution by natural selection 234 9.2 Heritability Measures the Genetic Basis of Phenotypic Variation 235 Heritability is a measure of resemblances among relatives 235 • BOX 9A A Simple Genetic System and the Resemblance of Relatives 237 • BOX 9B Using Genes to Track Pollen and Seeds and to Identify Species 238 Phenotypic variation can be partitioned into genetic and nongenetic components 238 The environment can interact with the genome to determine the phenotype 239 Genotypes are often nonrandomly distributed among environments 240 9.3 Patterns of Adaptation Are the Result of Natural Selection 240 Heavy-metal tolerance is an example of genetic differentiation 241 Adaptation to different light conditions is an example of adaptive plasticity 243 Environmental effects can extend over
generations 245 Phenotypic plasticity is important for understanding other ecological concepts 245 9.4 Natural Selection Can Occur at Levels Other Than the Individual 246 9.5 Other Processes Can Cause Evolutionary Change 247 Mutation, migration, and sexual reproduction are processes that increase genetic variation 248 Genetic drift is a process that decreases genetic variation 248 These evolutionary processes have important conservation implications 250 .
Contents xi 9.6 Evolutionary Processes Can Affect Variation among Populations 250 9.7 Ecotypes Are Different Forms of a Species That Are Adapted to Different Environments 250 PART III 9.8 Natural Selection Can Cause the Origin of New Species 254 9.9 Adaptation and Spéciation Can Happen through Hybridization 256 Population Interactions and Communities 10 Competition and Other Plant Interactions 261 10.1 Individuals Compete for Limited Resources 262 What are the mechanisms of resource competition? 263 Resource competition often depends on plant size 266 Plant competition frequently occurs between seedlings 266 Seedling competition can lead to self-thinning 269 10.2 There Are Several Approaches to Experiments for Studying Competition 270 How we quantify competition can affect experimental results 270 Competition experiments were originally conducted in greenhouse or garden environments 271 10.3 Interactions among Species Range from Competition to Facilitation 273 Different theories attempt to explain how competitive trade-offs lead to strategies 274 Are there fixed competitive hierarchies? 275 Ш BOX 10A Plant Traits and the Worldwide Leaf Economic Spectrum: Attempts to Simplify Understanding of Plant Diversity 276 Does allelopathy between species explain patterns in nature? 276 Plants can change the environment to the advantage of other plants 279 Competitive exclusion sometimes determines species distributions 281 10.4 Competition and Facilitation May Vary along Environmental Gradients 282 There are conflicting models of how productivity affects the importance of competition
and facilitation 282 Experimental evidence provides a mixed picture about the roles of competition and facilitation along productivity gradients 284 Research syntheses provide some help in interpreting the evidence 286 Can we resolve the conflicting results? 287 • BOX 10B Research Synthesis, Systematic Reviews, and Meta-Analysis: Tools for Summarizing Results across Studies 289 259 Models of plant competition can help us to better understand competitive processes and the role of competition in species coexistence 289 Modem coexistence theory is a framework for understanding how competition affects coexistence 290 Models within the framework of modern coexistence theory have stimulated research and discovery 291 New research can extend our understanding of coexistence 293 11 Herbivory and Other Trophic Interactions 297 11.1 The Effects of Herbivores on Individual Plants Depend on What Is Eaten 298 11.2 Herbivores Can Alter Plant Population Composition and Dynamics 300 Herbivores can change where plants grow 302 Herbivory on seeds has both negative and positive consequences for plant populations 303 People use insect herbivores for biological control 303 11.3 Herbivores Affect Plant Communities in Different Ways 305 Herbivore behavior can change plant community composition 305 Herbivory might result in apparent competition among plants 308 Domesticated and introduced herbivores can shape plant communities 308 How important is herbivory in shaping the natural world? 310 11.4 Plants Defend Themselves against Herbivores by Different Means 310 Plants use a variety of physical
defenses to protect themselves 310 Plants have evolved a wide range of chemical defenses against herbivores 312 Plant chemical defenses can be constant or be induced by herbivory 314 Evolutionary consequences of plant-herbivore interactions 316 11.5 Plants Are Involved in Many Kinds of Trophic Interactions 317 Some plants are parasites of other plants 317
хи Contents 11.6 Plants Interact with Pathogens, Endophytes, and Mycorrhizae in Complex Ways 318 ❁ BOX 11A "Broken" Tulips and the Tulip Mania of the 1600s 319 Plants are attacked by many different disease-causing organisms 319 • BOX 11B Effects of Plant Disease on Humans: Phylogenetic diversity is variation in evolutionary relationships 345 Functional diversity is variation in traits 347 Different types of biodiversity information can be combined 349 12.3 Communities Can Be Measured in Many Ways 349 Measuring species richness can involve simple sampling procedures or complex mathematical estimates 349 There are many ways to sample communities 354 One measure of a plant community is its physiognomy 357 Long-term studies are important for measuring communities 357 Potato Blight and the Irish Potato Famine (the Great Famine) 319 Plants have immediate defenses and long-term evolutionary responses to pathogens 321 Pathogens can shape plant populations and communities 322 Plant pathogens can interact in complex ways with other organisms 324 Endophytes are symbiotic organisms that live inside plant cells 324 Mycorrhizae are essential for terrestrial Ufe 325 Arbuscular mycorrhizae and ectomycorrhizae are the two most ecologically important groups 326 Specialized mycorrhizal interactions include those associated with the Ericaceae and Orchidaceae 328 Mycorrhizae function in other ways in addition to , nutrient uptake 329 Are mycorrhizal fungi mutualists or parasites? 329 The influence of mycorrhizae can depend on plantplant interactions as well as on soil nutrients 330 • BOX 12D
