Survival on the margins: Polish Jewish refugees in the wartime Soviet Union
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Cambridge, Massachusetts ; London, England
Harvard University Press
2020
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| Physical Description: | X, 433 Seiten, 6 ungezählte Seiten Tafeln Illustrationen, Karten |
| ISBN: | 9780674988026 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Survival on the margins |b Polish Jewish refugees in the wartime Soviet Union |c Eliyana R. Adler |
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Record in the Search Index
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| adam_text | Contents Note on Transliteration and Translation ix Introduction: On the Other Side 1 1 Esau or Laban? Wrestling with the German and Soviet Occupations Z If a Man Did Flee from a Lion, and a Bear Met Him: The Soviet Embrace 15 50 3 Jewish Luck: Deportation to Siberia 101 4 City of Want: Survival in Central Asia 148 5 Nusekh Poyln, or Yetsies Potjln? The Polish Way, or Exodus from Poland? 212 Conclusion: Expanding the Compass of Survival 279 Notes 307 Bibliography 387 Acknowledgments 403 Index 407
Index Note: Figures are indexed in italic. Page numbers followed by t refer to tables. Alexander, Aleksandra, 26, 33-34 Aliyah (immigration to Israel), 62, 261, 262 Alma-Ata (Almaty): as destination for amnestied Poles, 153, 165; graves of Polish Jews in, 289 Altai Krai, deportees in, 112t, 130,131, 138, 146, 166, 170, 186 Alter, Wiktor, 11,109, 176, 180, 200, 206 Altshuler (Altschuler), Mordechai, 91,137, 231 Amar, Tarik, 54, 70, 83,120 American Jewish Committee. See AJC American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee. See JDC Amnestied Polish Jews: difficulty of travel in wartime, 153; factors influencing experience of, 149; greater hardship of those leaving areas of forced labor, 155-156; improvement of life for, 163-164; inability of some to leave labor installations, 165; as informants, 181-184; as lowest rung on Soviet hierarchy, 166; Palestine as goal of some, 153; portion remaining near labor facilities, 154; remaining of some in Soviet Union, 281; search for lost family members, 153,159; southward Abel, Tema, 46-47, 169, 216-217, 232, 239, 275-276 Abend, Dorothy Zänker, 118,131,201-202, 209, 239, 266 Ackerman, Diana, 131,138 Adamczyk-Garbowska, Monika, 255-256 Aftermath studies, 287 Agron, Rivka, 136, 137, 162, 166 Agudah (Agudath Yisrael), 245-246 Aid to Polish Jewish refugees in Soviet Union, 205-211; groups involved in, 205, 209; and information on location of refugees, 209-210; by JDC, 205-210; and reconnection of families through mail, 210; scholarship on, 7; Soviet suspicions about, 211. See also Polish aid to refugees in Soviet Union AJC (American Jewish
Committee), postwar interviews by, 55,165,167,171, 174, 175, 180, 181, 184,188,190, 193, 224, 228 Ajzen, Chaim, 25-26, 30, 233 Ajzen family, 162 Ajzenberg, Helena, 194 Alban, Sally, 31,32,117, 131, 165 Aleksiun, Natalia, 34, 67, 105, 249, 252, 254 407
40В INDEX Amnestied Polish Jews (continued) travel of many, 152-153, 155-156, 281; Soviet lack of plan for, 154; travel in search of viable home, 151-156, 281; and upheaval of German invasion, 151, 158-160; variation in dates of release, 151 Amnestied Polish Jews, contact with officials: avoidance of, 176; Erlich-Alter case and, 176; JAFC and, 174-175; misunderstandings characteristic of, 176; necessity of, 176; passportization drive of 1943 and, 178-179; and poor treatment equal to other Soviet citizens, 184; recruitment for labor battalions, 150, 177-178; through military service, 179, 180; through NKVD recruitment of informants, 177,180-184 Amnestied Polish Jews, life in exile, 165-174; antisemitism experienced by, 170-171; association with Soviet Jews, 168-169; and black market, 165, 167; and changed family roles due to deaths, 162-163; contact with unfamiliar ethnic groups, 166, 168; continued migra tion of some, 165; cultural practices, 171-172; and disease, 155,160, 161, 165-166, 290; educational opportuni ties, 168; housing shortages and, 166; lack of cultural capital, 159-160; lack of money or documents, 152, 160; language barriers and, 169; and medical treatment, difficulty of obtaining, 157, 160, 161; Polish government’s effort to aid, 150; poverty and hunger of, 149, 155, 159, 160-161, 163, 290; and rampant crime, 149, 159; and ration cards, employment needed to obtain, 165; relations between Jews and ethnic Poles, 192; religious practices, 172-174, 173; school experiences, 170; search for food and work, 165-166; struggles of first year, 158-164; successful
em ployment of some, 167; tendency to remain separate, 168, 170; and value of marketable skills, 166-167 Amnesty agreement for Poles in Soviet Union (Sikorski-Maisky Pact), 13, 143-147, 36ІПІ95; Baltic citizens left behind in labor installations, 146; conflict over implementation of, 149; debate on terminology of, 349-350n240; differing Polish and Jewish understandings of, 192; dramatic effect on Poles in Soviet Union, 149; events leading to agree ment, 144; failure to set Polish borders, 144; as Jewish luck, 146; news of, as slow to reach Poles in labor installa tions, 144-145, 154; Polish checks on compliance with, 202; provisions for Polish aid to refugees in, 200; rights granted to Polish government-in-exile under, 149; and southward travel, 13; Soviet efforts to block implementation, 150,177, 204-205, 219; Soviet reneging on, after repulse of German invasion, 205, 220 Anders, Władysław: amnesty and, 200; and Anders Army formation, 104-105, 149; antisemitism in Anders Army and, 199-200; promise to remove Polish rabbis and, 197; views on Jews in Anders Army 192-193 Anders Army (Polish II Corps): acceptance of Jews with special skills, 196-197; amnestied Polish Jews’ joining of, 163, 173; antisemitism in, 180,193-200,204; and Belorussian and Ukrainian Poles, 225; formation of, 149-150; Jewish de sertions from, 199; Jewish soldiers not reporting antisemitism, 198; Jews’ changing of name to join, 188, 194, 196; Jews evacuating with, 159,196, 197-198,202, 257,266,281,297; Jews seeking to join, 151,152,158,178,179, 188,202; Polish goals for, 149; rejection of Jewish men
as volunteers, 179, 193; rejection of Jewish women as volunteers, 194; Soviet interference in recruitment for, 178,193,198,199, 219, 225 Andizhan: amnestied Poles in, 163, 166, 167,186, 229; collective farm near, 160 Antisemitism, Polish: in Anders Army, 193-200, 204; and anticommunism, 53; Anti-Zionist Campaign (1967-68), 262-264; and distribution of aid to
INDEX Polish refugees, 200-203, 204; and evacuations of Poles from Soviet Union, 200; and Jews’ decision to leave Poland, 253-254; Jews’ long-held beliefs on, 51; Kielce Pogrom, 250-25!, 253-254, 255-256,257; in orphanages, 195-196; postwar virulence of, 238-239,248-251; Soviet exploitation of, 199-200; Soviet willingness to publicize, 199; and Stalinist excesses, blaming of Jews for, 260-261; and stereotyping of Jews, 51-52,183, 192; in Thaw, 260; Zionist movement and, 260 Antisemitism in Soviet Union: in Anders Army, 180, 193-200, 204; Andizhan, amnestied Poles in, 160, 163,166-167, 186, 229; anti-Jewish riot in Makarovka, 230; in Berling’s Army, 215; during flight from German invasion, 158, 161; increase during war, 170-171, 292, 383n23; in Kazakhstan school, 170; Polish Jews’ limited experience of, 10, 120, 135; postwar increase in, 288; in Red Army recruitment, 180, 215, 366nl0; rise of, and rising Jewish fear, 228, 229; in Soviet labor installations, 191-192; Antisemitism of Nazis, as well-known to Polish Jews, 18-20, 23 Arendt, Hannah, 300, 383n23 Arkhangelsk Oblast; deportees in, 124, 129,131,133-134, 135, 249, 272, 281; and news of Polish amnesty, 144-145; number of deportees to, 112r Arrest and incarceration of Poles: for border crossing, 105-107, 111, 129, 132; and deportations, as paired tools, 109; for flight to Lithuania, 106-107; number of prisoners, 107; of political and intel lectual leaders, 107-108,108-109; pre dominance of men in, 108; stages of, 103; and unlikeliness of release, 107. See also Polish prisoners of war Arrival in Soviet territory:
informal communal aid among Jews, 55; initial hardships, 54-56; and large cities as destinations, 54-55; limited relief services available, 55, 56; local friends 409 and family, value of, 56, 67; Soviet abol ishment of Jewish community organ izations, 55; Soviet offices to aid, 55-56; and synagogues as refuges, 54 Artels in Soviet territory: choice of closing day, 80; and employment for Jewish workers, 83, 172; thefts from, 85 Asino (Omsk Olast): deportees in, 124; special settlements in, 127, 130,132, 136, 137-138,142 Australia, Jewish postwar migration to, 258, 269, 270, 276, 281. See also Mel bourne, Australia Austrian Jews, Polenaktion and, 19 Autochthonous peoples, amnestied Polish Jews’ views on, 169 Ayzen, Avraham, 26-27 Azrieli (Azrylewicz), David, 45,46,67,96, 107,132,194 Babenhausen Displaced Persons camp, 267 Badner, Irving, 56, 249, 268, 275 Baltic states: citizens left behind in labor installations after Polish amnesty, 146; flight to, 57; influence of Jews from, 292; migration from, 36, 62, 234; Polish de portees from, and amnesty agreement, 145; Snyder on violence in, 301-302; Soviet and German division of, 1939-1940, xi, 21, 36; Soviet arrests and deportations in, 103, 110, 111, 114-115,145,146-147; Soviet curtailing of Jewish culture, 62-63; Soviet legacy in, 303; Soviet rule in, 62-64, 289. See also Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania Bar, Miriam, 153, 159 Baranovichi (Baranavichy, Baranowicze): black market in, 65-66, 106; close monitoring of religion in, 80-81; as destination for refugees, 156; prison in, 59; trial at, 106 Barber, Regina, 229-230 Bathhouses,
Russian {banya), deportees’ use of, 86,119 Bauer, Yehuda, 7, 52, 99, 272 Baum, Boris, 25, 46, 161, 276 Bauman, Janina, 247, 259, 263-264 Beada, Irving, 31, 135
410 · INDEX Begin, Menachem, 113,120,197 Bell, Daniella, 131, 269,275, 277 Belorussia, Western: arrests and deporta tions in, 110; citizenship for residents of, 90; Jewish flight from, 156; Jewish refugees in, 87, 95, 281; Jews in, lack of news about war, 99; monitoring of Jews in, 84; recruitment of Polish Jewish refugees for labor in the interior in, 86; Soviet annexation of, 70; Soviet policies in, 22 Belorussians: Soviet mobilization for labor battalions, 150, 177; in Soviet-occupied Polish territory, 21 Belovodskoye, 158, 222 Ben-Asher, Moshe, 18-19,131,132, 203 Benjamin-Goldberg, Ann, 83, 168 Berendt, Grzegorz, 260-261 Berezhani (Brzeżany, Berezhany), refugee life in, 67, 97 Berezovka, 186 Bergen, Doris, 285-286 Berger, Joseph, 190, 270, 271, 275 Bergman, Sara, 39-40,178, 248, 276 Bergman, Shalom, 178, 276 Berkelhammer, Harry, 37-38, 65,117,133, 167 Berler, Ružena, 118, 120-121,130,180, 188-189 Berling’s Army (Kosciuszko Division, Polish First Army, Soviet Polish Army): antisemitism in, 215; barring of Jews from, 178; as chiefly political gesture, 179; creation of, 105,150; and Holocaust, exposure to, 215-216, 217, 281; idea for, 179-180; and Jewish Poles’ repatriation, 226-227; Jews adopting non-Jewish names to serve in, 180; legitimacy as Polish force, as issue, 180; Polish Jews joining, 161, 163,179, 215; ZPP over sight of, 225 Berlovitch, Mikhael, 65,194, 202 Betar members, flight to Lithuania, 60. See also Revisionist Zionists, Soviet monitoring and arrest of Biała Podlaska, antisemitism in, 239-240 Białystok (Białystok): arrival of Jewish refugees in, 31, 44,
50, 54-56, 62,107, 145, 185; censorship of libraries in, 77-78; deportation from, 134, 163 ; flight from, 156-157, 168; flood of refugees in, 158-159; Holocaust in, 45, 98, 218; jobs for Jewish refugees in, 74, 79, 84, 87, 106; recruitment for labor in the interior in, 89-90; refugee life in, 65, 66, 68, 69, 77, 87, 96, 97; as refugee stop, 60,145,157; schools in, 68, 79; Writers’ house in, 74 Bialystoker Shtern, Der, 69, 74, 76, 79-80, 84-85, 88-89, 89, 90, 95 Białystok Ghetto, flight from, 45, 98 Bichler, Abraham, 124,137,140, 169-170, 227 Bielsko, postwar antisemitism in, 248 Bimko, Hersz, 179 Black market: amnestied Polish Jews and, 165,167; Jewish items for sale in, 209; in labor installations, 128, 131-132; NKVD recruitment of informants on, 181-182; and NKVD sexual abuse, 186; in Soviet-occupied Polish territory, 65-66, 66, 68, 81, 84-85 Blander, Avraham, 23-24 Blander, Matla, 26, 34 Blenkitni, Ahron, 80, 96, 201 Blitzkrieg warfare, 16-17,144 Bloodlands (Snyder), 301-304 Border. See German-Soviet border in Poland; Old Soviet border Boren, Adam, 32,40-41, 65, 98 Brandshpigel, David, 87, 97 Brenner, David, 88-89, 89 Brest (Brześć, Brisk): arrival of Jewish refugees in, 55; housing shortage in, 64-65; relief packages from, 218 Břicha, 272-274, 276 Britain, and Jewish migration to Palestine, 271, 272-273 British DP camps, refusal to admit Polish Jewish repatriates, 266 Broderzon, Moyshe (Mojsze, Moishe), 74, 77, 234 Broderzon, Sheyne Miriam, 234 Brown, Kate, 6, 102, 122-123 Brzeżany. See Berezhani Buchman, Roza, 124,188 Bug River: consecutive occupations of lands near,
expulsion across, 43, 106,
INDEX 284; 38; and German-Soviet border in Poland, 21, 37; Red Army crossing of, 226; refugees’ crossing of 32, 35, 37, 40-41, 44, 50, 65, 98, 273; Soviet liberation, 226, 227; Soviet retreat behind, 16 Bukhara; as destination for amnestied Poles, 159; graves of Polish Jews in, 289,290; Polish Jewish refugees in, 5, 161, 166, 184, 210, 219, 250; Polish school in, 221 ; repatriated Jews from, 241, 271; ZPP in, 224, 228 Bukharan Jews, 169 Bukharan Region, efforts to reunite separated families in, 229 Bukhovina, migration from, after Soviet annexation, 36 Bund. See Jewish Labor Bund Burshtein, Shmuel, 65, 129, 142 Burstin, Symcha, 41, 54, 118, 121, 152, 160, 163 Canada, Jewish migration to, 63, 258, 269, 271, 274, 275-276, 277 Catholic Church, in postwar Poland, 250, 263,297 Caucasus, Poles resettled in, prior to repatriation, 230 Cemeteries, Jewish, Nazi desecration of 248 Central Asia, amnestied Poles in, 2, 8, 281; contact with unfamiliar ethnic groups, 168; daily life in exile, 165-174; graves of, 289-290,290; value of reports by, 289; views on local people and cultures, 169-170. See also Amnestied Polish Jews Central Asian republics, χίυ-χυ, 152, 352nl7. See also Kazakh SSR (Kazakh stan); Kirghiz SSR (Kirghizia); Tajik SSR (Tajikistan); Uzbek SSR (Uzbekistan) Central Committee of Jews in Poland (Centralny Komitet Żydów w Polsce. See CKŻP Central Jewish Historical Commission (Centralna Żydowski Komisja History czna), 9-10, 252. See also ŻIH (Jewish Historical Institute, Żydowski Instytut Historyczny) 411 Certificates, for immigration to Palestine, 61, 62, 163, 198, 210,