The Long-Term Ecological Research Network 358 12.4 Plant Communities Can Be Compared by Many Methods 358 Non-numerical techniques were the first methods for comparing communities 359 Communities can be compared by single factors using univariate techniques 360 Most community comparisons use multivariate techniques 360 12.5 Communities Are Distributed across Landscapes 362 Ordination is a group of techniques for describing landscape patterns 362 Patterns of species difference among communities are caused by variation in the environment 364 What types of data are used? 365 Classification is an alternative approach to describing communities in a landscape 366 12 Community Diversity and Structure 333 12.1 There Are Many Ways of Thinking about Communities 334 ❁ BOX 12A Communities, Taxa, Guilds, and Functional Groups 335 The debate between Henry Gleason and Frederic Clements shaped modem ideas about plant communities 336 Today's ecologists have a different perspective on the issues in contention 338 ❁ BOX 12B A Deeper Look at Some Definitions: Abiotic Factors and Emergent Properties 340 The concept of communities is useful but has often been debated 340 12.2 Biodiversity Describes Variation in Biological Organisms and Systems 341 Biodiversity metrics can be built from different types of information 342 Inventory diversity is the variation of types of objects 342 ❁ BOX 12C A Unified Measure of Diversity 344 Differentiation diversity is the variation among units 345 13 Community Dynamics and Succession 371 13.1 Conflicting Theories Have Attempted to Explain the Mechanisms of
Succession 372 Are communities dynamic mosaics or regulated by predictable processes? 372 • BOX 13A History of the Development of Modern Succession Theory 373 Scientific understanding can be influenced by methodology 374 13.2 Successional Change Has Three General Causes 377 Disturbance size affects which species can colonize 377 Fire can cause disturbance 379 Wind can cause disturbance 381 Water can cause disturbance 381 Animals can cause disturbance 382 Earthquakes and volcanoes can cause disturbance 382 ❁ BOX 13B The Dust Bowl of the 1930s 383
Contents Disease can cause disturbance 384 Humans can cause disturbance 384 13.3 Which Species Are Available for Colonization Affects Succession 385 The dispersal capacity of species affects their colonization capability 385 Species can emerge from the propagule pool 387 13.4 Species Performance Determines the Pattern of Successional Change 390 Species vary in their life histories 390 Species interactions are central to species replacement during succession 391 Resource availability can change during succession 392 13.5 The Pathway of Succession Can Vary 393 Succession may or may not be predictable 393 Understanding successional processes is critical for community restoration 394 13.6 Ecologists Have Reconsidered the Concept of Climax 395 14 Local Abundance, Diversity, and Rarity 397 14.1 Are Dominant Species Competitively Superior? 398 There are many ways to be rare but few ways to be common 398 PART IV Being rare can vary over space and time 399 What makes a species common or rare? 402 14.2 Biological Invasions Are a Worldwide Concern 403 Why do some species become invasive? 404 What makes a community susceptible to invasion? 405 Efforts have been made to integrate explanations for invasiveness and susceptibility to invasion 409 Invasive species may alter many community properties and threaten biodiversity 410 14.3 Species Richness and Abundances Differ Greatly among Communities 411 Abundance curves illustrate community structure graphically 411 Productivity and diversity are related in complex ways within communities 412 Trade-offs and specialization contribute to
diversity in heterogeneous environments 414 Disturbances might maintain community diversity 415 14.4 Does Increased Diversity Enhance Community Productivity or Stability? 416 Community dominance and diversity can affect ecosystem processes 417 Diversity has been hypothesized to increase stability 417 Diversity, rarity, and commonness vary with spatial extent 417 From Landscapes to Planet Earth 15 Landscapes: Pattern and Scale 421 15.1 Understanding Scale Is Critical to Understanding Ecological Processes 422 Patterns and processes can vary with scale 422 Scale interacts with environmental heterogeneity 424 Processes and patterns may vary as grain and extent change 425 Spatial pattern and scale can be analyzed using graphical and statistical methods 426 15.2 Landscape Ecology Involves Measuring Spatial Patterns and Looking at Their Effects 427 Defining patches is a key step in measuring patterns 427 • BOX 15A Differentiating Vegetation Based on Spectral Quality 428 Patches can be quantified by their sizes, shapes, and spatial arrangement 429 Spatial patterns determine many ecological processes 430 419 How one analyzes landscape data affects whether the landscape appears to be continuous or discrete 430 15.3 Ecological Processes Occur across Landscapes 431 Island biogeography theory 431 Ecologists have debated whether there is a set of rules that determines how communities are put together 433 Metapopulation theory 434 • BOX 15B Metapopulation Models 435 Demographic processes occur across landscapes 436 Metacommunity theory 437 15.4 Ecological Processes at the Level of
Landscapes Is Important for Plant Conservation 439 Fragmentation of landscapes is a major threat to biodiversity 439 Key landscape characteristics are edges, connectivity, and nestedness 443 Ecological theory can help guide reserve design 445
xiv Contents 17 16 Climate, Plants, and Climate Change 447 16.2 The Kinetic Energy of Molecules Determines Heat and Temperature 448 17.2 The Mesozoic Era Was Dominated by Gymnosperms and Saw the Origin of the Angiosperms 499 Gymnosperms were the first group of dominant seed plants 499 The breakup of Pangaea happened as the angiosperms rose to dominance 501 The boundary between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods resulted in big changes in the flora and fauna 503 The sun's angle is the main factor determining the radiant energy received at Earth's surface 451 There are long-term cycles in Earth's path around the sun that affect radiant energy at Earth's surface 455 457 Global patterns are determined by air moving in three dimensions at huge spatial scales 457 Ш BOX 16A The Coriolis Effect 460 Continental-scale movement of air and water explain regional differences in snow and rain 464 Seasonal variation in precipitation is an important component of climate 465 The El Niño Southern Oscillation affects rainfall at large spatial scales and intermediate time scales 468 Temperature and rainfall predictability affect plant ecology and evolution 470 17.3 The Cenozoic Era Was Dominated by Angiosperms 503 17.4 Many Different Methods Are Used to Uncover the Past 504 17.5 Vegetation Change in the Recent Past Has Been Dominated by the Waxing and Waning of Glaciers 505 At the glacial maximum, climates and habitats were very different from today 506 Modem plant communities began to appear as the glaciers retreated 508 Climatic fluctuations of the recent past continue to shape the
vegetation 510 16.4 Anthropogenic Global Climate Change Is Caused by Humans and Is Affecting Vegetation 471 The global carbon cycle is central to Earth's climates 472 Increasing atmospheric C02 has direct effects on plants 474 The greenhouse effect warms the Earth due to greenhouse gases 475 ❁ BOX 16B The Ozone Hole and the Greenhouse Effect 495 17.1 Plants Invaded the Land in the Paleozoic Era 496 16.1 There Are Important Differences between Climate and Weather 448 16.3 Precipitation Patterns Vary across the Earth Paleoecology 476 16.5 Humans Are Changing the Global Carbon Cycle 477 Fossil fuel combustion is the most important factor changing the greenhouse effect 477 Deforestation and land use change also affect climate 481 16.6 Agriculture Is a Major Source of Greenhouse Gases 482 18 Biomes and Physiognomy 513 18.1 Vegetation Can Be Categorized by Its Structure and Function 514 Plant physiognomy varies across the globe 514 Forests are closed canopy systems dominated by trees 516 Tree line defines the edge between treed and treeless landscapes 518 Grasslands and woodlands dominate in areas of lower precipitation 518 Shrublands and deserts are found in very dry or cool regions 519 16.7 Global Climate Change Is Already Occurring 483 18.2 Biomes with Similar Vegetation Forms May Be the Result of Convergent Evolution 520 16.8 Large Changes Are Predicted for Earth's Climates, but Some Impacts Can Still Be Mitigated 486 18.3 Moist Tropical Forests Ш BOX 16C Understanding Past Climates and Predicting Future Climates 486 16.9 Changing Climates Are Affecting Species and Ecological
Systems 489 16.10 Responses to Ongoing and Predicted Climate Change 492 523 Tropical rainforest 523 Tropical montane forest 526 18.4 Seasonal Tropical Forests and Woodlands 526 Tropical deciduous forest 526 Thom forest 527 Tropical woodland 527 18.5 Temperate Deciduous Forest 528 18.6 Other Temperate Forests and Woodlands 529
Contents Temperate rainforest 529 Temperate evergreen forest 530 Temperate woodland 531 18.7 Taiga Continents at the same latitudes differ in species diversity 551 Transition zones may have higher diversity due to overlaps in species' distributions 553 Mountains and mountainous regions have distinct but complex patterns of species diversity 554 532 18.8 Temperate Shrubland 18.9 Grasslands 533 534 19.4 Regional Diversity and Local Diversity Can Influence One Another 556 Temperate grassland 534 Tropical savanna 536 18.10 Deserts Endemism, isolation, and global biodiversity hotspots 557 537 19.5 Patterns of Species Diversity May Be Explained in General Terms 561 Hot desert 537 Cold desert 538 18.11 Alpine and Arctic Vegetation Null models and the neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography pose a different approach to explaining patterns of species diversity 562 Other explanations have been posed to explain variation in biodiversity, but patterns are scale dependent 562 539 Alpine grassland and shrubland 539 Tundra 540 19 Global Biodiversity Patterns, Loss, and Conservation 543 19.1 Biodiversity Varies Enormously across the Earth 544 Global biodiversity increases toward the tropics 545 19.2 What Explains Global Biodiversity Patterns? 546 Explanations for the latitudinal diversity gradient include energy, water, and environmental heterogeneity, but all explanations have limitations 546 Ш BOX 19A The Fynbos and the Cape Region of Africa Have Some of the World's Highest Plant Diversity 547 There are also regional and global patterns of ß-diversity 550 19.3 There Are
Distinctive Regional and Continental Patterns of Plant Biodiversity 550 Glossary Index 1-1 G-1 XV Ш BOX 19B Explaining Diversity along Ecological Gradients 564 19.6 Biodiversity Is Rapidly Being Lost Globally 566 What is being lost? 566 Biodiversity is threatened by human activity 567 Does human domination require a new definition of the biomes? 570 Both rare and common species face threats in a range of communities 570 Human population growth and land use contribute to biodiversity loss 570 19.7 Ecosystem Services Are One Way of Quantifying the Benefits of Natural Systems to Humans 572 Why should anyone care about plant biodiversity? 572 Conservation and restoration of biodiversity: a ray of hope? 573 |
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Brief Contents CHAPTER 1 PARTI The Science of Plant Ecology 1 Individuals and Their Environments 19 CHAPTER 2 Photosynthesis and Light CHAPTER 3 Water Relations and Thermal Energy Balance CHAPTER 4 Soil and Terrestrial Plant Life CHAPTER 5 Ecosystem Processes PARTII 21 83 111 From Individuals to Populations 141 CHAPTER 6 Individual Growth and Reproduction CHAPTER 7 Plant Life Histories CHAPTER 8 Population Structure, Growth, and Decline CHAPTER 9 Evolution: Processes and Change PART III 53 143 177 199 231 Population Interactions and Communities CHAPTER 10 Competition and Other Plant Interactions 261 CHAPTER 11 Herbivory and Other Trophic Interactions 297 CHAPTER 12 Community Diversity and Structure CHAPTER 13 Community Dynamics and Succession CHAPTER 14 Local Abundance, Diversity, and Rarity PART IV 259 333 371 397 From Landscapes to Planet Earth 419 CHAPTER 15 Landscapes: Pattern and Scale 421 CHAPTER 16 Climate, Plants, and Climate Change CHAPTER 17 Paleoecology CHAPTER 18 Biomes and Physiognomy CHAPTER 19 Global Biodiversity Patterns, Loss, and Conservation 447 495 513 543
Contents 1 The Science of Plant Ecology 1 1.1 Ecology Is a Science 2 Where does scientific knowledge come from? 2 Scientific research involves objectivity, subjectivity, choice, and chance 5 Observational studies detect and quantify patterns 5 Experiments are central to research 5 In ecology, "controls" are what you are using for baseline comparisons 8 How do we test theories? 10 Studies can lead to specific results but contribute to general understanding 12 PARTI Science is ultimately consistent, but getting to consistency is a challenge 12 1.2 Ecological Phenomena Are Heterogeneous in Many Ways 12 1.3 Plant Ecology Has Developed through the Interaction of Observation, Measurement, Analysis, Technology, and Theory 14 Plant ecology is situated in the more general theoretical framework of ecology 16 Ecology has a range of subdisciplines 17 Science is a human endeavor 18 Individuals and Their Environments Photosynthesis first evolved about 2.5 billion years ago and has continued to evolve over Earth's history 39 2 Photosynthesis and Light 21 2.1 Photosynthesis Is the Engine of Life on Earth ❁ 22 BOX 2A The Discovery and Elucidation of Photosynthetic Carbon Reduction 19 2.5 C3, C4, and CAM Plants Each Have Distinct Growth Forms, Phenology, and Distributions 26 2.2 Photosynthesis Is Affected by the Environment and by Plant Adaptations 28 The amount of light available limits photosynthesis 28 Carbon uptake is limited by the ways plants respond to their environments 31 Photosynthetic rates can vary among species in different habitats 32 2.6 Plants Possess Many Different