271 Chabad Lubavitch movement, 228 Chelm, death march and executions of Jewish youth in, 43, 106 Chelyabinsk Oblast, number of deportees to, 112i Chesno, Zekharia, 59, 62 Chiger, Krystyna, 16, 73 Chkalov (Orenburg), ZPP in, 222 Chkalov Oblast, collective farm in, 231 Choice, 7, 213, 277, 288; flight decisions in 1939, 2, 16, 19, 22-27, 27-35, 45, 46-47, 48-49, 81, 90, 156, 282, 285; flight in 1941, 156, 157, 282; to leave Poland after repatriation, 212, 251, 261, 278; to lie for immigration purposes, 270-71; to migrate after immigration, 276-77; to move within the USSR after amnesty, 231; registration in 1940,13, 45, 82, 90, 91, 93-94, 100; in relation ships, 188; to remain in north after amnesty, 154, 155; to remain in Poland after repatriation, 212, 258, 262; to return to German-occupied territories, 46, 98; vis a vis Soviet policies, 82, 114, 142, 144; to stay in the USSR, 234, 235; to travel to Central Asia after amnesty, 150, 152; Churchill, Winston, 144, 251 Citizenship, Polish: of Polish Jews in Soviet Union, 4; Soviet efforts to exclude Belorussians, Jews, and Ukrainians from, 27-28,150; Soviet’s post amnesty redefinition of, 150,177, 225,238 Citizenship, Soviet: as automatic for residents of annexed Polish territories, 70, 90,150, 237; and engagement in Soviet politics, 82; forcing of Polish Jews’ acceptance of, 4, 150, 193, 219, 225; Jews jailed for refusing, 178-179. See also Passportization drive (1940) Citizenship, Soviet, Polish Jews accepting: ability to remain in place, 91, 94,96, 156,157,177; avoiding deportation, 132,194; choice, 93-94; as concern to
Polish officials, 193, 197, 201; flight of, 158; mass deaths of, 100; motives of,
412 · INDEX Citizenship (continued) 94-97,106; as obstacle to flight, 98; as obstacle to return to Poland, 91, 178, 219; and participation in Soviet politics, 82, 95; Polish refusal to aid, 201; rejection, 71, 93,110, 179, 180; CKŻP (Centralny Komitet Żydów w Polsce, Central Committee of Jews in Poland): control of Jewish institutions, 253; letters, 257; and Polish antisemitism, 249; Polish state control of, 252; sup port for repatriated Polish Jews, 219, 241, 242 Cohen, Frumie, 114, 130, 133, 166, 208, 267 Cold War: beginnings of 14, 211, 270, 271; influence of, 10, 70, 211, 291 Collective farms. See Kolkhoz Communists, Polish, flight to Soviet sector, 22, 33 Contract, Alexander, 267, 339n23 Czapski, Joseph, 104-105, 197 Czaykowski, Bogdan, 76 Czerwony Sztandar, 76-77, 84, 89 Częstochowa, repatriated Polish Jews in, 241 Danzig (Gdańsk), German annexation of, 21 Davidson, Simon, 19, 90, 96-97,170, 217, 224, 232-233, 270 Delegatura: aid distribution, 150,195, 200, 201, 202; closure of, 205, 206, 364n258; Jewish employees of, 203; limited Soviet support for, 221; and passportization drive (1943), 178; as representatives of Polish governmentin-exile, 200, 202; support for schools and orphanages, 195, 203; tracking Polish citizens, 192, 202. See also Polish government-in-exile Deportation: as term, 4-5. See also German deportation of Jews to camps; Soviet deportations of Poles to labor installations Descendants of Polish Jews in Soviet Union, need for information, 11-12,280-281 Displaced Persons. See DPs Donat, Alexander, 31, 38, 46, 69 DP camps: education in, 267, 269; final
camp for Jewish DPs, 274; Holocaust documentation projects in, 266-267; life for Jews in, 265, 266-269; mar riages and new families in, 268, 269; monuments to war dead in, 267; popular conception of, 5, 264-265; search for family in, 266, 269; sepa rate, for Jews, 265; troyer akademeyen (mourning academies) in, 266-267; Zionism in, 268, 272 DPs (displaced persons): Allied planning for, 265; as larger problem than antici pated, 265; millions of non-Jews included in, 265; as term, 264-265 DPs, Jewish: aid for, 266; difficulty of finding countries to accept, 269, 273; final DP camp for, 274; intact families among, 268-269; integration of different kinds of survivors, 14,287; large percentage of Polish Jews from Soviet Union, 265; as late arrivals to camps, 265-266; life in DP camps, 265, 266-269; migration destina tions, 269-270, 273-274; migration to Palestine, 269, 271-274; other DPs views on, 268-269; problems reaching American zone, 266, 272 DPs, Jewish, lives after camps, 267, 274-278; childrens adaptability and, 277; and Holocaust commemoration, 277-278; importance of family in, 274-275, 276; Jewish aid organ izations and, 275; and perpetual rootlessness, 278 Drescher, Dora, 87, 130 Dwork, Debórah, 284-285 Dynów: German searches for Jewish men in, 29; massacre and expulsion of Jews from, 23 Dzhambul (Taraz): amnestied Polish Jews in, 167, 172, 209; as destination for amnestied Polish Jews, 165; and Polish Jews’ repatriation, 227; Polish school in, 203; ZPP in, 229 Dzierżoniów (Reichenbach), repatriated Polish Jews in, 241, 242 Dzigan, Shimon (Szymon), 77, 159, 161,
244-245
INDEX Edele, Mark, 28, 30, 111, 151, 215, 237, 282-283 Eğit, Jacob, 244 Eibuszyc, Roma, 167,188 Eibuszyc, Suzanna, 49, 185,188, 263 Elbojni, Nachman, 65-66 Elsan, Z., 129,135, 151, 195 Elsner, Gene and Mark, 145, 217 Elton, Zyga, 19, 24, 46, 55, 66, 93, 97, 228, 239 Ernes, Der, 96 Endeks. See National Democratic Party, Poland Engel, David, 52,193, 203 Erlich, Henryk, 11, 109,176,180, 200, 206 Erlich, Moshe, 68, 233, 242-243, 259, 262 Erlichson, Yitzhak (Jerzy Edison), 33, 35, 106, 109,186, 189 Estonia: evacuees from, 148; Polish Jews’ efforts to reach, 59; Soviet arrests and deportations in, 110, 145, 146 Estraikh, Gennady, 74, 234, 260 Etzion, Moshe, 19, 126,130,131, 132 Exodus 1947 (ship), 272-273 Eynikayt (Unity), 175-176, 214 F„ Zeev, 151,197 Faier, Zvi, 32, 246-247 Family of survivors: benefits of under standing story of Polish Jews in Soviet Union, 279-281; hybrid Holocaust memoirs by, 48-49; postmemory in, 320-32ІПІ61 Fefer, Itsik, 75,175, 206 Feinstein, Margarete Myers, 265, 267 Feinzeig, Dovid, 87, 231, 240, 241, 245-246 Feldafing Displaced Persons Camp, 266 Feldman, Israel, 20, 64, 65, 107, 270-271 Feldman, Marian, 29, 32, 67-68, 69,178, 209 Fergana, amnestied Polish Jews in city, 175; amnestied Polish Jews in region 156,167, 223-224, 300 Festung Warschau (Janicka), 294-295 Finkler, Edmund, 108, 129,134, 196 First Congress of Liberated Jews (1946), 267 First World War. See World War I · 413 Fish, Aharon, 73, 76,151,158-159 Fitzpatrick, Sheila, 64, 171, 282-283, 292 Flight to Hungary and Romania, by Polish government and military, 22,57,105; by Polish Jews, 57,107
Flight to Lithuania by Polish Jews, 57-64, 68,281; arrests for, 106-107; distribution and care of Jewish refugees, 60-61; hardening of border over time, 58-59; number of Polish Jewish refugees, 59; as path to other destinations, 59, 61-63; by yeshiva students, 59-60; by Zionists, 60,61 Flight to Soviet sector, refugee problem created by, 85-94; and increased Soviet harshness toward refugees, 86; and passportization drive, 90-92; Soviet underestimation of, 85-86. See also Labor in the interior, avoidance of deportation; Passportization drive (1940) Flight to Soviet sector by Polish commu nists and leftists, 22, 33 Flight to Soviet sector by Polish Jews, 33; dangers of, 37-38; diversity of refugees, 35; early streams of refugees, 27, 28, 37, 46; family discussions of, 1, 24-27, 29-32, 47-48; and fateful moment of decision, 47-48; first-hand accounts of, as written long afterward, 45-46; as flight to “Other Side” (yener zayt), 1; geographical factors in choice, 33, 35; and importance of family, 282; Jacob story as metaphor for, 15-16, 49; later regret of Jews failing to choose, 44; likely characteristics of refugees, 35; mixed economic status of refugees, 34; motives for decision, 19, 23-27; and natural desire to remain at home, 26-27; number fleeing, 2, 27-28, 313n28; as part of larger Holocaust, 284; quick decision under duress required for, 33, 46, 47, 281; religious faith as factor in, 33, 34; returns home, after incomplete journey, 27, 28, 31, 32, 34, 38,45,46; returns home, after residence in Soviet Union, 91-92; role of gender in, 29-32; separation of families, 25,
29-31, 37, 38,46-47, 68-69; and survivor guilt, 46-47,
4M · INDEX Flight to Soviet sector by Polish Jews (icontinued) 48-49; urban areas as source of, 35; and women left to fend for themselves, 30, 31; young men as largest part of, 29, 30, 35. See also Arrival in Soviet terri tory; German-Soviet border, crossing of Föhrenwald Displaced Persons Camp, 274 Ford, Aleksander, 90 Fortunoff Video Archive for Holocaust Testimonies, 9 Forverts, 277 France, and German invasion of Poland, 17; emigration from, 273, 274; emigra tion to, 262; as escape route, 18, 62; searching for family after the war, 257 Freedom of religion in Soviet Constitu tion, 78,140 Frenkel, Chava Chaya, 129, 130, 153, 167, 172-173 Frost, Leybish, 38, 98 Frusztajer, Boruch, 19, 73, 79,100,131,138 Fuks, Tania, 75, 92, ЗЗІпІбО Gabel, Dina, 121,122, 143, 166, 172, 209, 235, 242 Galicia: return of Jewish youth to families in, 34-35; wartime return of intellec tuals, 67 Gelernter, Chana, 93, 201 Gender roles, wartime deaths and, 163 General Government: German establish ment of, 21; German’s brutal experi mentation in, 21 Genocide, and trauma theory, 287 German Army: behavior during World War I, as predictive in early invasion, 25; sharp uniforms of, as false comfort in early invasion, 25, 26 German atrocities, lack of news about, 96, 99 German deportation of Jews to camps, 48, 216, 296. See also Holocaust German invasion of Poland, 15-18; blitz krieg warfare and, 16-17; and civilian refugees, 18, 27-28; flight of Polish government, 18; limited public informa tion about, 20; move beyond agreedupon border, 36; Polish anticipation of, 17; Polish military resistance
to, 17; and Polish POWs, 20-21; and siege of Warsaw, 17; and streams of refugees, 27, 28, 37, 46; swift success of, 17; targeting of civilians in, 17-18. See also Flight to Soviet sector by Polish Jews German invasion of Soviet Union (Opera tion Barbarossa), 144; Battle of Stalin grad and, 164, 205, 220; blitzkrieg warfare and, 144; and cutoff of news from Jews in Poland, 214; deaths of Jews in former Soviet-occupied Polish territory, 100; and disease among refugees, 157; and end of GermanSoviet border in former Poland,, 45; flight of refugees from, 97, 98,151, 156-158, 159; and flight of Soviet government, 158, 200; initial dramatic success of, 144; Jews remaining in place during, 97-98; Polish collaborators, 100; reasons for Jews’ failure to flee, 99; and return to German-occupied Polish territories of Polish Jews in Soviet Union, 45; and Soviet execu tion of Polish prisoners, 106; Soviets’ claimed removal of Jews from front, 99; Soviets’ lack of preparation for, 144; Soviets’ limited concern for civilians in, 99; Soviets’ recovery after initial shock, 164; German Jews: gendered impact of Nazis on, 33; Nazi treatment of, 18; Polenak tion and, 19; survivors return to new Polish territories, 240; women’s early perception of danger, 32-33 German-occupied Poland: abuses of Jews in, 23, 33, 35; division into annexed and General Government areas, 21; limited population exchanges with Soviets, 92; mixed early experiences of Jews in, 23-24, 26; number of Poles in, 21; number of Polish Jews in, 21; returns to, after residence in Soviet Union, motives for, 91-92 German-Soviet
border in Poland: end of, with German invasion of Soviet Union, 45; Germans’ pushing of Jewish popula tions across border, 42-43; MolotovRibbentrop Pact agreement on, 36; negotiation of, after invasion, 21, 36
INDEX German-Soviet border, crossing of, 35-45; arrests of Poles for, 105-106; assault and robbery of crossing Jews, 39, 40, 41, 42; bribing of border guards, 39; as challenge, 35, 50; cost of hiring smug gler for, 40-41; crossings in 1940-1941, 44-45; difficulty of, as dissuasion to Jewish flight, 26, 43; early crossings in both directions, 22—23, 85; early porousness of, 21-22, 36; German interception of refugees heading for, 41; hardening of border over time, 36, 37, 38-45, 106; help from locals and smugglers, 39-41, 44; Jews unable to cross, 43-44; as like Exodus without Moses, 35; popular routes, 41; refugees trapped in interborder no-man’s-land, 41-42, 85; some Soviet guards’ tacit support for, 42; Soviet efforts to limit refugee flow, 41, 43; variation in dif ficulty, with time and place, 36; winter weather and, 37,42, 50 German-Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty (1939), 36 Ghettoization in German-occupied Poland, as uneven, 33 Gilboa, Yehoshua, 35, 75,108,133, 139, 169, 193, 291 Ginsburg, Bernard, 67, 76,181, 216, 223, 267 Golan, Bob, 68,122, 125, 137-138,142, 196, 273, 296 Goldberg, Emanuel, 55, 82 Goldberger, Janka, 34, 72, 101-102, 116, 119,123,133, 145, 155-156,166, 170, 245, 248 Goldkorn, Mania, 88, 95,157, 166 Goldkorn, Yosef, 39, 69, 88, 95,157, 166 Goldlust, John, 282-283 Gomułka, Władysław, 260, 261 Gorky (Nizhny Novgorod), Jewish refugees in, 96-97,162 Gorky Oblast, number of deportees to, 112r Görlitz. See Zgorzelec Grajcar, Szymon, 40-41, 64, 117, 122, 136, 216, 229, 248, 267, 273-274 Grade, Chaim, 5, 64 Graevo (Grajewo), arrival of Jewish refugees
in, 56, 68 415 Greenspan, Henry, 10 Gregoratos, Eva, 95, 156 Grodno: refugee life in, 66, 85; repatria tion camp in, 234 Grodzenski, Hayim Ozer (Reb Khayim Oyzer), 59, 60 Gross, Jan, 5, 53-54, 71, 93, 248, 249, 250 Grossman, Menachem Mendi, 59, 118, 142, 173 Grossman, Moshe, 108, 161,186, 201, 210 Grossman, Vasily, 298-299, 300 Grossmann, Atina, 5, 7, 207, 269, 282-83 Gulag: as acronym, 341-342n59; difficulty of defining, 342n59. See Soviet penal system Gutman, Israel, 200, 226 Haganah, 272 Halperin, Yosef, 64, 79, 93, 97-98 Halpern, Jacob, 34,141, 153,184, 210,224 Halpern, Uszer Szaja, 34, 210 Hart, Kitty, 30-31, 32, 44 Hashomer Hadati, 247 Hashomer Hatsair, 271 Hautzig, Esther, 5, 116, 146, 166, 170, 181 Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society. See HIAS Hendel family, 15-16, 34, 139 Herzbaum, Edward, 198 Herzen, Alexander, 124 HIAS (Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society), 275 Hirsz, Roza, 39,194, 32ІПІ63 Historikerstreit controversy, 301 Hochberg, Eugenia, 268 Hohberg, Ruth, 133, 152, 219, 248 Holiday observances: in Central Asian exile, 172-174,173; in labor installa tions, 138-139, 140-141 Holocaust: influence of conventions on testimony about, 8-11, 47-48, 184,185, 277, 287-288; as inseparable from larger war, 299-300; integration with Polish Jewish refugees, 298-305; Jews escaping from, 216; Nolte on causes of, 301; and normalization of anti-Jewish violence, 250; research on, in former Soviet Union, 11, 287; Polish responses to, 53-54, 203, 293-298; Russian re search on, as opening for including