Adaptations to Their Light Environments 46 Many plants can detect the length of daylight and how it is changing seasonally 46 Leaves grown in sunlit and shaded conditions can differ in structure and function 47 2.3 There Are Three Photosynthetic Pathways: C3, C4, and CAM 33 C3 photosynthesis is the most common and original type of photosynthesis 33 ❁ BOX 2B Photorespiration 34 C4 photosynthesis is a specialized adaptation for rapid carbon uptake in warm, bright environments 35 ❁ BOX 2C Stable Isotopes and Photosynthesis 37 Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM photosynthesis) is a specialized adaptation for minimizing water loss but at the cost of reduced photosynthesis and slow growth 38 2.4 C3 Photosynthesis Is the Foundation for the Evolution of C4 and CAM 39 C4 and CAM evolved from C3 photosynthesis many different times in many different plant families 39 42 The three photosynthetic types dominate in different habitats and differ in growth form 42 C3 and C4 plants grow most actively in different seasons 43 C3, C4, and CAM species have different geographic distributions 44 ❁ BOX 2D Blue Color and Iridescence, Structural Coloration, and Anthocyanin Pigments 50 3 Water Relations and Thermal Energy Balance 53 The ancestors of modem plants evolved to live in terrestrial environments 54 3.1 Water Potential Provides a Framework for Understanding How Plants Interact with Water in Their Environment 55 ❁ BOX ЗА Measuring Photosynthesis, Transpiration, and Water Potential 56
viii Contents 4.4 The Basic Building Blocks of Plants are C, H, and О from Air and Water, and Macronutrients and Micronutrients from the Soil 101 3.2 Water Moves through a Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum 57 3.3 Plants Manage Transpiration and Water Loss 59 Plants have different strategies for adapting to water availability 60 Water use efficiency is a measure of carbon gain versus water loss 62 Plants have different adaptations for coping with reduced water availability 62 Plants have complex physiological adaptations to drought 65 The anatomy and physiology of stomata shape plant responses to water loss 67 Leaf anatomy can be adaptive for survival and growth in arid environments 68 Roots, stems, and their tissues have adaptations for controlling plant water relations 71 3.4 Everything in the Universe Has a Thermal Energy Balance 75 Radiant energy is always being exchanged between plants and their surroundings 76 ❁ BOX 3B Why the Sky Is Blue and the Setting Sun Is Red 77 Energy flows between plants and air, water and soil via conduction and convection 77 Water loss is accompanied by latent heat loss 78 Putting it all together: what determines leaf and whole-plant temperature? 78 Plants may have adaptations to extreme temperature regimes 80 4 Soil and Terrestrial Plant Life 83 ❁ BOX 4C Symbioses and Mutualisms 105 Phosphorus is limiting for plant growth in many environments 108 5 Ecosystem Processes 111 5.1 Ecosystem Processes Set the Stage for Life in a Salt Marsh 112 5.2 Ecosystem Pools and Fluxes Form Cycles of Nutrients and Energy 114 ❁ BOX 5A Biogeochemical Cycles:
Quantifying Pools and Fluxes 114 5.3 Carbon Is the Foundation of Life on Earth 116 ‘ Productivity measures how carbon moves between living things and their nonliving environment 116 Carbon is stored in the living and nonliving components of ecosystems 119 Soil food webs are the recycling engine of terrestrial ecosystems 122 Soil organic matter revisited: Bacteria are an essential component of soil organic matter 125 Primary productivity can be measured or estimated in a variety of ways 125 ❁ BOX 5B Using Remote Sensing and Eddy 4.1 Soils Have Distinct and Varied Composition, Characteristics, and Structure 84 It takes many thousands of years to create soil The stoichiometry of elements in plants and soils regulates many ecological processes 104 Nitrogen is often the limiting nutrient for plant growth 104 In some plants nitrogen comes from fixation by symbiotes 105 85 ❁ BOX 4A Serpentine Soils 85 Soil texture determines many of the properties of soils that affect plants 89 Soil pH has profound but indirect effects 92 Soils are characterized by horizons—layers with distinctive properties 94 ❁ BOX 4B Soil Conservation Is a Major Global Environmental Issue 96 Soils are the unique product of living organisms acting on soil parent material 97 4.2 The Rhizosphere Is a Unique Environment Created by Roots and Their Interaction with Microorganisms 98 4.3 Water Moves through the Soil to Reach Plants 99 Covariance Methods to Estimate NPP 126 5.4 The Nitrogen Cycle Is an Essential Component of Ecosystems 127 Bacteria mineralize organic N to inorganic forms taken up by plants 129 Nitrogen
is lost from ecosystems through denitrification and leaching 131 Decomposition can immobilize soil nitrogen when N03~ or NH4+ are sequestered in bacterial biomass 132 5.5 Nitrogen Deposition and Acid Precipitation Can Alter Ecosystems 132 ❁ BOX 5C The Haber Process, the Green Revolution, and Nitrogen in Ecosystems 134 5.6 Cycles of Phosphorus and Other Elements Play Important Roles in Ecosystems 135 Microorganisms make phosphorus available for plants 135 Sulfur is critical for certain plant compounds 136
Contents Calcium is necessary for many plant processes and structures 136 Water cycles at local and regional scales 137 Local water cycles can affect global cycles 139 5.7 The Water Cycle Is Central to Life and Climate PART II 137 From Individuals to Populations 6 Individual Growth and Reproduction 143 The structures of seeds and fruits affect their dispersal 170 Plants can disperse across time via seed banks 174 144 6.2 Plants Grow by Adding Repeated Units to Their Bodies 144 7 Plant Life Histories 177 6.3 Plant Growth Affects Resource Acquisition 146 7.1 Trade-Offs Are a Central Cause of Variation in Life History Patterns 178 Shoot architecture determines light interception 146 The growth of clonal plants affects their ability to take up patchy resources 147 6.4 Plants Reproduce both Sexually and Asexually 149 Many plants reproduce vegetatively 149 Some plants produce seeds asexually 150 The sexual life cycles of plants involve alternation of generations 150 The pollen of many plants is moved by the wind 153 Visual displays are important for attracting animal visitors 154 Animal visitors are attracted to plants with floral odors or acoustic guides 156 Plants often need to limit unwanted visits 158 How strongly are floral characteristics associated with particular pollinators? 158 BOX 6A Specialized Plants and Pollinators 159 • BOX 6B Some Complex Plant-Pollinator 160 Aquatic plants have special adaptations for pollination 161 Ш BOX 6C Is There a Pollinator Crisis? How long a plant lives and when it does its growing is part of its life history strategy 182 7.3 Several
Theories Address Life History Strategies 184 Demographic life history theory is based on evolutionary principles 184 r- and К-selection theory was influential in earlier thinking about life histories 184 r- and fC-strategy theory was extended to the ecology of plants 185 Grime's triangular model focuses on the ecological conditions favoring different life history strategies 185 Demographic life history theory has been tied to patterns of reproductive allocation 186 Other theories of life history strategies are based on examining plant traits 188 7.4 Year-to-Year Variation in the Environment Shapes Life Histories 189 161 6.6 Plants Have Complicated Mating Systems Trade-offs are difficult to measure 178 An important trade-off is in the size and number of seeds 179 7.2 Evolution Acts on the Schedule of Survival and Reproduction 181 6.5 The Movement of Pollen Is an Important Aspect of a Plant's Life Cycle 153 Interactions 141 6.7 Fruit and Seed Characteristics Affect Dispersal across Space and Time 170 6.1 Growth Begins with Seed Germination Ш ix 162 Inbreeding is mating between close relatives 162 Plants may vary in gender 163 • BOX 6D Pollination Experiments 164 Competition occurs among plants and among pollen grains 165 Most mating is between neighboring individuals 166 Plants may mate preferentially with individuals with similar phenotypes 166 Fitness can depend on a population's composition 167 Mating systems have other important consequences 168 Among-year demographic variation reduces fitness 189 Bet-hedging strategies can reduce the variance in fitness 190 Seed
germination is triggered by many factors 191 Masting can result in synchronization of flowering among individuals 192 7.5 Phenology Is the Within-Year Schedule of Growth and Reproduction 193 The timing of growth is driven by both abiotic and biotic factors 194 The timing of reproduction may be due to abiotic factors 195
x Contents The timing of reproduction may be due to biotic factors 196 8.5 Population Growth Fluctuates Randomly over Time 222 8 Population Structure, Growth, and Decline 199 8.1 Plant Biology Creates Special Issues for Population Studies 200 Ш BOX 8A Genets and Ramets: What Is an Individual? 201 8.2 Plant Populations Are Structured by Age, Size, and Developmental Stage 202 Plant population structure is complicated because plants can change size or form at variable rates 203 8.3 Studying Population Growth Usually Involves Models of Changes in Population Structure 205 Life cycle graphs are useful models of plant demography and its relationship to data acquisition 206 Estimating vital rates can be done several ways 207 Ш BOX 8B How to Construct a Life Table 208 • BOX 8C Borrowing the Mark-Recapture Method from Animal Ecology 209 Ш BOX 8D Obtaining Data for Survival Studies 210 There are several approaches to building models for structured populations 211 • BOX 8E Constructing Matrix Models 212 Analyzing demographic models gives information on population growth rates and population composition 213 Ш BOX 8F Demography of an Endangered Cactus 213 • BOX 8G Multiplying a Population Vector by a Matrix 214 Measuring lifetime reproduction gives us the net reproductive rate of the population 215 Reproductive value is the contribution of each stage to population growth 215 • BOX 8H Reproductive Value 216 Sensitivity and elasticity indicate how individual matrix elements affect population growth 217 Life table response experiments can examine the demographic differences among
populations 218 Ш BOX 81 How Do Changes in Transition Probabilities Affect the Population Growth Rate? 219 Ecologists are beginning to study demography at larger spatial scales 219 There are additional approaches to modeling plant demography 220 Plant populations are heterogeneous 220 8.4 Demographic Studies of Long-Lived Plants Require Creative Methods 221 There are two general types of random variation 223 Random fluctuations reduce long-term growth rates 225 Studying variable population growth requires data recorded over many years 227 8.6 Demographic Models Have Strengths and Limitations 228 9 Evolution: Processes and Change 231 9.1 Natural Selection Is a Primary Cause of Evolutionary Change 232 Variation in phenotype is necessary for natural selection 233 Three conditions are necessary for evolution by natural selection 234 9.2 Heritability Measures the Genetic Basis of Phenotypic Variation 235 Heritability is a measure of resemblances among relatives 235 • BOX 9A A Simple Genetic System and the Resemblance of Relatives 237 • BOX 9B Using Genes to Track Pollen and Seeds and to Identify Species 238 Phenotypic variation can be partitioned into genetic and nongenetic components 238 The environment can interact with the genome to determine the phenotype 239 Genotypes are often nonrandomly distributed among environments 240 9.3 Patterns of Adaptation Are the Result of Natural Selection 240 Heavy-metal tolerance is an example of genetic differentiation 241 Adaptation to different light conditions is an example of adaptive plasticity 243 Environmental effects can extend over
generations 245 Phenotypic plasticity is important for understanding other ecological concepts 245 9.4 Natural Selection Can Occur at Levels Other Than the Individual 246 9.5 Other Processes Can Cause Evolutionary Change 247 Mutation, migration, and sexual reproduction are processes that increase genetic variation 248 Genetic drift is a process that decreases genetic variation 248 These evolutionary processes have important conservation implications 250 .