416 · INDEX Holocaust (continued) Polish Jewish refugees in Holocaust history, 288-292; Soviet survival of Polish Jews as inseparable from, 5, 234, 237, 255, 273, 274,283, 285, 286, 299-300, 304-305 Holocaust, Jewish refugees’ gradual learning about, 7-8, 212, 213-219, 256; difficulty of grasping news, 216, 217-218; from experiences of German occupation, 213; through mail from German-occupied Poland, 213-214; Polish Jewish refugees writing about, 175; and Soviet press, Jews’ limited access to limited coverage, 214-215; through public events, 217,224; through Red Army, 215-217, 227, 281; through survivors, 217, 241 Holocaust memoirs, hybrid, written by children of survivors, 48-49 Holocaust survivors: commonalities with, 184, 255, 264, 273, 277, 283; conflation with, 3, 4,14; distinctions from, 48 Honig, Samuel, 117, 136,152 Horodło, and German invasion, 15-16 Horvits, Tsiporah, 24, 43-44 Hrubieszów: contact with from USSR, 132, 156; death march in, 43,106; early experiences under German occupation, 23-24; flight of Polish Jews from, 38; German invasion of Soviet Union and, 98; knowledge of Nazis in Germany in, 18; refugees from, 65, 98, 156, 228; repatriated Polish Jews from, 233, 250-251 Hryciuk, Grzegorz, 104,107, 111 Hungary. See flight to Hungary and Romania Ili, Kazakhstan, amnestied Polish Jews in, 178, 222 Informants, recruitment of Polish Jews as, 177, 180-184 Integrated histories of World War II, 301-304 Iran: as assembly point for Polish aid, 200; evacuation of Poles to, 8, 59,149-150, 151,188, 195,196,197,198, 200, 205, 304; and JDC aid programs, 207,208, 282;
Polish government-in-exile in, 52, 198, 202, 203 Irkutsk Oblast: labor army in, 177; number of deportees to, 1121; Polish Jewish deportees in, 132, 135,191-192 Israel: difficulty of early years in, 276, 277; emigration of Polish Jews from, 276-277; postwar migrations from Poland, 245, 260, 262. See also Palestine Ive (Iwye, Iwje), deportations from, 141 Jacob story (Genesis), as model for Polish Jews’ choice, 15-16, 49 JAFC (Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee), 206; evolution into Jewish cultural organization, 174-176,179; influence on Soviet Jewish culture, 292; as little-mentioned in memoirs, 174; and privileged cultural figures, 223, 236; as Soviet front organization, 174,206 Janicka, Elżbieta, 294-295 Japan, escape of Polish Jews through, 63, 326-327n74 JDC (American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, Joint): aid to Jewish DPs, 266, 275; aid to Jewish refugees, 7, 275; aid to Jewish refugees in Lithuania, 60, 61, 205; aid to Jews in Germanoccupied Poland, 205, 240; expulsion from Soviet Union in late 1930s, 205; expulsions from Poland, 253, 264; Joint Agricultural Corporation (Agro-Joint), 205; mission of, 205; readmission to Poland after 1956, 261; records of Jewish postwar emigration, 242, 270; support for Jews leaving Europe in 1930s, 63, 205; support for Polish government aid to Poles in Soviet Union, 206; support for repatriated Polish Jews, 240-241, 242, 246, 258 JDC aid to Jewish refugees in Soviet Union, 206-210,208; Paul Baerwald and, 207; continuation of, after Polish government ejection, 206; J. C. Hyman and, 206; meeting with Solomon Mikhoels and Itsik Fefer,
206; negotiations with Soviets on, 206-207; and refugee morale, 211; refugees’ perceptions of,
INDEX 208-209; Soviet restrictions on, 206-207; Soviet suspicions about, 211 Jedwabne Pogrom, 53-54 Jewish Agency: aid to Polish Jews, 203, 207; and certificates, 210; in Iran, 196; and Palestine Commission in Lithuania, 61; and postwar emigration, 273; Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee. See JAFC Jewish Community in Palestine. See Yishuv Jewish community organizations, Soviet abolishment of, 55 Jewish Historical Institute. See ŻIH Jewish Labor Bund, 24, 33, 84, 168,176, 199; members of (Bundists), 11, 96,109, 113, 143,170, 245, 252 Jewish Labor Committee, 207, 211, 241 Jewish luck, 101, 146 Jobs in eastern Soviet regions for Polish refugees. See Labor in the interior Jodko-Kamińska, Halina, 239-240 Joint. See JDC Jolluck, Katherine, 27, 52, 84,110, 134, 183,184, 297 J. S., 174, 224 K. , Sarah, 163, 181, 228 Kachalino, as refugee destination, 158 Kaganovitch, Albert, 178, 225, 237 Kaminska, Ida, 49, 76-77, 171-172, 223, 234, 244-245, 264,32ІПІ63 Kaminska, Ruth Turków, 233-234 Kaner, Martin, 23-24 Kaner, Moshe, 106, 250-251 Kaner, Moshe Nachům, 230 Kaplan, Chaim, 35, 39,91 Kaplan, Marion, 32, 285 Karski, Jan, 18, 42, 51-52 Katyn Massacre (Katyń), 105, 150, 220, 260, 293, 295; deaths of Polish leaders on route to 70th anniversary event, 293 Katz, Zev, 245, 250 Kazakh SSR (Kazakhstan), xiv-xv; amnes tied Polish Jews in, 177; antisemitism in schools, 170; communal farms for deportees in, 111, 129; deportees in, 214, 281; as destination of amnestied Polish Jews, 151,152; labor installa tions, lack of need for refugee labor, 126; and repatriation, 236; ZPP in, 229 · 417 Kazan (Tatar
ASSR), amnestied Polish Jews in, 169 Kersten, Krystyna, 238, 252 Kestenbojm, Chawa, 67, 83,121,130, 198 Ketubah (wedding contract), 142, 190. See also Marriages of refugee Polish Jews Khanabad (Uzbek SSR), amnestied Polish Jews in, 163 Kherson: amnestied Polish Jews in, 275; and repatriation, 230-231 Khonigsman, Iakov, 55, 235, 237 Khrushchev, Nikita: and refugee refusal of Soviet citizenship, 93; and relaxation of strictures in Poland, 260; and repatria tion, underestimation of demand for, 234; Secret Speech of 1956, 260 Kielce, antisemitism in, 239 Kielce Pogrom, 250-251; and Jews’ decision to leave Poland, 253-254, 255-256, 257, 304 Kirghiz SSR (Kirghizia), amnestied Polish Jews in, 176; repatriations from, 268; ZPP in, 223 Klajman, Leon, 120,122, 194 Klapholz, Bernard, 290 Kleinbaum (Sneh), Moshe, 71 Kochańska, Olga, 122,137,191, 214 Kolkhoz, amnestied Polish Jews’ depar ture from, 165,166; amnestied Polish Jews on, 151,153-154, 159, 163-164, 165-166,174, 181, 185, 189, 195; in Chkalov Oblast, 231; deportees on, 111, 126, 129-130; holding of Polish Jews at, before repatriation, 230, 231; Jewish refugees on, 87, 97; near Kzyl-Orda, 174; lack of food or work for amnestied Polish Jews, 151, 159, 160-161, 163, 165,166, 209, 227, 231; near Turkestan, 273; in Udmurt ASSR, 157 Komi ASSR: amnestied Jews in, 151,165, 167, 186, 231, 275; deportees in, 124-125; labor installations in, 58-59; number of deportees to, 112t; Korenzyer, Tsivia, 221 Korn, Rokhl (Rachel), v, 82, 175 Kosciuszko Division. See Berling’s Army Kosher laws, observance in the USSR, 91, 96,118, 155; in Poland
after the war, 245, 246
418 · INDEX Kot, Stanisław, 177,179,192-193, 200, 204 Kovel (Kowel): and Polish Jews’ repatria tion, 227; refugee life in, 31, 65 Koźmińska-Frejlak, Ewa, 215, 239, 255, 260 Kresy (borderland), Soviet policies in, 103 Kreusler, Abraham, 79,157-158, 164, 211, 222 Kristallnacht (November Pogrom), 19-20 Krzeszów: early experiences under German occupation, 23; flight of Polish Jews from, 38 Krzyżanowski, Łukasz, 248-249 Kuibyshev (Samara): Polish citizens in region of, 222; Polish embassy in, 177, 197, 198, 200, 201, 203, 210; Soviet government in, 200; ZPP activities in, 222 Kuznitsa (Kuźnica), arrival of Jewish refugees in, 55 Kwapiński, Jan, 194-195 Labin, Shmuel, 81, 128,152,195 Labor battalions, Soviet: mission of, 177; mobilization of Polish minorities for, 150,166, 177-178; terrible conditions in, 177, 178 Labor installations: “adapt or die” speech given to new arrivals, 125-126; deaths in, 134, 142; for deportees, as typically uninhabited upon arrival, 125; as destination for deported Poles, 111; and German concentration camps, compared, 298-199, 300-304; horrors of, as forbidden subject in Soviet Union, 299; Jews as staff in, 135; lack of incen tive to close, 145; limited antisemitism in, 135; locations of, 13,111-112, 112r, 124; mortality rates in, 134; museums about, in Russia, 288; number of pris oners in, 103; as part of brutal labor system, 284; for prisoners, as most harsh, 129, 134; residents, numbed emotions of, 134-135; sense of isola tion, 124; Soviet announcement of impossibility of ever leaving, 128, 143; suffering in, 136; types of installations in,
103, 111; worker strikes at, 135 Labor installations, culture in, 136-143; film, music, and drama, 136-137; schools, 137-138; Zionist activities, 137 Labor installations, life in, 125-136; black markets, 128,131-132; construction of shelter necessary in some cases, 125, 126; food shortages and, 128-129, 131-132; and household chores after strenuous work, 131; insect pests and, 130; inspections by officials, 134; lack of resources for self-sustenance, 125; living quarters, 126; mail and pack ages received, 132, 141, 210; malnutri tion and chronic illness, 131,133, 134; medical care, limited access to, 133-134; struggle to find adequate food, 131-132; variation with quality of staff, 135 Labor installations, religious activities in, 138-143; arrests for, 139,140; bar mitzvahs, weddings, and funerals, 142-143; guards’ toleration of, 139-140, 142; holiday observances, 138-139, 140-141; as importance connection to past life, 142; lack of Jewish calendars and, 139; and ritual food, difficulty obtaining, 141-142; and ritual objects, difficulty obtaining, 140; Sabbath observance, 141-142 Labor installations, work in; clothing shortages and, 131; daily quotas for, 128-129; deportees’ lack of fitness for, 129; for early deportees, as easier, 129-130; harsh climate and, 130-131; impossibility for some workers, 128; indoor work, 130; injuries and deaths in, 129, 131; for prisoners, as most harsh, 129; as required, 126, 128; seeming pointlessness of, 126-128; women and, 128. See also Special settlements (spetsposelki) Labor in the interior, avoidance of depor tation, 95; and contact
with Soviet citizens, 95-96; failure to attract recruits, 90; flight east in 1941, 156, 185; goals of program, 86; improve-
INDEX ment over time in program, 88; local officials’ failure to provide necessary jobs, 87; motives for accepting, 96, 97, 282; perception of, as failed program, 88; and reality of jobs vs. promises, 86-87; recruitment for, 86, 88-90, 89; refugees’ decisions to leave, 87, 90; word-of-mouth suppression of recruiting for, 87 Lanceter, Henryk, 268 Landau, Emil, 127,197 Landsmanshaftn (hometown associations), 209 Latvia: Polish Jews’ efforts to reach, 59; Soviet arrests and deportations in, 110, 145,146 Leaders, Polish, imprisonment of, 107, 108-109 Lebedeva, Natalia, 104, 134,152 Lederman, Dov, 62, 133, 163,167, 203 Lemberg, See Lvov Leningrad (St. Petersburg), as refugee destination, 187 Levi, Primo, 300-301 Levin, Dov, 36, 55, 63, 72, 81, 88 Lewinowna, Emma, 130,137,196 Lewinsky, Tamar, 265 Lib., Id., 228-229, 370n68 Libraries in Soviet-occupied Polish territory, censorship of, 77-78 Lida: deportations from, 115,121, 172; as refugee stop, 145 Lieberman, I. (I. Lib.), 180,193, 226, 370n68 Life and Fate (Grossman), 298-299 Lipski, Jane, 108, 186, 233, 234 Lithuania: deal with Soviet to recover Vilnius, 57-58; large Jewish community in, 57; Polish deportees from, and am nesty agreement, 145; Polish Jews’ flight to, 47; refugee flow to and from, 27; Soviet arrests and deportations in, 110, 145,146; Soviet occupation of, 62; Soviet rule in, 62-63; Zionists in, 61-62. See also Flight to Lithuania by Polish Jews Litvak, Yosef, 5-6, 7,11, 36, 93, 225 Łódź: Ghetto, gender imbalance in, 30; and Jewish search for missing relatives, · 419 69; and Polish Jews’ repatriation, 227, 234,
240, 241, 242; as postwar Jewish hub, 240,247; reestablishment of Jewish culture in, 244, 245; and resurgence of Jewish religious life, 245-246 London, Polish government-in-exile in, 18, 107,110, 144, 150, 179, 192, 199, 200, 202, 203, 204, 205, 219, 220, 297; Polish military in, 195 Lower Silesia: as postwar Jewish hub, 247; repatriated Polish Jews in, 240,241-242, 244, 250, 263; and resurgence of Jewish religious life, 246 Lublin: flight from, 55, 201, 235; German policies in, 42, 218, 219; liberation, 9, 226, 227, 252; and Polish Jews’ repatria tion, 226, 227, 268, 270; streams of refugees from, 28. See also Majdanek, Holocaust evidence in Luck. See Lutsk Ludmir. See Vladimir-Volynskii Luehrmann, Sonja, 6 Luft, Ester, 107 Lutsk (Luck), Jews’ welcoming of Soviet Army to, 52; refugees in, 31, 69, 87, 216 Lvov (Lemberg, Lviv, Lwów): arrests, trials, and prisons in, 85, 106, 107, 178; arrival of Jewish refugees in, 38, 41, 54, 55, 56, 300; black market in, 66; deportations from, 94, 117; education in, 67-68, 78,132; emigration from, 57, 58; flight from, 171; former Polish Jews settling in after liberation, 235; and German invasion, 16; Jewish religious practice in, 81; Jews’ greeting of Red Army in, 54; and Polish Jews’ repatria tion from, 227, 244; Polish Jews sending aid from, 140; Polish newspaper in, 76; refugee life in, 65, 66-67, 74-75, 83, 132, ЗЗІПІ60; Soviet aid for refugees in, 56; Soviet nationalization of homes and businesses in, 67, 83; Yiddish theater in, 76-77 Lwów. See Lvov Lyda. See Lida Magnitogorsk, Polish Jewish refugees in, 5, 87-88, 89, 97
420 · INDEX Mail and packages: for amnestied Jews, 13, 156,159, 210-211; codes in, to avoid censors, 210; for deportees, 132,141, 210; and family debates over flight to Soviet Union, 69; across GermanSoviet border, during time of GermanSoviet alliance, 22, 210, 213-214, 282; importance for morale, 7, 211; Jews’ efforts to contact lost relatives, 69, 175, 198, 210, 215, 218-219, 257-59, 266; from Jews in German-occupied Poland, 92, 99, 213-214; from Katyn prisoners, 105; and Polish Jews maintaining of ties to family, 282; in search of emigra tion aid, 63, 275; from workers in the interior, 87, 88-89, 89 Majdanek, Holocaust evidence in, 216, 227 Małkinia Station, as stopping place for border crossers, 39, 41 Mandelbrot, Lejb and Maria, 145-146 Mankowitz, Zeev, 3-4, 270 Margulies-Shnitzer, Yaffa, 67, 71, 82, 94 Mari ASSR: number of deportees to, 112t; schools in labor installations in, 137; ZPP activities in, 221-222 Markish, Peretz, 50, 54, 75, 78 Marriages of refugee Polish Jews: as a reason to stay in the USSR, 236; with Soviet Jews, 60; in the USSR, 81,142, 169,177, 187-190; after the war, 268, 269 Matzah: in Central Asian exile, 172-173, 173; in labor installations, 141; in relief packages, 209. See also Passover (Pesach) Medvedeva-Nathoo, Olga, 4,176 Megdal, Meyer, 25, 26 Megilath Russland (Rubinstein), 75 Melbourne, Australia, 276, 278, 281 Memoirs and testimonies as sources: scholarship on, 9-10; use of, 7-8 Memoirs and testimonies of Polish Jews, 2-3; author and, 5; and Holocaust taboos, 8-9; and influence of expected conven tions on Holocaust accounts, 47-48;