Contents xi 9.6 Evolutionary Processes Can Affect Variation among Populations 250 9.7 Ecotypes Are Different Forms of a Species That Are Adapted to Different Environments 250 PART III 9.8 Natural Selection Can Cause the Origin of New Species 254 9.9 Adaptation and Spéciation Can Happen through Hybridization 256 Population Interactions and Communities 10 Competition and Other Plant Interactions 261 10.1 Individuals Compete for Limited Resources 262 What are the mechanisms of resource competition? 263 Resource competition often depends on plant size 266 Plant competition frequently occurs between seedlings 266 Seedling competition can lead to self-thinning 269 10.2 There Are Several Approaches to Experiments for Studying Competition 270 How we quantify competition can affect experimental results 270 Competition experiments were originally conducted in greenhouse or garden environments 271 10.3 Interactions among Species Range from Competition to Facilitation 273 Different theories attempt to explain how competitive trade-offs lead to strategies 274 Are there fixed competitive hierarchies? 275 Ш BOX 10A Plant Traits and the Worldwide Leaf Economic Spectrum: Attempts to Simplify Understanding of Plant Diversity 276 Does allelopathy between species explain patterns in nature? 276 Plants can change the environment to the advantage of other plants 279 Competitive exclusion sometimes determines species distributions 281 10.4 Competition and Facilitation May Vary along Environmental Gradients 282 There are conflicting models of how productivity affects the importance of competition
and facilitation 282 Experimental evidence provides a mixed picture about the roles of competition and facilitation along productivity gradients 284 Research syntheses provide some help in interpreting the evidence 286 Can we resolve the conflicting results? 287 • BOX 10B Research Synthesis, Systematic Reviews, and Meta-Analysis: Tools for Summarizing Results across Studies 289 259 Models of plant competition can help us to better understand competitive processes and the role of competition in species coexistence 289 Modem coexistence theory is a framework for understanding how competition affects coexistence 290 Models within the framework of modern coexistence theory have stimulated research and discovery 291 New research can extend our understanding of coexistence 293 11 Herbivory and Other Trophic Interactions 297 11.1 The Effects of Herbivores on Individual Plants Depend on What Is Eaten 298 11.2 Herbivores Can Alter Plant Population Composition and Dynamics 300 Herbivores can change where plants grow 302 Herbivory on seeds has both negative and positive consequences for plant populations 303 People use insect herbivores for biological control 303 11.3 Herbivores Affect Plant Communities in Different Ways 305 Herbivore behavior can change plant community composition 305 Herbivory might result in apparent competition among plants 308 Domesticated and introduced herbivores can shape plant communities 308 How important is herbivory in shaping the natural world? 310 11.4 Plants Defend Themselves against Herbivores by Different Means 310 Plants use a variety of physical
defenses to protect themselves 310 Plants have evolved a wide range of chemical defenses against herbivores 312 Plant chemical defenses can be constant or be induced by herbivory 314 Evolutionary consequences of plant-herbivore interactions 316 11.5 Plants Are Involved in Many Kinds of Trophic Interactions 317 Some plants are parasites of other plants 317
хи Contents 11.6 Plants Interact with Pathogens, Endophytes, and Mycorrhizae in Complex Ways 318 ❁ BOX 11A "Broken" Tulips and the Tulip Mania of the 1600s 319 Plants are attacked by many different disease-causing organisms 319 • BOX 11B Effects of Plant Disease on Humans: Phylogenetic diversity is variation in evolutionary relationships 345 Functional diversity is variation in traits 347 Different types of biodiversity information can be combined 349 12.3 Communities Can Be Measured in Many Ways 349 Measuring species richness can involve simple sampling procedures or complex mathematical estimates 349 There are many ways to sample communities 354 One measure of a plant community is its physiognomy 357 Long-term studies are important for measuring communities 357 Potato Blight and the Irish Potato Famine (the Great Famine) 319 Plants have immediate defenses and long-term evolutionary responses to pathogens 321 Pathogens can shape plant populations and communities 322 Plant pathogens can interact in complex ways with other organisms 324 Endophytes are symbiotic organisms that live inside plant cells 324 Mycorrhizae are essential for terrestrial Ufe 325 Arbuscular mycorrhizae and ectomycorrhizae are the two most ecologically important groups 326 Specialized mycorrhizal interactions include those associated with the Ericaceae and Orchidaceae 328 Mycorrhizae function in other ways in addition to , nutrient uptake 329 Are mycorrhizal fungi mutualists or parasites? 329 The influence of mycorrhizae can depend on plantplant interactions as well as on soil nutrients 330 • BOX 12D
The Long-Term Ecological Research Network 358 12.4 Plant Communities Can Be Compared by Many Methods 358 Non-numerical techniques were the first methods for comparing communities 359 Communities can be compared by single factors using univariate techniques 360 Most community comparisons use multivariate techniques 360 12.5 Communities Are Distributed across Landscapes 362 Ordination is a group of techniques for describing landscape patterns 362 Patterns of species difference among communities are caused by variation in the environment 364 What types of data are used? 365 Classification is an alternative approach to describing communities in a landscape 366 12 Community Diversity and Structure 333 12.1 There Are Many Ways of Thinking about Communities 334 ❁ BOX 12A Communities, Taxa, Guilds, and Functional Groups 335 The debate between Henry Gleason and Frederic Clements shaped modem ideas about plant communities 336 Today's ecologists have a different perspective on the issues in contention 338 ❁ BOX 12B A Deeper Look at Some Definitions: Abiotic Factors and Emergent Properties 340 The concept of communities is useful but has often been debated 340 12.2 Biodiversity Describes Variation in Biological Organisms and Systems 341 Biodiversity metrics can be built from different types of information 342 Inventory diversity is the variation of types of objects 342 ❁ BOX 12C A Unified Measure of Diversity 344 Differentiation diversity is the variation among units 345 13 Community Dynamics and Succession 371 13.1 Conflicting Theories Have Attempted to Explain the Mechanisms of