likely accuracy of, 48; objectivity of, 6, 9-10; role of listener in, 10; as sources, 6-11; and survivors’ guilt, 46-47,48-49; as written long afterward, 45-46 Mengele, Joseph, 48 Michlic, Joanna, 6, 51, 54 Mikhoels, Solomon, 75,175,206, 236 Milch, Baruch, 53, 73 Minz, Baruch (Bűnek), 56,178,215 Minz, Pearl, 120,133,141,154-155,171, 178,186,189, 214-215,230 Molotov, Vyacheslav, 138,227 Molotov (Perm) Oblast, amnestied Jews in, 201; Jewish deportees in, 128; number of deportees to, 112r Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (Nazi-Soviet Pact, Non-Aggression Pact), 17,20, 22, 99, 303; agreed-upon German-Soviet border in, 38; German goal in, 17,144 Monuments created by survivors, 267 Monument to the Fallen and Murdered in the East (Warsaw), 293,294, 294-295 Monument to the Ghetto Heroes (Warsaw), 283 Morgenshtern, Henokh and Shmuel, 69 Mount of Remembrance, Jerusalem, Garden of the Righteous among the Nations, 284 Mush. See Nowa Mysz Müsterberg. See Ziębice Mysh Nova. See Nowa Mysz Nalewajko-Kulikov, Joanna, 245,253 Narodnyi Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del. See NKVD National Democratic Party, Poland (Endeks), 239 Naye Lebn, Dos, 243-244 Nazis: as anti-communist, 22; authoritari anism of, and Soviet authoritarianism, similarities and differences, 300-304. See also entries under German Nazi-Soviet Pact. See Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact Neverov (Neweroff), Alexander, 148 NKVD (Narodnyi Komissariat Vnutren nikh Del, People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs), 27,58, 84, 85; amnes tied Polish Jews and, 152; arrests of border crossers, 107; arrests of Jewish deportees, 114; blocking of Zionist travel
to Palestine, 153; and deporta tions of Polish Jews, 117, 120, 121, 141, 146; files of, as unavailable, 291; harass ment of amnestied Polish Jews, 159;
INDEX late-war suspicion of foreigners, 211; operation of Gulag system by, 111; and passportization drives, 178-179; and Polish officers, arrests of, 104; and Polish POWs, murder of, 150; and Polish repatriation process, 228; pris oners shot by, 106; record keeping by, 145; recruitment of Polish Jewish infor mants, 177, 180-184; reports on Polish antisemitism, 249; sexual abuse of arrested women, 185 Non-Aggression Pact. See MolotovRibbentrop Pact Norm (Soviet labor quota), 128-129, 172. See also Labor installations, work in North Caucasus, Holocaust in, 217 Novaya Mysh (Nowa Mysz, Mysh Nova, Mush), Jewish refugees in, 95,156 November Pogrom (Kristallnacht), 19-20 Növik, Leib, 58,106-107, 108, 128-129, 134, 139,152 Novosibirsk: Jewish deportees in, 126, 140-141, 283; special settlements near, 123, 126, 134,140, 162,175, 186, 231 Novosibirsk Oblast, number of deportees to, 112i Nowa Mysz. See Novaya Mysh Nowe Widnokręgi, 199-200, 215 Nusekh Poyln (the Polish Way), 212-213, 253,254 Nussbaum, Klemens, 179, ЗббпІО Old Soviet border: German Army’s crossing of, 144; restrictions on crossing by Polish Jewish refugees, 98 Omri, Shalom, 18, 25, 44, 117, 118, 131, 247-248, 272 Omsk Oblast: labor installations in, 124, 133; number of deportees to, 112r Oneg Shabbes. See Warsaw Ghetto Operation Barbarossa. See German invasion of Soviet Union Orenstein, Henry, 19, 29, 38, 98 The Origins of Totalitarianism (Arendt), 300, 383n23 Orlansky, Yisrael, 116, 141-142 Orphanages, Polish in Poland, 247 Orphanages, Polish in USSR: antisemi tism in, 195-196; evacuation from 421 Soviet Union, 151,
195-196, 247, 273; Polish Jews in, 160, 197; repatriation of, 229-230 Orphanages, Soviet, Polish Jews in, 162, 232 Orsha: German invasion in 97; labor in the interior in, 90, 96, 214 Orthodox Church, Soviet’s wartime reconciliation with, 174 Orthodox Jews: flight to unoccupied areas, 59; organizational aid, 61, 207, 209, 246; and repatriation, 231, 245-246; Soviet monitoring of, 80; Soviet sup pression of practices, 80-81,141-143, 172, 252, 253 Palestine: Anders Army in, testimonies and Jewish desertions, 139, 188, 194, 198,199, 202, 280, 304; as destination of amnestied Polish Jews, 153,198, 210; as destination of refugees, 46, 57, 163; as destination for repatriated Polish Jews, 225, 256; JDC and other aid to Jewish refugees in Soviet Union from, 208,208, 282; migration from Lithu ania to, 34, 60, 61-62; migration of Jewish DPs to, 258, 266, 269, 270, 271-274, 277, 281; and public opinion on British policies, 273; refugees reaching, 71, 188, 194, 195, 198; Tehran children to, 81,128, 195, 257, 281. See also Yishuv (Jewish Commu nity in Palestine) Palestine Commission in Lithuania, 61-62 Pankowsky, Hannah Davidson, 31, 72, 79, 170,185, 214, 267 Paragraph 11,13, 90, 91, 94, 98, 114. See also Passportization drive (1940) Partisans: anti-partisan campaigns, 302; artists and writers serving with, 245; as DPs, 264-265; Jews fighting with, 233, 288; Soviet newspaper coverage of, 175, 245; Zionists fighting along with, 272. See also Polish Underground Passover (Pesach): celebration in Central Asian exile, 172-174,173; effort to celebrate in labor installation, 140-141; relief
packages with supplies for, 218
422 INDEX Passportization drive (1940): reasons for failure of, 93-94; and refugee motives for return home, 91-92; and refugees’ required choice of citizenship or depar ture, 90; rejection of citizenship by most refugees, 90-91, 93-94; and requirement for refugee residence 100 kilometers from border, 90, 98; Soviet deportation of those refusing citizen ship, 13, 92-93,110,114 Passportization drive (1943), 145, 150, 177,178 Patash, Yehudis, 68,133, 141, 144, 160 People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs. See NKVD Perlov, Yitzchok, 119, 148-149, 152 Pervomaiskii (Pervomayskiy), jobs for Jewish refugees in, 88 Pidvolochysk. See Podvolochisk Pinchuk, Ben-Cion, 53-54, 71, 75, 81-82, 83, 99 Podvolochisk (Podwoloczyska, Pidvolo chysk), refugee life in, 67 Poland: borders in 1946, xvi; citizens’ limited information on Soviet life, 70; number of refugees in Soviet/German invasion, 18, 27-28; post-communist, reckoning with Soviet abuses in, 295-296; Soviet ambivalence about plan for, 143; Soviet and German division of (1939-1940), xi, 16,17, 20, 21-22; wartime destruction in, 238; wartime hardening of attitudes toward minorities, 52. See also Polish People’s Republic; Second Polish Republic Poland, postwar: and destroyed Jewish population, 238, 296; education in, 247; Kielce Pogrom and, 253-254, 255-256, 304; number of Jews murdered in, 250, 251; Zionist youth movements in, 245, 247. See also Polish People’s Republic; Repatriated Polish Jews Poland, postwar, and Jewish life and culture: Jewish emigration and, 253, 256, 261,264; reestablishment of, 243-247, 252; religious life,
resur gence of, 245-247 Polenaktion, 19 Poles, non-Jewish: as central focus of Polish government-in-exile, 192; postwar absence of Jewish, Ukrainian, Belorus sian, and Lithuanian populations, 238; Soviet deportations of, 120; Soviet mobilization for labor battalions, 150, 166,177-178; view of Soviet deporta tions, vs. Polish Jewish view, 293-298; wartime hardening of attitudes of, 52 Poles, non-Jewish, relations with Polish Jews, 191-205; abuses of Jews in Soviet Union, 198-199; amnesty and, 192; and Anders Army, 192; in Berling’s Army, 154; blaming of Jews for postwar Polish communism, 53, 254-255,297-298; conflict with Polish Jews after amnesty, 154; conflict with Polish Jews in labor installations, 126; factors affecting, 191; improvement with shared suffering of deportation, 191-192; in interwar Poland, 191; Jews with valuable skills and, 196; and Polish aid to refugees in Soviet Union, 200-203; scholars’ interest in, 51. See also Antisemitism, Polish Polish aid to refugees in Soviet Union, 200-203; distribution network for, 200, 205; and gathering of information on Polish refugees, 202; Jewish participa tion in, 203; local variations in, 204; organizations supporting, 206; overall inadequacy of resources for, 205; as provision of amnesty agreement, 200; publication of figures on, to deflect accusations of discrimination, 202-203; Soviet shutdown of, 205,220,364n258; and unfair treatment of Jews, 200-203, 204 Polish Army (Second Polish Republic): casualties, 20-21; defense against German invasion, 17, 20; flight of, 18; Jews in, as targets of Nazi punishment, 19;
mobilization, 29; prisoners of war, 20-21; September Campaign, 20-21, 30; soldiers stranded in Soviet zone, and choice to stay or return home, 38 Polish borderlands, Snyder on violence in, 301-302 Polish citizens. See Citizenship, Polish
ÍNDEX Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polskii Komitet Wyzwolenia Nar odowego), population transfer agree ments by, 226 Polish First Army. See Berling’s Army Polish government-in-exile: aid to Polish Jews in Soviet Union, 7,150; flight from advancing Germans, 18; limited con cern about Jewish refugees, 203-204; Poles evacuated from Soviet Union (1942-1943), 200; re-creation of Polish state as goal of, 203; report on Sovietoccupied Polish territory, 51-52; rights granted to, under amnesty agreement, 149; on Soviet deportations of Poles, 110-111 Polish II Corps. See Anders Army Polish Jews: importance of family to, 282; little knowledge of terrors in USSR, 112-113; search for lost family mem bers, 69,157,159, 226,234-235,240, 242-243, 250-251, 257, 259; stereo type as poor soldiers, 192; stereotype as untrustworthy, 183; as story worth telling, 305; survival rate of, 238; and trauma of sudden invasion, 33. See also Flight to Soviet sector by Polish Jews Polish Jews’ communist sympathies: and Jewish blame for communist takeover of Poland, 53, 254-255, 297-298; and Jewish-Polish relations, 191; postwar increase in, 54; as retroactive justifica tion for Polish atrocities, 53-54, 297; and welcoming of Soviet invasion, 51-52. See also Żydokomuna Polish Jews in Soviet Union: alienated identity of, 5; common path of, 2, 8; decision to stay or return to Poland, 213; diverse groups among, 7; educa tional opportunities for, 237; graves of, 289-290,290; as Holocaust refugees, 284; importance of choices made by, 282; influence on Soviet Jews, 289-292; limited awareness of
events in Poland, 7-8, 96-97, 99; limited scholarship on, 281-283, 285-286; lost, relatives’ search for, 234-235; as majority of survivors, 3, 28; as outside historical 423 account, 2-4; packages from loved ones, importance of, 7, 211; as Polish citizens, 4; reports on Soviet life in interior, importance of, 289; resent ment for allegedly shirking military duty, 292; and Soviet citizenship, efforts to force acceptance of, 4,150,219; terms used to describe, 4-5; themes in stories of, 281-282; those rejecting repatriation, 234-237; trauma experienced by, 10-11; value of understanding, for family members of survivors, 279-281. See aho Soviet deportations of Poles to labor installations Polish Jews in Soviet Union, as part of Holocaust story, 284-288; benefits of including, 287-288; as different but importance part, 286; difficulty of separating, 283; and German-Soviet border, ultimate insignificance of, 286; increasing recognition of, 285; as less-well-known part, 279-281; mobility of refugees as challenge in, 287; narra tive methods for including, 286-287; reasons for neglect of, 286; Russian research on Holocaust and, 288-292 Polish Jews’ welcoming of Soviet invasion, 50-54; accounts of, 52,53; lack of actual data on, 51, 54; as little-discussed in refugee memoirs, 51; Polish discrimina tion against Jews and, 53; Polish stereo type of left-leaning Jews and, 51-52; and Soviets as preferable to Nazis, 52-53; as still-contentious issue, 54; as treasonous in Polish view, 53 Polish Ministry of Information and Docu mentation, Polish government-in-exile, 202 Polish People’s
Republic: Anti-Zionist Campaign (1967-1968), 262-264; authorities’ strategies for imposing communism, 252; clampdown on Jewish institutions, 252, 253-254; desire of many Jews to leave, 245, 250; Jews choosing to remain in, 258-259, 262, 264; post-communist reckoning with abuses in, 295-296; Soviet deportations of Poles as forbidden
424 · INDEX Polish People’s Republic (continued) topic in, 293, 295; and Stalinist ex cesses, blaming of Jews for, 260-261. See also Poland, postwar Polish People’s Republic, communism imposed in, 238, 245; blaming of Jews for, 53, 254-255, 297-298; hopes for milder Polish form, 253; and increased security for Jews, 259-260; and Jewish emigration, 253; Jewish hope for nusekh Poyln, 253-254; Jewish involvement in, 254-255, 297-298; nationalization of Jewish schools, 252; opposition of majority to, 251; resis tance to, 251, 259; Stalins promise of free elections and, 251; state control of Jewish institutions, 252, 253; tightening grip of, 259-260 Polish People’s Republic, Jewish emigra tion from, 14, 255-259, 281; after Anti-Zionist Campaign (1967-1968), 263-264; and damage to Jewish cultural life, 253, 256, 261, 264; discussions of, 257-259; factors in, 255-257; as planned before return, 256-257; snowball effect in, 261, 262; tightening of restrictions on, after 1947, 266; time required to prepare for, 256-257 Polish prisoners of war, 20-21 Polish prisoners of war in Soviet Union: camps and prisons for, 103, 104,105, 111; investigation into fate of, 105; and Katyn Massacre, 105, 150, 220, 260, 293, 295; number of, 104; release of some, 104; Soviet abuse and murder of, 104-105, 150 Polish Underground: communist, 219; couriers for, 51, 285; and crossing of German-Soviet border, 39-40; moni toring of German activity, 42; on Polish Jews, 51-52. See also Partisans Polskii Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego. See Polish Committee of National Liberation Poltava, Jewish refugees in,
65, 68, 87, 95 Pomerantz, Jack, 25, 177,179, 186-187, 215-216, 226, 242 Porat, Dina, 4, 59, 63 Press in Soviet-occupied Polish terri tory: antireligious propaganda in, 80; and danger of incorrect speech, 76; and spread of Soviet ideology, 76, 223; strict regulation of, 69, 74, 76, ЗЗІПІ60 Rabbis, Polish, effort to remove from Soviet Union, 197 Rabinowicz, Gitla, 140,196 Rachlin, Rachel, 147 Radzyń: early days of German occupation in, 25; Holocaust in, 216 The Reawakening (Levi), 300-301 Recovered Territories (Ziemie Odzys kane), reestablishment of Jewish life in, 243-244 Red Army (Soviet Army): antisemitism in recruiting for, 180, 215, 366nl0; female Polish Jews in, 180; and Holocaust, un covering of evidence of, 215-217; Jewish soldiers in, 215; Jews adopting nonJewish names to serve in, 180, 366nl0; Polish Jews in, 215; Polish Jews re treating with, 16, 38, 44; retaking of Poland, 226; self-repatriation of Polish Jews in, 226-227, 237; shabby uniforms of, as off-putting in early occupation, 25, 26 Red Army Labor Divisions (Trud Army). See labor battalions, Soviet Red Army Polish Division. See Rerling’s Army Red Cross, support for repatriated Polish Jews, 242 Redlich, Shimon, 223, 245, 292 Refugees, Polish: discussion of terms, 4; in early war, as without destination, 38; in German-Soviet division of Poland, 18, 27-28; German strafing of, 37. See also Flight to Lithuania by Polish Jews; Flight to Soviet sector by Polish Jews; Polish aid to refugees in Soviet Union; Polish Jews in Soviet Union Regenbogen, Azriel, 128, 138, 153, 203 Religion in Soviet-occupied Polish
territory. See Soviet-occupied Polish territory, religion in
INDEX Religion in Soviet Union, as clandestine, 96 Religious roles of women, in Jewish families without male heads, 163 Religious Union of the Mosaic Faith in Poland (Związek Religijny Wyznania Mojżeszowego w Polsce), 253 Repatriated Polish Jews: antisemitism faced by, 238-239, 248-251; areas of congregation, 240, 247; artists and writers among, 245; and decision to stay or leave Poland, 212-213; hunger and disease during travel, 230; and Jewish life, reestablishment of, 243-247, 262; loss of families and former homes, 3-4, 5, 240, 248; medical care for, 241; overwhelming numbers of, in spring and summer 1946, 241-242; as per centage of postwar Jewish population, 255; persons prevented by Soviets from leaving, 233-234; Polish schools and, 252; remarriage and settlement abroad, 14; sad state of, 237-238; search for housing, 240; search for missing family members, 226, 240, 242-243, 250-251, 257, 259, 261; support for, 240-241; varied receptions of, 241; visits to former home towns, 247-248. See also Polish People’s Republic, Jewish emigration from Repatriation of Poles, 236; agreement allowing, 226; Allied debate over, 14; application process for, 228; availability of work as issue in, 232; collection and relocation of Poles prior to, 230-231; departure of first trains, 232; difficulty of contacting all eligible Poles, 229; and Eastern Poles resettling in Western Poland, 238; ending of, 234; and families adding unrelated orphans, 228; and fear of Soviet trickery, 232-233; Jewish cultural activists and, 228; Jews choosing to remain, 234-237, 291; Jews re turning after end
of, 234; legal context for, 226; near misses of chance for, 235; number of Poles involved in, 237; number of Polish Jews involved in, 237; from orphanages, 229; Orthodox Soviet Jews’ special interest in, 228; peak of, » 425 234; Poles in Red Army as first among, 226-227, 237; registration for, 231-232; reunion of families during, 229-230; self-repatriations, 226-227, 229, 231, 237; short notice for, 232; as slow pro cess, 226; Soviet citizenship as obstacle to, 219; Soviet citizens joining, 234; and Soviet concerns about escape of citizens, 228, 229; Soviet state as obstacle to, 219; Stalin’s reasons for, 225; and support of Soviet bureaucracy, 227-228; transportation for, 232; and unbeatable Polish citizens, 232; ZPP oversight of 225, 226, 227. See also ZPP (Związek Patriotów Polskich w ZSRR) Repatriation of Poles, second wave after Stalin’s death, 234,260-262; as Gomułka Aliyah, 261; number of Jews in, 260; rapid emigration from Poland, 260 Revisionist Zionists, Soviet monitoring and arrest of, 84, 113. See also Betar members, flight to Lithuania Rich, Betty, 37, 55, 83, 91-92, 169, 181-182, 227, 243, 274 Rieger, Aleena, 227, 266, 270-271, 272 Rogers, Irene, 166, 186, 229 Romania, refugees from, 148. See also Flight to Hungary and Romania, by Polish government and military Romer, Tadeusz, 179, 202, 326ո74 Roseman, Mark, 302, 304 Rosh Hashanah, German invasion on, 23, 29; in USSR, 139, 140 Rosja (2018 film), 232 Rotstein, S., 184-185,190 Rozenberg, Lena Jedwab, 156-157, 168, 218, 224 Rozenberg, Yosef, 23-24, 38, 68,132, 135,136 Rudnicka, Maria, 106, 128 Russia, Gulag
museums in, 288 Russian nationalism, Soviets’ wartime encouragement of, 174 Russian Revolution, and Holocaust, Nolte on, 301 Ruta, Magdalena, 124, 245, 253 Rutki (Rutki-Kossaki), black market in, 84 Rzeszów, repatriated Jews in, 249
426 INDEX Sabbath observance: in Central Asian Sexual interactions of Polish territory exile, 172; in labor installations, Jewish refugees, 184-191; marriages, 141-142 transactional, 187-90; sexual assaults Safronovitch, Yitzhak Meir, 172,173, 201, and rapes, 184-185; transactional rela 246 tionships of men, 186-187; transactional Saler, Mendel, 25, 65, 266 relationships of women, 185-186 Saler, Yankl, 24-25, 33, 65,118-119,128, Sfard, Dovid, 223-224, 239,264, 291 156,160-161, 228 Shadkhanovich, David, 117-118 Samara. See Kuibyshev Shafran, Simcha, 60,155,172,231 Samarkand: graves of Polish Jews in, 289; Shanghai, Jewish community in, refugees and, 161,186, 206, 289; repa 326֊327n74 triation from 229 Shapiro, Chaim, 47, 72, 81,173-174,197 Samuels, Klara, 34,59, 68, 98,106 Shmeruk, Chone, 76,179 San River: consecutive occupations of lands Shoah Foundation (Visual History near, 38; crossing of, with smugglers’ Archive): testimonies of, 9,18, 32, aid, 39; driving Jews across, 23, 284; 44,123,136,137,160,168,186,209, flight across, 29, 154; and German230-231, 235, 267,268, 269, 277 Soviet border in Poland, 21; proximity Shore, Marci, 179, 253 to border, 35 Shternfeld, Shaul, 19,55,58, 87, 93, Saved by Deportation (2007 film), 294 135, 145,152,168-169,182,201, 218, Schatz, Jaff, 95, 238, 253, 254 261 Scholarship on Polish Jews in Soviet Shternshis, Anna, 288, 291 Union, 2-4, 5-6,11 Shvarts, Yosef, 125,126 Schools, Polish, for refugees in Soviet Siberia: deportees’ fear of, 122; deportees Union, 203-204; refugees’ views on, in, 281; as difficult to define, 123; as 224; Soviet
shutdown of, 205; So refugees’ general term for remote viet takeover of, 220-221,222-223 regions, 102, 123-124 Schools in Soviet-occupied Polish Siegelbaum, Lewis, 151 territory: antireligious propaganda Sieradzki, Mietek, 40, 209, 262, 263 in, 78-80; anti-Zionist propaganda in, Sikorski, Władysław, 199-200 79; changes to languages used, 78; Sikorski-Maisky Pact. See Amnesty curricular changes, 78-79; extracur agreement for Poles in Soviet Union ricular activities, 79 Skorr, Henry, 31, 229 Schools in Soviet Union: in labor installa Slezkine, Yuri, 123,124 tions, 137-138; and Sovietization, Smolar, Hersh, 74, 95,225, 234 332nl87 Snyder, Timothy, 11,301-304 Schorr, Mojżesz, 108-109 Society for Safeguarding the Health of the Schumacher (Szumacher), Israel, 77, Jewish Population. See TOZ 244-245 Socio-Cultural Association of Jews in Second Polish Republic: ethno-nationalism Poland. See TSKŻ of, 191; Jewish population in, 296. See Sommerstein, Emil, 179, 224, 241 also Polish Army (Second Polish Sources, 6-11; memoirs and testimonies as, 6-11, 277; objectivity of, 6; sec Republic) Second World War. See World War II ondary research, 11; Soviet records, Seder, in labor installations, 140-141. inaccessibility of, 6, 27, 111, 135, 288, See also Passover (Pesach) 290-291. See also Memoirs and testi Selver-Urbach, Sara, 24, 27, 34 monies of Polish Jews Seri-Levi, Naama, 268-269 Soviet Army. See Red Army
INDEX Soviet citizenship. See Citizenship, Soviet Soviet deportations: from Baltic states, 103, 110, 146-147; equal effect on all ethnic groups, 296; in Estonia, 110, 145,146; in Latvia, 110, 145, 146; in Lithuania, 110,145, 146; of Polish non-Jews, 120 Soviet deportations of Poles to labor installations, 2,109-112,281; anticipa tion of, 113-114; arrests of deportees, 112-116; class warfare and, 110; common misconceptions about, 280-281; deception about destina tion, 114,115; and deportees’ fictional marriages, 188; deportees lack of news from war, 7-8, 96-97, 99; deportees’ memoirs’ focus on experience, 7; de portees’ regret at not anticipating, 115-116; early mix of Polish Jews and non-Jews, 120; efforts to avoid, 94; ethnic cleansing and, 110; as forbidden topic in communist Poland, 293, 295; four waves of, 109-110; inadvertent saving of Jews by, 100, 101,146-147, 155, 284, 293-294, 295-296; as inseparable from Holocaust, 299-300, 304-305; interethnic Polish relations in, 297; Jews collaborating in, 115, 342n69; in June of 1940,121; large number of Jews in, 296; in larger context of Soviet population transfers, 102, 103-104; limits on possessions allowed, 114, 115; motives for, 110; neighbors’ aid to deportees, 116; number of deportees, 110; as part of brutal labor system, 284; percentage of Jews in, 111; planning for, 120; Polish vs. Polish Jewish view of, 293-298; procedures for, 113-116; relatives’ aid to deportees, 96; as result of Jewish refusal to accept Soviet citizenship, 13, 92-93, 110,114; separation of families in, 111, 114-117, 120-121; suffering of Jews
in, 293-294; value of Jewish perspective on, 296-297; Warsaw monument commemorating, 293,294, 294-295; as wound in Polish society, 13. See also Arrest and incarceration of · 4Z7 Poles; Labor installations; Travel to labor installations Soviet homes, “red corner” in, 137 Soviet invasion of Poland, 20; and Polish POWs, 20-21. See also Polish Jews’ welcoming of Soviet invasion Soviet prisoners of war, 151, 288, 299 Sovietization: in Baltic states, rapidity of, 62-63; schools and, 332nl87 Sovietization in occupied Polish territories, 70-85; antireligious policies, 80-82; antireligious propaganda in press, 80; antireligious propaganda in schools, 78-80; and confiscation of residents’ homes and businesses, 83; and cultural life, strict limits for, 74-78; destructive ness for ethnic Poles, 71; gap between planning and execution in, 71; imme diate commencement of, 70; increasing severity of implementation, 71; and lines as form of social control, 71-72; and lines as primarily for refugees, 72; mass disruptions caused by, 83; and obligatory celebration of Stalin, 72-73, 77, 82; and passive rhetorical structure, 72; and promotion of Belorussians and Ukrainians to top positions, 82, 83; rapidity of, 289; readiness of program for, 70-71; removal of Polish and Hebrew from schools, 78; school curriculum changes, 78-79; and suppression of “speculation,” 83, 84-85; transforma tion of Jewish life by, 81-82; and women in workforce, 83-84; workers’ views on, 83-84 Soviet Jews: amnestied Polish Jews and, 168-169, 173-174, 282; attempts to leave USSR with Polish Jews, 228-229, 234; culture
of, 291-292; and ErlichAlter case, 176; and Holocaust, 215, 287; influence of Polish cultural life on, 75,174, 289-292. See also JAFC (Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee) Soviet-occupied Polish territory: accusa tions of Jews benefiting from, 51; auto matic Soviet citizenship for residents, 150; censorship of Polish libraries, 77-78; closing of yeshivas, 60; confiscation of
428 - ÍNDEX Soviet-occupied Polish territory (continued) houses and businesses, 67; limited population exchanges with Germany, 92; monitoring of Jews in, 84; number of Poles in, 21; number of Polish Jews in, 21; plebiscite for Poles to request annexation, 70, 327nnl21-122; Polish caricaturing of Soviet practices, 72; Polish Jews’ jokes about Soviet life, 73-74; and Polish nationalism, rise of, 52; political activity of Polish Jews in, 82; registration of Poles in, 27; regulation of Jewish and Polish press, 69, 74, 76; remaining of most Jews in, 64; residents’ obligation to publicly proclaim Soviet excellence, 82; short ages in, 71, 73; Soviet citizenship for residents, 70; Soviet consolidation of power in, 21-22; Soviet troops’ spending sprees in, 56; value of relatives and friends to refugees in, 67; and Yiddish lending libraries, establishment of, 78. See also Sovietization in occupied Polish territories Soviet-occupied Polish territory, cultural life in: approved reading, 78; arrests of Polish writers, 76; and danger of incorrect speech, 74-75, 76; influence on Soviet Jews, 75, 174; and Jewish comedians, constraints on, 77; limited support available for loyal artists, 74; Soviet effort to limit Polish literary output, 75-76; and spread of Soviet ideology, 75; strict limits for, 74-78; writers’ turn to children’s literature and journalism, 76; Yiddish theater, 76-77 Soviet-occupied Polish territory, daily life in, 64-69; black markets, 65-66, 66, 68, 81, 84-85; and free education, 67-68; housing shortages, 64-65; lack of discrimination against Jews, 67; leader ship role
of children, 68; local friends and family, value of, 67; moves in search of opportunity, 66-67; older generation’s difficulty adjusting, 67; relative happiness of, 67-68; search for separated family members, 69; work, difficulty of finding, 65 Soviet-occupied Polish territory, religion in: antireligious propaganda in press, 80; antireligious propaganda in schools, 78-80; clandestine practice of, 81; close monitoring of, 80-81; policies to discourage and suppress, 80-82; Soviet policies to cut off new adherents, 81 Soviet penal system: Bolsheviks’ expansion of, 102; camaraderie across ethnic lines in, 108-109; cruel conditions in prisons, 107-108, 109; and disillusionment of Polish communists, 108; number of inmates in, 103; prisoner organization in, 109; vast infrastructure of, 103 Soviet Polish Army. See Berling’s Army Soviet population transfers, 102; motives for, 102; turn to ethnic cleansing, 102-104. See also Soviet deportations of Poles to labor installations Soviet soldiers: required positive view of Soviet Union, 56; spending sprees in occupied Polish territory, 56 Soviet Union: antireligious policies, effects of, 296; antireligious policies, wartime relaxation of, 174; authoritarianism of, and Nazi authoritarianism, similarities and differences, 300-304; concern about image abroad, 206; daily life in, 95-96; equality of poor treatment in, 71; Great Purges of 1937-1938,103; internal surveillance system, 181; policy implementation in 1917, 70; ration cards, as tied to employment, 165; records, inaccessibility of, 6, 27, 111, 135, 288, 290-291 Special settlements
(spetsposelki), 13, 103, 111-12; in Altai region, 138; in Asino, 127,130, 132,136,137-138, 142; culture in, 137; departure of amnestied Poles from, 151; food shortages in, 132; inability of some amnestied Poles to leave, 165; medical care in, 133-134; news of Polish amnesty and, 144; near Novosibirsk, 123, 134,162, 175, 186, 231; near Redva, 137; separation of families in, 230; near Sverdlovsk Oblast, 137,162; as typical destination for deported Jewish refugees, 139; value