Succession 372 Are communities dynamic mosaics or regulated by predictable processes? 372 • BOX 13A History of the Development of Modern Succession Theory 373 Scientific understanding can be influenced by methodology 374 13.2 Successional Change Has Three General Causes 377 Disturbance size affects which species can colonize 377 Fire can cause disturbance 379 Wind can cause disturbance 381 Water can cause disturbance 381 Animals can cause disturbance 382 Earthquakes and volcanoes can cause disturbance 382 ❁ BOX 13B The Dust Bowl of the 1930s 383
Contents Disease can cause disturbance 384 Humans can cause disturbance 384 13.3 Which Species Are Available for Colonization Affects Succession 385 The dispersal capacity of species affects their colonization capability 385 Species can emerge from the propagule pool 387 13.4 Species Performance Determines the Pattern of Successional Change 390 Species vary in their life histories 390 Species interactions are central to species replacement during succession 391 Resource availability can change during succession 392 13.5 The Pathway of Succession Can Vary 393 Succession may or may not be predictable 393 Understanding successional processes is critical for community restoration 394 13.6 Ecologists Have Reconsidered the Concept of Climax 395 14 Local Abundance, Diversity, and Rarity 397 14.1 Are Dominant Species Competitively Superior? 398 There are many ways to be rare but few ways to be common 398 PART IV Being rare can vary over space and time 399 What makes a species common or rare? 402 14.2 Biological Invasions Are a Worldwide Concern 403 Why do some species become invasive? 404 What makes a community susceptible to invasion? 405 Efforts have been made to integrate explanations for invasiveness and susceptibility to invasion 409 Invasive species may alter many community properties and threaten biodiversity 410 14.3 Species Richness and Abundances Differ Greatly among Communities 411 Abundance curves illustrate community structure graphically 411 Productivity and diversity are related in complex ways within communities 412 Trade-offs and specialization contribute to
diversity in heterogeneous environments 414 Disturbances might maintain community diversity 415 14.4 Does Increased Diversity Enhance Community Productivity or Stability? 416 Community dominance and diversity can affect ecosystem processes 417 Diversity has been hypothesized to increase stability 417 Diversity, rarity, and commonness vary with spatial extent 417 From Landscapes to Planet Earth 15 Landscapes: Pattern and Scale 421 15.1 Understanding Scale Is Critical to Understanding Ecological Processes 422 Patterns and processes can vary with scale 422 Scale interacts with environmental heterogeneity 424 Processes and patterns may vary as grain and extent change 425 Spatial pattern and scale can be analyzed using graphical and statistical methods 426 15.2 Landscape Ecology Involves Measuring Spatial Patterns and Looking at Their Effects 427 Defining patches is a key step in measuring patterns 427 • BOX 15A Differentiating Vegetation Based on Spectral Quality 428 Patches can be quantified by their sizes, shapes, and spatial arrangement 429 Spatial patterns determine many ecological processes 430 419 How one analyzes landscape data affects whether the landscape appears to be continuous or discrete 430 15.3 Ecological Processes Occur across Landscapes 431 Island biogeography theory 431 Ecologists have debated whether there is a set of rules that determines how communities are put together 433 Metapopulation theory 434 • BOX 15B Metapopulation Models 435 Demographic processes occur across landscapes 436 Metacommunity theory 437 15.4 Ecological Processes at the Level of
Landscapes Is Important for Plant Conservation 439 Fragmentation of landscapes is a major threat to biodiversity 439 Key landscape characteristics are edges, connectivity, and nestedness 443 Ecological theory can help guide reserve design 445
xiv Contents 17 16 Climate, Plants, and Climate Change 447 16.2 The Kinetic Energy of Molecules Determines Heat and Temperature 448 17.2 The Mesozoic Era Was Dominated by Gymnosperms and Saw the Origin of the Angiosperms 499 Gymnosperms were the first group of dominant seed plants 499 The breakup of Pangaea happened as the angiosperms rose to dominance 501 The boundary between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods resulted in big changes in the flora and fauna 503 The sun's angle is the main factor determining the radiant energy received at Earth's surface 451 There are long-term cycles in Earth's path around the sun that affect radiant energy at Earth's surface 455 457 Global patterns are determined by air moving in three dimensions at huge spatial scales 457 Ш BOX 16A The Coriolis Effect 460 Continental-scale movement of air and water explain regional differences in snow and rain 464 Seasonal variation in precipitation is an important component of climate 465 The El Niño Southern Oscillation affects rainfall at large spatial scales and intermediate time scales 468 Temperature and rainfall predictability affect plant ecology and evolution 470 17.3 The Cenozoic Era Was Dominated by Angiosperms 503 17.4 Many Different Methods Are Used to Uncover the Past 504 17.5 Vegetation Change in the Recent Past Has Been Dominated by the Waxing and Waning of Glaciers 505 At the glacial maximum, climates and habitats were very different from today 506 Modem plant communities began to appear as the glaciers retreated 508 Climatic fluctuations of the recent past continue to shape the
vegetation 510 16.4 Anthropogenic Global Climate Change Is Caused by Humans and Is Affecting Vegetation 471 The global carbon cycle is central to Earth's climates 472 Increasing atmospheric C02 has direct effects on plants 474 The greenhouse effect warms the Earth due to greenhouse gases 475 ❁ BOX 16B The Ozone Hole and the Greenhouse Effect 495 17.1 Plants Invaded the Land in the Paleozoic Era 496 16.1 There Are Important Differences between Climate and Weather 448 16.3 Precipitation Patterns Vary across the Earth Paleoecology 476 16.5 Humans Are Changing the Global Carbon Cycle 477 Fossil fuel combustion is the most important factor changing the greenhouse effect 477 Deforestation and land use change also affect climate 481 16.6 Agriculture Is a Major Source of Greenhouse Gases 482 18 Biomes and Physiognomy 513 18.1 Vegetation Can Be Categorized by Its Structure and Function 514 Plant physiognomy varies across the globe 514 Forests are closed canopy systems dominated by trees 516 Tree line defines the edge between treed and treeless landscapes 518 Grasslands and woodlands dominate in areas of lower precipitation 518 Shrublands and deserts are found in very dry or cool regions 519 16.7 Global Climate Change Is Already Occurring 483 18.2 Biomes with Similar Vegetation Forms May Be the Result of Convergent Evolution 520 16.8 Large Changes Are Predicted for Earth's Climates, but Some Impacts Can Still Be Mitigated 486 18.3 Moist Tropical Forests Ш BOX 16C Understanding Past Climates and Predicting Future Climates 486 16.9 Changing Climates Are Affecting Species and Ecological