ÍNDEX of Jewish accounts of, 296-297; varying condition in, 136; in Vologda region, 209; welcome speech in, 126; work in, 130. See also Labor installations Speculation,” Soviet suppression of, 83, 84-85; impact on Polish Jews, 83, 84-85 Stahl, Dina, 132, 135, 195 Stalin, Joseph: antisemitism of, 192, 383n23; death of, 146, 234, 260, 261; decision to keep annexed Polish territo ries, 219; declining interest in Western relations, 211; inadvertent saving of Jews, 101, 284,292; and Jewish stereo types, 192; obligatory celebration of, 72-73, 77, 82, 99, 126, 223, 224; plans for Polish territory, 143, 219, 225; policies in postwar Poland, 253, 255; promise of free Polish elections, 251; and USSR’s inward turn, 205; Wasilewska and, 220; willingness to allow return of Polish Jews, 225 Stalingrad, Battle of, 164, 176, 179, 205, 220 Stalingrad (Volgograd), as refugee destination, 158 Staliniri (Tskhinvali, Tskhinval): amnes tied Polish Jews in, 169; recruitment of informants in, 181-182 Stalinism, 23, 260, 288, 300, 305 Starkiewicz, Helena, 25, 106,108,126, 132, 188, 201, 226-227 Steinberg, Avraham, 115, 138, 208-209, 295 Steinberg, Rabbi Baruch, 105, 295 Steinlauf, Michael, 254-255 Stettin. See Szczecin Stola, Dariusz, 255, 262-263, 264 Storch, Helena, 246 Surviving Remnant (She erit Hapletah), 4, 6, 245, 255, 273, 287 The Survivor (Des Pres), 300 Sverdlovsk (Yekaterinburg), and repatria tion, 232 Sverdlovsk Oblast: deportees in, 126; as destination for amnestied Poles, 165; number of deportees to, 112t; and repatriation, 231; special settlement near, 137, 162 · 429 Sword,
Keith, 7, 83, 109-110,154, 203 Szafran, Feiwel, 257-258 Szaynok, Bożena, 240, 249 Szczecin (Stettin): letter collection in, 257-259; repatriated Polish Jews in, 242, 244, 247 Szedlecki, Ann, 19, 54, 88, 122, 155, 182, 185, 237-238 Szer, Włodzimierz, 47, 118,138, 142,189, 217-218, 219, 226, 258-259 Tajik SSR (Tajikistan), 156 Taraz. See Dzhambul Tarnów, flight of Polish Jews from, 37-38 Tashkent: aid to Polish refugees in, 203, 207; cultural activities for refugees in, 171; as destination for amnestied Poles, 148-149, 152,153, 156, 159, 160,165, 171,197, 232, 236; flood of refugees in, 148-149, 158-159, 166; gender imbal ance among Jews in, 30; housing short ages in, 166; news of Holocaust in, 216-217; orphanages in, 195; reputation for bounty, 148, 152; ZPP in, 224 Tashkent, City of Bread (Neverov), 148, 152, 153, 156 Taube, Herman, 104, 153,154, 161, 166-167, 188, 275 Teheran Children, 215, 217, 273 Teitel, Khanina, 65, 124,131, 151, 328n92 Temkin, Gabriel and Hanna, 258-259 The Thaw, 146, 234, 260, 299 Theater, Yiddish: in Poland after the war, 244, 253, 264; in USSR, 76-77, 171-172 “To a Jewish Dancer” (Markish), 50, 75 Toryal (Mari ASSR), amnestied Polish Jews in, 170 Towarzstwo Ochrony Zdrowia Ludności Żydowskiej. See TOZ Towarzystwo Społeczno-Kulturalne Żydów w Polsce. See TSKŻ TOZ (Towarzstwo Ochrony Zdrowia Ludności Żydowskiej, Society for Safeguarding the Health of the Jewish Population): care for repatriated Polish Jews, 240-241; care for Jewish refugees in Lithuania, 60-61
430 INDEX Tarnopol (Tarnopil): deportation of Jews from, 94; Soviet transformation of Jewish life in, 82 Transnational studies of Holocaust, 11 Travel to labor installations, 116-125; crude accommodations on trains, 117-118; deportees’ descriptions of routes, 121; and deportees’ despair, 120; elder (starosta) presiding over train cars, 117; food in, 117-118; infestation, disease, and poor hygiene during, 119-120; lack of toilets on trains, 118-119; loosening of security in distant areas, 122; mayhem during loading of trains, 117; in mostly Jewish groups, 121; pregnant and nursing women and, 118; as prominent part of deportee narratives, 117; and realiza tion of prisoner status, 116; religious observances during, 121; Soviet planning of, 120; and unfamiliar landscape, 122-123; Volga crossing and, 102,123 Treier, Emanuel, 197-198 Treier, Regina, 197-198 Trudovaiia armita. See Labor bataillons Trunk, Isaiah, 249 Tskhinval[i], See Stalinin TSKŻ (Towarzystwo Społeczno-Kulturalne Żydów w Polsce, Socio-Cultural Associa tion of Jews in Poland): after Anti-Zionist Campaign (1967-1968), 264; curtailing of Jewish culture from, 253; and repa triation, 234; state control of, 252 Tsu a nay lebn (Egit), 244 Tsukunft, 24. See also Jewish Labor Bund Turkestan (Türkistan): collective farm near, 273; and Polish Jews’ repatriation, 227, 232; Polish Jews’ views on autochthonous peoples of, 169 Tych, Feliks, 255-256 Ukraine: borderlands, Snyder on violence in, 301- 302; citizenship for residents of, 90; Great Famine in, 302, 338n7; holding of Poles in, before repatriation, 231, 241;
liberation of 216, 231; Polish Jews remaining in, 235; recruitment of Polish Jewish refugees for jobs in, 86; repatriation from, 232; Soviet ethnic cleansing in, 102-103 Ukraine, Western: arrests and deporta tions in, 110; citizenship for residents of, 90; Jewish flight from, 156; Jewish refugees in, 95,281; Jews in, lack of news about war, 99; packages from, 132; POWs in, 339nl6; Soviet annexa tion of, 70; Soviet policies in, 22 Ukrainian language, in Soviet schools, 68, 78 Ukrainian Poles, Soviet encouragement and supervision of culture, 22, 74, 77; no longer in Poland after the war, 238; Soviet mobilization for labor battalions, 150,177; Soviet prevention of entry into Anders Army, 225 Ukrainians, Polish Jewish interactions with, 73,188, 215; in Soviet-occupied Polish territory, 21 Union of Polish Patriots in the USSR. See ZPP Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, borders, circa 1940, xii—xiii United Kingdom (UK), and aid to Polish Jews in the USSR, 207, 224; alliance with Soviets, 144,179; and antisemitism in Anders Army, 199; and Baltic states, 146; and DP camps, 266; and German invasion of Poland, 17,20; emigration to, 263, 264; and Palestine Mandate, 61, 225, 269, 271, 272-273; and SikorskiMaisky Pact, 144. See also London, Polish government-in-exile in United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), 242, 265, 266 United States: as destination for Jewish DPs, 270, 275, 276, 277; DP falsification of histories to gain admittance, 270-271; immigration quotas, 270 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 9,153 Unoccupied areas: declining number of by
1940,59; Polish Jews’ efforts to reach, 57 UNRRA. See United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration
INDEX Ural Mountains: communal farms for deportees in, 129; as deportation destination, 13, 111, 281; as destination of amnestied Poles, 151, 182; as division between Europe and Asia, 122 Urban, Stuart, 183 Urban, Garrí, 107,134,183,187 Uzbek SSR (Uzbekistan): Bukharan Jews in, 169; as destination of amnestied Poles, 148, 153,160,163, 167,198, 201, 216, 247, 248, 273, 285. See also Tashkent Vaad Hatzala, 61, 207, 209, 210 Vilna (Wilno, Vilnius): arrival of Jewish refugees in, 58, 59-60, 113; deportation from, 5, 146, 201; Lithuanian deal with Soviets to recover, 57-58; as refugee destination, 34,58,106,113,145, 163 Vitebsk: closing of synagogues in, 96; housing shortages in, 64; Polish Jewish refugees in, 45, 64, 96; work for Jewish refugees in, 90 Vladimir-Volynskii (Włodzimierz Wołyński, Volodymyr-Volynskyi, Ludmir): Polish POWs in, 104; refugee life in, 65; refugees in, 98,106 Volga German ASSR (former), deportees from, 142; Polish Jews moved to, 230 Volga River: amnestied Polish Jews near, 189; crossing of, 102, 123, 138, 158 Volgograd. See Stalingrad Volodymyr-Volynskyi. See Vladimir-Volynskii Vologda Oblast: deportees in, 124, 156, 209; number of deportees to, 112r; work in, 128 Wałbrzych (Waldenburg), postwar, 243 War and Genocide (Bergen), 285-286 Warhaftig, Żorach, 29-30, 56, 61-62, 63,73 Warlik, Wanda, 28, 30, 111, 215, 237 Warsaw: gender imbalance in, 30; Monu ment to the Fallen and Murdered in the East, 293, 294, 294-295; Monument to the Ghetto Heroes, 247, 283; news from, 214, 218-219, 283; postwar, 217, · 431 238, 240, 242, 244, 247, 252, 259, 261, 262, 263;
refugee aid to, 66, 214; refugee returns to, 31, 32, 45, 69, 91, 98, 116; war beginning in, 1, 17, 27,30; wartime destruction in, 238 Warsaw Ghetto: Jewish deaths in, 262; Jews seeking refuge in, 98-99; Emanuel Ringelblum, 45; testimonies collected in, 52, 55, 64, 65, 71-72, 78, 84, 91; underground archive of (Oneg Shabbes), 1, 9-10, 45, 52, 84, 322n8 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: anniversary of, in Szczecin, 246; Rapoport sculpture commemoration, 283 Wasilewska, Wanda, 199-200, 220, 227 Wat, Aleksander, 77, 107, 178-179 Wat, Polina, 178-179 Waxman, Zoë, 8, 48, 184 Weinberg, Mieczysław, 236, 237 Weinreich, Mike, 56, 68 Wenig, Larry, 20, 29 Werker, Dora, 115,135, 191-192,194-195 Wilno. See Vilna Witkowska, L., 188,196 Włodzimierz Wołyński. See Vladimir-Volynskii Wolna Polska (Free Poland), 215, 220, 229, 232 Women, Jewish: in Anders Army, 194; German killings of, 23; as heads of household, 30, 111, 121, 163; hygiene in transport, 118; Kaplan on, 32-33; opportunities in USSR, 83; overrepre sentation in ghettos, 30; and prayer, 20; pregnancy and motherhood in transport, 118; presumed safety from Germans, 25, 29, 30, 31; in prison, 108; sexual assaults and rapes of, 184-185; and sexual transactional relationships, 185-186; ties to family, 32; in Under ground, 40 Women, Polish: on collaboration, 183; as heads of household, 111; national identity of, 52; percentages, 222 Women, Soviet, as viewed by Poles: fashion of, 66, 72; labor of, 83-84,128; other cultures of, 169-170; promiscuity of, 186,189
432 INDEX Work camps in Soviet Union. See Labor installations; Special settlements Work in Soviet Union, as obligatory, 128 World Jewish Congress, 207, 209 World War I: leading to refugee crisis, 205; leading to US immigration quotas, 270; Nazis learn from mistakes of, 16-17; new nations created after, 20, 57; perceptions of German Army behavior during, as part of flight decisions, 25-26 World War II; duration of aftermath, vari ation in, 304; Holocaust as inseparable part of, 299-300; integrated histories of, 301-304; Soviet deportations as inseparable part of, 304-305 World War II, end of: limited mention of, in testimonies, 219; and Poles in Soviet Union, obstacles to return, 219 Wygodzki, Rachela Tytelman, 44-45, 115-116, 185, 272-273 Yad Vashem: Garden of Righteous on campus of, 284; testimony for, 9, 251, 271, 273 Yakutsk, cultural life in, 171, 214-215; as destination for amnestied Poles, 155; and passportization drive, 178; repatria tion of Poles from, 230 Yakutsk Oblast: amnesty in, 152; deportees sent to, 112t, 133,154; Yalta Conference, 251 Yekaterinburg. See Sverdlovsk Yermus family, 236 Yetsies Pölyn (Exodus from Poland), 212-213, 278 Yiddish: as connection between Soviet and Polish Jews, 42, 56, 76, 169, 224; decline among Jews in Soviet Union, 96; family efforts to teach to children, 138; loan words in, 212-213; transla tion, 1, 148; after the war, 275, 278 Yidisher Melukhe Miniatur Teatr, 77 Yishuv (Jewish Community in Palestine): JDC relief programs and, 207; lobbying for Polish removal of Jews from Soviet Union, 197-198; and Polish antisemi tism, 199;
and Polish migration to Israel, 269; Sommerstein and, 199, 224; support for Polish Zionists, 256-257 Yom Kippur, 16, 159; efforts to celebrate, 81,139-140; in USSR, 136 Yoshkar-Ola: amnestied Polish Jews in, 170; Jewish refugees in, 97; Polish refugees in, 221-222; ZPP in, 217 Zable, Arnold, 278, 279 Zak, Avrom, 124-125, 218-219, 222 Zamari, Yocheved, 64-65, 95, 250, 271-272, 273 Zarnowitz, Victor, 30, 37, 93-94,144-145, 222, 267 Żbikowski, Andrzej, 53, 93, 250 Zdrojowicz, Szlomo, 59, 186 Zerubavel, Frida, 30, 41-42, 57,58, 62, 69, 74, 77-78, 86 Zessin-Jurek, Lidia, 295, 297 Zgorzelec (Görlitz), repatriated Polish Jews in, 244 Ziębice (Miisterberg), repatriated Polish Jews in, 246 Ziemie Odzyskane. See Recovered territories Zifberfeyn, Shmuel, 128 ŻIH (Żydowski Instytut Historyczny, Jewish Historical Institute), 252 Zionists: and aid to Jewish refugees in Soviet Union, 209; and Břicha, 271-274; comradeship during Soviet exile, 137, 153, 168; flight to unoccupied areas, 56, 59, 60, 61, 201; growing among Polish Jewish refugees, 194; in Lithu ania, 60, 61-62,113; Polish Jewish refugees bringing to USSR, 182; postwar activism, 245, 247, 252, 268, 272; and postwar immigration decisions, 212,213, 256-257,276-277; and postwar Polish antisemitism, 260, 263; and postwar testimonies, 10; prewar in Poland, 18; treatment in Soviet territory, 84,113, 120,178, 179,180,182,188, 197, 224, 261; as unwelcome in Soviet territory, 60, 78 Zisfain, Bronia (Proshker), 142, 190, 276 Złoczów. See Zolotchev Zolenfreind, Moshe, 139
INDEX Zolotchev (Złoczów, Zolochív), deporta tions from, 115 ZPP (Związek Patriotów Polskich w ZSRR, Union of Polish Patriots in the USSR), 223; activities of, 217, 220-222, 223-224, 291; and Berling’s Army, oversight of, 225; closing of, 234; collection of data on Poles, 220-221, 222, 226; creation of, 220; hiring of Jewish workers, 223; influence on Soviet Jews, 291; Jewish Organizing Committee of, 223-224; Jews working for, 228; opportunities of affiliation with, 223, 251; Polish Jews’ distrust of, 228, 232; propaganda photos by, 223, 224; providing aid to Poles, 220-221, 224; refugees confusion about role of, 231; refugees’ views on, 224; schools, 221, 222-223, 224; Wasilewska and, 220 · 433 ZPP, and repatriation: Jews without proper documentation and, 228; moving some Poles west in advance of, 230-231; oversight of, 225, 226, 227, 232; persons prevented by Soviets from leaving, 233; and Polish children in institutions, 229; registration of Poles for, 228, 229, 231-232,240 Zuberman, Helen, 31, 64,119,123-124, 131,136-137,185, 268, 275 Związek Patriotów Polskich w ZSRR. See ZPP Związek Religijny Wyznania Mojżeszowego w Polsce. See Religious Union of the Mosaic Faith in Poland Żydokomuna, 53, 191, 254, 297 Żydowski Instytut Historyczny. See ŻIH Zylbersztejn, Naftali, 133, 134,198 Zynger, Ezra, 230-231, 242, 275 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
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Contents Note on Transliteration and Translation ix Introduction: On the Other Side 1 1 Esau or Laban? Wrestling with the German and Soviet Occupations Z If a Man Did Flee from a Lion, and a Bear Met Him: The Soviet Embrace 15 50 3 Jewish Luck: Deportation to Siberia 101 4 City of Want: Survival in Central Asia 148 5 Nusekh Poyln, or Yetsies Potjln? The Polish Way, or Exodus from Poland? 212 Conclusion: Expanding the Compass of Survival 279 Notes 307 Bibliography 387 Acknowledgments 403 Index 407