Systems 489 16.10 Responses to Ongoing and Predicted Climate Change 492 523 Tropical rainforest 523 Tropical montane forest 526 18.4 Seasonal Tropical Forests and Woodlands 526 Tropical deciduous forest 526 Thom forest 527 Tropical woodland 527 18.5 Temperate Deciduous Forest 528 18.6 Other Temperate Forests and Woodlands 529
Contents Temperate rainforest 529 Temperate evergreen forest 530 Temperate woodland 531 18.7 Taiga Continents at the same latitudes differ in species diversity 551 Transition zones may have higher diversity due to overlaps in species' distributions 553 Mountains and mountainous regions have distinct but complex patterns of species diversity 554 532 18.8 Temperate Shrubland 18.9 Grasslands 533 534 19.4 Regional Diversity and Local Diversity Can Influence One Another 556 Temperate grassland 534 Tropical savanna 536 18.10 Deserts Endemism, isolation, and global biodiversity hotspots 557 537 19.5 Patterns of Species Diversity May Be Explained in General Terms 561 Hot desert 537 Cold desert 538 18.11 Alpine and Arctic Vegetation Null models and the neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography pose a different approach to explaining patterns of species diversity 562 Other explanations have been posed to explain variation in biodiversity, but patterns are scale dependent 562 539 Alpine grassland and shrubland 539 Tundra 540 19 Global Biodiversity Patterns, Loss, and Conservation 543 19.1 Biodiversity Varies Enormously across the Earth 544 Global biodiversity increases toward the tropics 545 19.2 What Explains Global Biodiversity Patterns? 546 Explanations for the latitudinal diversity gradient include energy, water, and environmental heterogeneity, but all explanations have limitations 546 Ш BOX 19A The Fynbos and the Cape Region of Africa Have Some of the World's Highest Plant Diversity 547 There are also regional and global patterns of ß-diversity 550 19.3 There Are
Distinctive Regional and Continental Patterns of Plant Biodiversity 550 Glossary Index 1-1 G-1 XV Ш BOX 19B Explaining Diversity along Ecological Gradients 564 19.6 Biodiversity Is Rapidly Being Lost Globally 566 What is being lost? 566 Biodiversity is threatened by human activity 567 Does human domination require a new definition of the biomes? 570 Both rare and common species face threats in a range of communities 570 Human population growth and land use contribute to biodiversity loss 570 19.7 Ecosystem Services Are One Way of Quantifying the Benefits of Natural Systems to Humans 572 Why should anyone care about plant biodiversity? 572 Conservation and restoration of biodiversity: a ray of hope? 573 |
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| author | Gurevitch, Jessica 1952- Scheiner, Samuel M. 1956- Fox, Gordon A. 1952- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1146407653 (DE-588)132252724 (DE-588)132252740 |
| author_facet | Gurevitch, Jessica 1952- Scheiner, Samuel M. 1956- Fox, Gordon A. 1952- |
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| author_sort | Gurevitch, Jessica 1952- |
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| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV047115253 |
| classification_rvk | WI 2010 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1284786091 (DE-599)BVBBV047115253 |
| dewey-full | 581.7 |
| dewey-hundreds | 500 - Natural sciences and mathematics |
| dewey-ones | 581 - Specific topics in natural history of plants |
| dewey-raw | 581.7 |
| dewey-search | 581.7 |
| dewey-sort | 3581.7 |
| dewey-tens | 580 - Plants |
| discipline | Biologie |
| discipline_str_mv | Biologie |
| edition | Third edition |
| format | Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV047115253 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-03T16:27:18Z |
| indexdate | 2025-01-31T19:04:10Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9781605358291 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-032521670 |
| oclc_num | 1284786091 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-11 DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-703 |
| owner_facet | DE-11 DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-703 |
| physical | xviii, 574, G-14, I-42 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme |
| publishDate | 2021 |
| publishDateSearch | 2021 |
| publishDateSort | 2021 |
| publisher | Sinauer Associates, Oxford University Press |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Gurevitch, Jessica 1952- Verfasser (DE-588)1146407653 aut The ecology of plants Jessica Gurevitch (Stony Brook University), Samuel M. Scheiner, Gordon A. Fox (University of New Mexico, University of South Florida) Third edition New York ; Oxford Sinauer Associates, Oxford University Press [2021] xviii, 574, G-14, I-42 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Écologie végétale - Manuels d'enseignement supérieur Écologie végétale ram Pflanzenökologie (DE-588)4045575-0 gnd rswk-swf Pflanzenökologie (DE-588)4045575-0 s DE-604 Scheiner, Samuel M. 1956- Verfasser (DE-588)132252724 aut Fox, Gordon A. 1952- Verfasser (DE-588)132252740 aut Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, EPUB 978-1-60535-830-7 Digitalisierung UB Regensburg - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032521670&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Gurevitch, Jessica 1952- Scheiner, Samuel M. 1956- Fox, Gordon A. 1952- The ecology of plants Écologie végétale - Manuels d'enseignement supérieur Écologie végétale ram Pflanzenökologie (DE-588)4045575-0 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4045575-0 |
| title | The ecology of plants |
| title_auth | The ecology of plants |
| title_exact_search | The ecology of plants |
| title_exact_search_txtP | The ecology of plants |
| title_full | The ecology of plants Jessica Gurevitch (Stony Brook University), Samuel M. Scheiner, Gordon A. Fox (University of New Mexico, University of South Florida) |
| title_fullStr | The ecology of plants Jessica Gurevitch (Stony Brook University), Samuel M. Scheiner, Gordon A. Fox (University of New Mexico, University of South Florida) |
| title_full_unstemmed | The ecology of plants Jessica Gurevitch (Stony Brook University), Samuel M. Scheiner, Gordon A. Fox (University of New Mexico, University of South Florida) |
| title_short | The ecology of plants |
| title_sort | the ecology of plants |
| topic | Écologie végétale - Manuels d'enseignement supérieur Écologie végétale ram Pflanzenökologie (DE-588)4045575-0 gnd |
| topic_facet | Écologie végétale - Manuels d'enseignement supérieur Écologie végétale Pflanzenökologie |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032521670&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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