Index Note: Figures are indexed in italic. Page numbers followed by t refer to tables. Alexander, Aleksandra, 26, 33-34 Aliyah (immigration to Israel), 62, 261, 262 Alma-Ata (Almaty): as destination for amnestied Poles, 153, 165; graves of Polish Jews in, 289 Altai Krai, deportees in, 112t, 130,131, 138, 146, 166, 170, 186 Alter, Wiktor, 11,109, 176, 180, 200, 206 Altshuler (Altschuler), Mordechai, 91,137, 231 Amar, Tarik, 54, 70, 83,120 American Jewish Committee. See AJC American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee. See JDC Amnestied Polish Jews: difficulty of travel in wartime, 153; factors influencing experience of, 149; greater hardship of those leaving areas of forced labor, 155-156; improvement of life for, 163-164; inability of some to leave labor installations, 165; as informants, 181-184; as lowest rung on Soviet hierarchy, 166; Palestine as goal of some, 153; portion remaining near labor facilities, 154; remaining of some in Soviet Union, 281; search for lost family members, 153,159; southward Abel, Tema, 46-47, 169, 216-217, 232, 239, 275-276 Abend, Dorothy Zänker, 118,131,201-202, 209, 239, 266 Ackerman, Diana, 131,138 Adamczyk-Garbowska, Monika, 255-256 Aftermath studies, 287 Agron, Rivka, 136, 137, 162, 166 Agudah (Agudath Yisrael), 245-246 Aid to Polish Jewish refugees in Soviet Union, 205-211; groups involved in, 205, 209; and information on location of refugees, 209-210; by JDC, 205-210; and reconnection of families through mail, 210; scholarship on, 7; Soviet suspicions about, 211. See also Polish aid to refugees in Soviet Union AJC (American Jewish
Committee), postwar interviews by, 55,165,167,171, 174, 175, 180, 181, 184,188,190, 193, 224, 228 Ajzen, Chaim, 25-26, 30, 233 Ajzen family, 162 Ajzenberg, Helena, 194 Alban, Sally, 31,32,117, 131, 165 Aleksiun, Natalia, 34, 67, 105, 249, 252, 254 407
40В INDEX Amnestied Polish Jews (continued) travel of many, 152-153, 155-156, 281; Soviet lack of plan for, 154; travel in search of viable home, 151-156, 281; and upheaval of German invasion, 151, 158-160; variation in dates of release, 151 Amnestied Polish Jews, contact with officials: avoidance of, 176; Erlich-Alter case and, 176; JAFC and, 174-175; misunderstandings characteristic of, 176; necessity of, 176; passportization drive of 1943 and, 178-179; and poor treatment equal to other Soviet citizens, 184; recruitment for labor battalions, 150, 177-178; through military service, 179, 180; through NKVD recruitment of informants, 177,180-184 Amnestied Polish Jews, life in exile, 165-174; antisemitism experienced by, 170-171; association with Soviet Jews, 168-169; and black market, 165, 167; and changed family roles due to deaths, 162-163; contact with unfamiliar ethnic groups, 166, 168; continued migra tion of some, 165; cultural practices, 171-172; and disease, 155,160, 161, 165-166, 290; educational opportuni ties, 168; housing shortages and, 166; lack of cultural capital, 159-160; lack of money or documents, 152, 160; language barriers and, 169; and medical treatment, difficulty of obtaining, 157, 160, 161; Polish government’s effort to aid, 150; poverty and hunger of, 149, 155, 159, 160-161, 163, 290; and rampant crime, 149, 159; and ration cards, employment needed to obtain, 165; relations between Jews and ethnic Poles, 192; religious practices, 172-174, 173; school experiences, 170; search for food and work, 165-166; struggles of first year, 158-164; successful
em ployment of some, 167; tendency to remain separate, 168, 170; and value of marketable skills, 166-167 Amnesty agreement for Poles in Soviet Union (Sikorski-Maisky Pact), 13, 143-147, 36ІПІ95; Baltic citizens left behind in labor installations, 146; conflict over implementation of, 149; debate on terminology of, 349-350n240; differing Polish and Jewish understandings of, 192; dramatic effect on Poles in Soviet Union, 149; events leading to agree ment, 144; failure to set Polish borders, 144; as Jewish luck, 146; news of, as slow to reach Poles in labor installa tions, 144-145, 154; Polish checks on compliance with, 202; provisions for Polish aid to refugees in, 200; rights granted to Polish government-in-exile under, 149; and southward travel, 13; Soviet efforts to block implementation, 150,177, 204-205, 219; Soviet reneging on, after repulse of German invasion, 205, 220 Anders, Władysław: amnesty and, 200; and Anders Army formation, 104-105, 149; antisemitism in Anders Army and, 199-200; promise to remove Polish rabbis and, 197; views on Jews in Anders Army 192-193 Anders Army (Polish II Corps): acceptance of Jews with special skills, 196-197; amnestied Polish Jews’ joining of, 163, 173; antisemitism in, 180,193-200,204; and Belorussian and Ukrainian Poles, 225; formation of, 149-150; Jewish de sertions from, 199; Jewish soldiers not reporting antisemitism, 198; Jews’ changing of name to join, 188, 194, 196; Jews evacuating with, 159,196, 197-198,202, 257,266,281,297; Jews seeking to join, 151,152,158,178,179, 188,202; Polish goals for, 149; rejection of Jewish men
as volunteers, 179, 193; rejection of Jewish women as volunteers, 194; Soviet interference in recruitment for, 178,193,198,199, 219, 225 Andizhan: amnestied Poles in, 163, 166, 167,186, 229; collective farm near, 160 Antisemitism, Polish: in Anders Army, 193-200, 204; and anticommunism, 53; Anti-Zionist Campaign (1967-68), 262-264; and distribution of aid to
INDEX Polish refugees, 200-203, 204; and evacuations of Poles from Soviet Union, 200; and Jews’ decision to leave Poland, 253-254; Jews’ long-held beliefs on, 51; Kielce Pogrom, 250-25!, 253-254, 255-256,257; in orphanages, 195-196; postwar virulence of, 238-239,248-251; Soviet exploitation of, 199-200; Soviet willingness to publicize, 199; and Stalinist excesses, blaming of Jews for, 260-261; and stereotyping of Jews, 51-52,183, 192; in Thaw, 260; Zionist movement and, 260 Antisemitism in Soviet Union: in Anders Army, 180, 193-200, 204; Andizhan, amnestied Poles in, 160, 163,166-167, 186, 229; anti-Jewish riot in Makarovka, 230; in Berling’s Army, 215; during flight from German invasion, 158, 161; increase during war, 170-171, 292, 383n23; in Kazakhstan school, 170; Polish Jews’ limited experience of, 10, 120, 135; postwar increase in, 288; in Red Army recruitment, 180, 215, 366nl0; rise of, and rising Jewish fear, 228, 229; in Soviet labor installations, 191-192; Antisemitism of Nazis, as well-known to Polish Jews, 18-20, 23 Arendt, Hannah, 300, 383n23 Arkhangelsk Oblast; deportees in, 124, 129,131,133-134, 135, 249, 272, 281; and news of Polish amnesty, 144-145; number of deportees to, 112r Arrest and incarceration of Poles: for border crossing, 105-107, 111, 129, 132; and deportations, as paired tools, 109; for flight to Lithuania, 106-107; number of prisoners, 107; of political and intel lectual leaders, 107-108,108-109; pre dominance of men in, 108; stages of, 103; and unlikeliness of release, 107. See also Polish prisoners of war Arrival in Soviet territory:
informal communal aid among Jews, 55; initial hardships, 54-56; and large cities as destinations, 54-55; limited relief services available, 55, 56; local friends 409 and family, value of, 56, 67; Soviet abol ishment of Jewish community organ izations, 55; Soviet offices to aid, 55-56; and synagogues as refuges, 54 Artels in Soviet territory: choice of closing day, 80; and employment for Jewish workers, 83, 172; thefts from, 85 Asino (Omsk Olast): deportees in, 124; special settlements in, 127, 130,132, 136, 137-138,142 Australia, Jewish postwar migration to, 258, 269, 270, 276, 281. See also Mel bourne, Australia Austrian Jews, Polenaktion and, 19 Autochthonous peoples, amnestied Polish Jews’ views on, 169 Ayzen, Avraham, 26-27 Azrieli (Azrylewicz), David, 45,46,67,96, 107,132,194 Babenhausen Displaced Persons camp, 267 Badner, Irving, 56, 249, 268, 275 Baltic states: citizens left behind in labor installations after Polish amnesty, 146; flight to, 57; influence of Jews from, 292; migration from, 36, 62, 234; Polish de portees from, and amnesty agreement, 145; Snyder on violence in, 301-302; Soviet and German division of, 1939-1940, xi, 21, 36; Soviet arrests and deportations in, 103, 110, 111, 114-115,145,146-147; Soviet curtailing of Jewish culture, 62-63; Soviet legacy in, 303; Soviet rule in, 62-64, 289. See also Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania Bar, Miriam, 153, 159 Baranovichi (Baranavichy, Baranowicze): black market in, 65-66, 106; close monitoring of religion in, 80-81; as destination for refugees, 156; prison in, 59; trial at, 106 Barber, Regina, 229-230 Bathhouses,
Russian {banya), deportees’ use of, 86,119 Bauer, Yehuda, 7, 52, 99, 272 Baum, Boris, 25, 46, 161, 276 Bauman, Janina, 247, 259, 263-264 Beada, Irving, 31, 135
410 · INDEX Begin, Menachem, 113,120,197 Bell, Daniella, 131, 269,275, 277 Belorussia, Western: arrests and deporta tions in, 110; citizenship for residents of, 90; Jewish flight from, 156; Jewish refugees in, 87, 95, 281; Jews in, lack of news about war, 99; monitoring of Jews in, 84; recruitment of Polish Jewish refugees for labor in the interior in, 86; Soviet annexation of, 70; Soviet policies in, 22 Belorussians: Soviet mobilization for labor battalions, 150, 177; in Soviet-occupied Polish territory, 21 Belovodskoye, 158, 222 Ben-Asher, Moshe, 18-19,131,132, 203 Benjamin-Goldberg, Ann, 83, 168 Berendt, Grzegorz, 260-261 Berezhani (Brzeżany, Berezhany), refugee life in, 67, 97 Berezovka, 186 Bergen, Doris, 285-286 Berger, Joseph, 190, 270, 271, 275 Bergman, Sara, 39-40,178, 248, 276 Bergman, Shalom, 178, 276 Berkelhammer, Harry, 37-38, 65,117,133, 167 Berler, Ružena, 118, 120-121,130,180, 188-189 Berling’s Army (Kosciuszko Division, Polish First Army, Soviet Polish Army): antisemitism in, 215; barring of Jews from, 178; as chiefly political gesture, 179; creation of, 105,150; and Holocaust, exposure to, 215-216, 217, 281; idea for, 179-180; and Jewish Poles’ repatriation, 226-227; Jews adopting non-Jewish names to serve in, 180; legitimacy as Polish force, as issue, 180; Polish Jews joining, 161, 163,179, 215; ZPP over sight of, 225 Berlovitch, Mikhael, 65,194, 202 Betar members, flight to Lithuania, 60. See also Revisionist Zionists, Soviet monitoring and arrest of Biała Podlaska, antisemitism in, 239-240 Białystok (Białystok): arrival of Jewish refugees in, 31, 44,
50, 54-56, 62,107, 145, 185; censorship of libraries in, 77-78; deportation from, 134, 163 ; flight from, 156-157, 168; flood of refugees in, 158-159; Holocaust in, 45, 98, 218; jobs for Jewish refugees in, 74, 79, 84, 87, 106; recruitment for labor in the interior in, 89-90; refugee life in, 65, 66, 68, 69, 77, 87, 96, 97; as refugee stop, 60,145,157; schools in, 68, 79; Writers’ house in, 74 Bialystoker Shtern, Der, 69, 74, 76, 79-80, 84-85, 88-89, 89, 90, 95 Białystok Ghetto, flight from, 45, 98 Bichler, Abraham, 124,137,140, 169-170, 227 Bielsko, postwar antisemitism in, 248 Bimko, Hersz, 179 Black market: amnestied Polish Jews and, 165,167; Jewish items for sale in, 209; in labor installations, 128, 131-132; NKVD recruitment of informants on, 181-182; and NKVD sexual abuse, 186; in Soviet-occupied Polish territory, 65-66, 66, 68, 81, 84-85 Blander, Avraham, 23-24 Blander, Matla, 26, 34 Blenkitni, Ahron, 80, 96, 201 Blitzkrieg warfare, 16-17,144 Bloodlands (Snyder), 301-304 Border. See German-Soviet border in Poland; Old Soviet border Boren, Adam, 32,40-41, 65, 98 Brandshpigel, David, 87, 97 Brenner, David, 88-89, 89 Brest (Brześć, Brisk): arrival of Jewish refugees in, 55; housing shortage in, 64-65; relief packages from, 218 Břicha, 272-274, 276 Britain, and Jewish migration to Palestine, 271, 272-273 British DP camps, refusal to admit Polish Jewish repatriates, 266 Broderzon, Moyshe (Mojsze, Moishe), 74, 77, 234 Broderzon, Sheyne Miriam, 234 Brown, Kate, 6, 102, 122-123 Brzeżany. See Berezhani Buchman, Roza, 124,188 Bug River: consecutive occupations of lands near,
expulsion across, 43, 106,
INDEX 284; 38; and German-Soviet border in Poland, 21, 37; Red Army crossing of, 226; refugees’ crossing of 32, 35, 37, 40-41, 44, 50, 65, 98, 273; Soviet liberation, 226, 227; Soviet retreat behind, 16 Bukhara; as destination for amnestied Poles, 159; graves of Polish Jews in, 289,290; Polish Jewish refugees in, 5, 161, 166, 184, 210, 219, 250; Polish school in, 221 ; repatriated Jews from, 241, 271; ZPP in, 224, 228 Bukharan Jews, 169 Bukharan Region, efforts to reunite separated families in, 229 Bukhovina, migration from, after Soviet annexation, 36 Bund. See Jewish Labor Bund Burshtein, Shmuel, 65, 129, 142 Burstin, Symcha, 41, 54, 118, 121, 152, 160, 163 Canada, Jewish migration to, 63, 258, 269, 271, 274, 275-276, 277 Catholic Church, in postwar Poland, 250, 263,297 Caucasus, Poles resettled in, prior to repatriation, 230 Cemeteries, Jewish, Nazi desecration of 248 Central Asia, amnestied Poles in, 2, 8, 281; contact with unfamiliar ethnic groups, 168; daily life in exile, 165-174; graves of, 289-290,290; value of reports by, 289; views on local people and cultures, 169-170. See also Amnestied Polish Jews Central Asian republics, χίυ-χυ, 152, 352nl7. See also Kazakh SSR (Kazakh stan); Kirghiz SSR (Kirghizia); Tajik SSR (Tajikistan); Uzbek SSR (Uzbekistan) Central Committee of Jews in Poland (Centralny Komitet Żydów w Polsce. See CKŻP Central Jewish Historical Commission (Centralna Żydowski Komisja History czna), 9-10, 252. See also ŻIH (Jewish Historical Institute, Żydowski Instytut Historyczny) 411 Certificates, for immigration to Palestine, 61, 62, 163, 198, 210,
271 Chabad Lubavitch movement, 228 Chelm, death march and executions of Jewish youth in, 43, 106 Chelyabinsk Oblast, number of deportees to, 112i Chesno, Zekharia, 59, 62 Chiger, Krystyna, 16, 73 Chkalov (Orenburg), ZPP in, 222 Chkalov Oblast, collective farm in, 231 Choice, 7, 213, 277, 288; flight decisions in 1939, 2, 16, 19, 22-27, 27-35, 45, 46-47, 48-49, 81, 90, 156, 282, 285; flight in 1941, 156, 157, 282; to leave Poland after repatriation, 212, 251, 261, 278; to lie for immigration purposes, 270-71; to migrate after immigration, 276-77; to move within the USSR after amnesty, 231; registration in 1940,13, 45, 82, 90, 91, 93-94, 100; in relation ships, 188; to remain in north after amnesty, 154, 155; to remain in Poland after repatriation, 212, 258, 262; to return to German-occupied territories, 46, 98; vis a vis Soviet policies, 82, 114, 142, 144; to stay in the USSR, 234, 235; to travel to Central Asia after amnesty, 150, 152; Churchill, Winston, 144, 251 Citizenship, Polish: of Polish Jews in Soviet Union, 4; Soviet efforts to exclude Belorussians, Jews, and Ukrainians from, 27-28,150; Soviet’s post amnesty redefinition of, 150,177, 225,238 Citizenship, Soviet: as automatic for residents of annexed Polish territories, 70, 90,150, 237; and engagement in Soviet politics, 82; forcing of Polish Jews’ acceptance of, 4, 150, 193, 219, 225; Jews jailed for refusing, 178-179. See also Passportization drive (1940) Citizenship, Soviet, Polish Jews accepting: ability to remain in place, 91, 94,96, 156,157,177; avoiding deportation, 132,194; choice, 93-94; as concern to
Polish officials, 193, 197, 201; flight of, 158; mass deaths of, 100; motives of,
412 · INDEX Citizenship (continued) 94-97,106; as obstacle to flight, 98; as obstacle to return to Poland, 91, 178, 219; and participation in Soviet politics, 82, 95; Polish refusal to aid, 201; rejection, 71, 93,110, 179, 180; CKŻP (Centralny Komitet Żydów w Polsce, Central Committee of Jews in Poland): control of Jewish institutions, 253; letters, 257; and Polish antisemitism, 249; Polish state control of, 252; sup port for repatriated Polish Jews, 219, 241, 242 Cohen, Frumie, 114, 130, 133, 166, 208, 267 Cold War: beginnings of 14, 211, 270, 271; influence of, 10, 70, 211, 291 Collective farms. See Kolkhoz Communists, Polish, flight to Soviet sector, 22, 33 Contract, Alexander, 267, 339n23 Czapski, Joseph, 104-105, 197 Czaykowski, Bogdan, 76 Czerwony Sztandar, 76-77, 84, 89 Częstochowa, repatriated Polish Jews in, 241 Danzig (Gdańsk), German annexation of, 21 Davidson, Simon, 19, 90, 96-97,170, 217, 224, 232-233, 270 Delegatura: aid distribution, 150,195, 200, 201, 202; closure of, 205, 206, 364n258; Jewish employees of, 203; limited Soviet support for, 221; and passportization drive (1943), 178; as representatives of Polish governmentin-exile, 200, 202; support for schools and orphanages, 195, 203; tracking Polish citizens, 192, 202. See also Polish government-in-exile Deportation: as term, 4-5. See also German deportation of Jews to camps; Soviet deportations of Poles to labor installations Descendants of Polish Jews in Soviet Union, need for information, 11-12,280-281 Displaced Persons. See DPs Donat, Alexander, 31, 38, 46, 69 DP camps: education in, 267, 269; final
camp for Jewish DPs, 274; Holocaust documentation projects in, 266-267; life for Jews in, 265, 266-269; mar riages and new families in, 268, 269; monuments to war dead in, 267; popular conception of, 5, 264-265; search for family in, 266, 269; sepa rate, for Jews, 265; troyer akademeyen (mourning academies) in, 266-267; Zionism in, 268, 272 DPs (displaced persons): Allied planning for, 265; as larger problem than antici pated, 265; millions of non-Jews included in, 265; as term, 264-265 DPs, Jewish: aid for, 266; difficulty of finding countries to accept, 269, 273; final DP camp for, 274; intact families among, 268-269; integration of different kinds of survivors, 14,287; large percentage of Polish Jews from Soviet Union, 265; as late arrivals to camps, 265-266; life in DP camps, 265, 266-269; migration destina tions, 269-270, 273-274; migration to Palestine, 269, 271-274; other DPs' views on, 268-269; problems reaching American zone, 266, 272 DPs, Jewish, lives after camps, 267, 274-278; childrens adaptability and, 277; and Holocaust commemoration, 277-278; importance of family in, 274-275, 276; Jewish aid organ izations and, 275; and perpetual rootlessness, 278 Drescher, Dora, 87, 130 Dwork, Debórah, 284-285 Dynów: German searches for Jewish men in, 29; massacre and expulsion of Jews from, 23 Dzhambul (Taraz): amnestied Polish Jews in, 167, 172, 209; as destination for amnestied Polish Jews, 165; and Polish Jews’ repatriation, 227; Polish school in, 203; ZPP in, 229 Dzierżoniów (Reichenbach), repatriated Polish Jews in, 241, 242 Dzigan, Shimon (Szymon), 77, 159, 161,
244-245
INDEX Edele, Mark, 28, 30, 111, 151, 215, 237, 282-283 Eğit, Jacob, 244 Eibuszyc, Roma, 167,188 Eibuszyc, Suzanna, 49, 185,188, 263 Elbojni, Nachman, 65-66 Elsan, Z., 129,135, 151, 195 Elsner, Gene and Mark, 145, 217 Elton, Zyga, 19, 24, 46, 55, 66, 93, 97, 228, 239 Ernes, Der, 96 Endeks. See National Democratic Party, Poland Engel, David, 52,193, 203 Erlich, Henryk, 11, 109,176,180, 200, 206 Erlich, Moshe, 68, 233, 242-243, 259, 262 Erlichson, Yitzhak (Jerzy Edison), 33, 35, 106, 109,186, 189 Estonia: evacuees from, 148; Polish Jews’ efforts to reach, 59; Soviet arrests and deportations in, 110, 145, 146 Estraikh, Gennady, 74, 234, 260 Etzion, Moshe, 19, 126,130,131, 132 Exodus 1947 (ship), 272-273 Eynikayt (Unity), 175-176, 214 F„ Zeev, 151,197 Faier, Zvi, 32, 246-247 Family of survivors: benefits of under standing story of Polish Jews in Soviet Union, 279-281; hybrid Holocaust memoirs by, 48-49; postmemory in, 320-32ІПІ61 Fefer, Itsik, 75,175, 206 Feinstein, Margarete Myers, 265, 267 Feinzeig, Dovid, 87, 231, 240, 241, 245-246 Feldafing Displaced Persons Camp, 266 Feldman, Israel, 20, 64, 65, 107, 270-271 Feldman, Marian, 29, 32, 67-68, 69,178, 209 Fergana, amnestied Polish Jews in city, 175; amnestied Polish Jews in region 156,167, 223-224, 300 Festung Warschau (Janicka), 294-295 Finkler, Edmund, 108, 129,134, 196 First Congress of Liberated Jews (1946), 267 First World War. See World War I · 413 Fish, Aharon, 73, 76,151,158-159 Fitzpatrick, Sheila, 64, 171, 282-283, 292 Flight to Hungary and Romania, by Polish government and military, 22,57,105; by Polish Jews, 57,107
Flight to Lithuania by Polish Jews, 57-64, 68,281; arrests for, 106-107; distribution and care of Jewish refugees, 60-61; hardening of border over time, 58-59; number of Polish Jewish refugees, 59; as path to other destinations, 59, 61-63; by yeshiva students, 59-60; by Zionists, 60,61 Flight to Soviet sector, refugee problem created by, 85-94; and increased Soviet harshness toward refugees, 86; and passportization drive, 90-92; Soviet underestimation of, 85-86. See also Labor in the interior, avoidance of deportation; Passportization drive (1940) Flight to Soviet sector by Polish commu nists and leftists, 22, 33 Flight to Soviet sector by Polish Jews, 33; dangers of, 37-38; diversity of refugees, 35; early streams of refugees, 27, 28, 37, 46; family discussions of, 1, 24-27, 29-32, 47-48; and fateful moment of decision, 47-48; first-hand accounts of, as written long afterward, 45-46; as flight to “Other Side” (yener zayt), 1; geographical factors in choice, 33, 35; and importance of family, 282; Jacob story as metaphor for, 15-16, 49; later regret of Jews failing to choose, 44; likely characteristics of refugees, 35; mixed economic status of refugees, 34; motives for decision, 19, 23-27; and natural desire to remain at home, 26-27; number fleeing, 2, 27-28, 313n28; as part of larger Holocaust, 284; quick decision under duress required for, 33, 46, 47, 281; religious faith as factor in, 33, 34; returns home, after incomplete journey, 27, 28, 31, 32, 34, 38,45,46; returns home, after residence in Soviet Union, 91-92; role of gender in, 29-32; separation of families, 25,
29-31, 37, 38,46-47, 68-69; and survivor guilt, 46-47,
4M · INDEX Flight to Soviet sector by Polish Jews (icontinued) 48-49; urban areas as source of, 35; and women left to fend for themselves, 30, 31; young men as largest part of, 29, 30, 35. See also Arrival in Soviet terri tory; German-Soviet border, crossing of Föhrenwald Displaced Persons Camp, 274 Ford, Aleksander, 90 Fortunoff Video Archive for Holocaust Testimonies, 9 Forverts, 277 France, and German invasion of Poland, 17; emigration from, 273, 274; emigra tion to, 262; as escape route, 18, 62; searching for family after the war, 257 Freedom of religion in Soviet Constitu tion, 78,140 Frenkel, Chava Chaya, 129, 130, 153, 167, 172-173 Frost, Leybish, 38, 98 Frusztajer, Boruch, 19, 73, 79,100,131,138 Fuks, Tania, 75, 92, ЗЗІпІбО Gabel, Dina, 121,122, 143, 166, 172, 209, 235, 242 Galicia: return of Jewish youth to families in, 34-35; wartime return of intellec tuals, 67 Gelernter, Chana, 93, 201 Gender roles, wartime deaths and, 163 General Government: German establish ment of, 21; German’s brutal experi mentation in, 21 Genocide, and trauma theory, 287 German Army: behavior during World War I, as predictive in early invasion, 25; sharp uniforms of, as false comfort in early invasion, 25, 26 German atrocities, lack of news about, 96, 99 German deportation of Jews to camps, 48, 216, 296. See also Holocaust German invasion of Poland, 15-18; blitz krieg warfare and, 16-17; and civilian refugees, 18, 27-28; flight of Polish government, 18; limited public informa tion about, 20; move beyond agreedupon border, 36; Polish anticipation of, 17; Polish military resistance
to, 17; and Polish POWs, 20-21; and siege of Warsaw, 17; and streams of refugees, 27, 28, 37, 46; swift success of, 17; targeting of civilians in, 17-18. See also Flight to Soviet sector by Polish Jews German invasion of Soviet Union (Opera tion Barbarossa), 144; Battle of Stalin grad and, 164, 205, 220; blitzkrieg warfare and, 144; and cutoff of news from Jews in Poland, 214; deaths of Jews in former Soviet-occupied Polish territory, 100; and disease among refugees, 157; and end of GermanSoviet border in former Poland,, 45; flight of refugees from, 97, 98,151, 156-158, 159; and flight of Soviet government, 158, 200; initial dramatic success of, 144; Jews remaining in place during, 97-98; Polish collaborators, 100; reasons for Jews’ failure to flee, 99; and return to German-occupied Polish territories of Polish Jews in Soviet Union, 45; and Soviet execu tion of Polish prisoners, 106; Soviets’ claimed removal of Jews from front, 99; Soviets’ lack of preparation for, 144; Soviets’ limited concern for civilians in, 99; Soviets’ recovery after initial shock, 164; German Jews: gendered impact of Nazis on, 33; Nazi treatment of, 18; Polenak tion and, 19; survivors return to new Polish territories, 240; women’s early perception of danger, 32-33 German-occupied Poland: abuses of Jews in, 23, 33, 35; division into annexed and General Government areas, 21; limited population exchanges with Soviets, 92; mixed early experiences of Jews in, 23-24, 26; number of Poles in, 21; number of Polish Jews in, 21; returns to, after residence in Soviet Union, motives for, 91-92 German-Soviet
border in Poland: end of, with German invasion of Soviet Union, 45; Germans’ pushing of Jewish popula tions across border, 42-43; MolotovRibbentrop Pact agreement on, 36; negotiation of, after invasion, 21, 36
INDEX German-Soviet border, crossing of, 35-45; arrests of Poles for, 105-106; assault and robbery of crossing Jews, 39, 40, 41, 42; bribing of border guards, 39; as challenge, 35, 50; cost of hiring smug gler for, 40-41; crossings in 1940-1941, 44-45; difficulty of, as dissuasion to Jewish flight, 26, 43; early crossings in both directions, 22—23, 85; early porousness of, 21-22, 36; German interception of refugees heading for, 41; hardening of border over time, 36, 37, 38-45, 106; help from locals and smugglers, 39-41, 44; Jews unable to cross, 43-44; as like Exodus without Moses, 35; popular routes, 41; refugees trapped in interborder no-man’s-land, 41-42, 85; some Soviet guards’ tacit support for, 42; Soviet efforts to limit refugee flow, 41, 43; variation in dif ficulty, with time and place, 36; winter weather and, 37,42, 50 German-Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty (1939), 36 Ghettoization in German-occupied Poland, as uneven, 33 Gilboa, Yehoshua, 35, 75,108,133, 139, 169, 193, 291 Ginsburg, Bernard, 67, 76,181, 216, 223, 267 Golan, Bob, 68,122, 125, 137-138,142, 196, 273, 296 Goldberg, Emanuel, 55, 82 Goldberger, Janka, 34, 72, 101-102, 116, 119,123,133, 145, 155-156,166, 170, 245, 248 Goldkorn, Mania, 88, 95,157, 166 Goldkorn, Yosef, 39, 69, 88, 95,157, 166 Goldlust, John, 282-283 Gomułka, Władysław, 260, 261 Gorky (Nizhny Novgorod), Jewish refugees in, 96-97,162 Gorky Oblast, number of deportees to, 112r Görlitz. See Zgorzelec Grajcar, Szymon, 40-41, 64, 117, 122, 136, 216, 229, 248, 267, 273-274 Grade, Chaim, 5, 64 Graevo (Grajewo), arrival of Jewish refugees
in, 56, 68 415 Greenspan, Henry, 10 Gregoratos, Eva, 95, 156 Grodno: refugee life in, 66, 85; repatria tion camp in, 234 Grodzenski, Hayim Ozer (Reb Khayim Oyzer), 59, 60 Gross, Jan, 5, 53-54, 71, 93, 248, 249, 250 Grossman, Menachem Mendi, 59, 118, 142, 173 Grossman, Moshe, 108, 161,186, 201, 210 Grossman, Vasily, 298-299, 300 Grossmann, Atina, 5, 7, 207, 269, 282-83 Gulag: as acronym, 341-342n59; difficulty of defining, 342n59. See Soviet penal system Gutman, Israel, 200, 226 Haganah, 272 Halperin, Yosef, 64, 79, 93, 97-98 Halpern, Jacob, 34,141, 153,184, 210,224 Halpern, Uszer Szaja, 34, 210 Hart, Kitty, 30-31, 32, 44 Hashomer Hadati, 247 Hashomer Hatsair, 271 Hautzig, Esther, 5, 116, 146, 166, 170, 181 Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society. See HIAS Hendel family, 15-16, 34, 139 Herzbaum, Edward, 198 Herzen, Alexander, 124 HIAS (Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society), 275 Hirsz, Roza, 39,194, 32ІПІ63 Historikerstreit controversy, 301 Hochberg, Eugenia, 268 Hohberg, Ruth, 133, 152, 219, 248 Holiday observances: in Central Asian exile, 172-174,173; in labor installa tions, 138-139, 140-141 Holocaust: influence of conventions on testimony about, 8-11, 47-48, 184,185, 277, 287-288; as inseparable from larger war, 299-300; integration with Polish Jewish refugees, 298-305; Jews escaping from, 216; Nolte on causes of, 301; and normalization of anti-Jewish violence, 250; research on, in former Soviet Union, 11, 287; Polish responses to, 53-54, 203, 293-298; Russian re search on, as opening for including
416 · INDEX Holocaust (continued) Polish Jewish refugees in Holocaust history, 288-292; Soviet survival of Polish Jews as inseparable from, 5, 234, 237, 255, 273, 274,283, 285, 286, 299-300, 304-305 Holocaust, Jewish refugees’ gradual learning about, 7-8, 212, 213-219, 256; difficulty of grasping news, 216, 217-218; from experiences of German occupation, 213; through mail from German-occupied Poland, 213-214; Polish Jewish refugees writing about, 175; and Soviet press, Jews’ limited access to limited coverage, 214-215; through public events, 217,224; through Red Army, 215-217, 227, 281; through survivors, 217, 241 Holocaust memoirs, hybrid, written by children of survivors, 48-49 Holocaust survivors: commonalities with, 184, 255, 264, 273, 277, 283; conflation with, 3, 4,14; distinctions from, 48 Honig, Samuel, 117, 136,152 Horodło, and German invasion, 15-16 Horvits, Tsiporah, 24, 43-44 Hrubieszów: contact with from USSR, 132, 156; death march in, 43,106; early experiences under German occupation, 23-24; flight of Polish Jews from, 38; German invasion of Soviet Union and, 98; knowledge of Nazis in Germany in, 18; refugees from, 65, 98, 156, 228; repatriated Polish Jews from, 233, 250-251 Hryciuk, Grzegorz, 104,107, 111 Hungary. See flight to Hungary and Romania Ili, Kazakhstan, amnestied Polish Jews in, 178, 222 Informants, recruitment of Polish Jews as, 177, 180-184 Integrated histories of World War II, 301-304 Iran: as assembly point for Polish aid, 200; evacuation of Poles to, 8, 59,149-150, 151,188, 195,196,197,198, 200, 205, 304; and JDC aid programs, 207,208, 282;
Polish government-in-exile in, 52, 198, 202, 203 Irkutsk Oblast: labor army in, 177; number of deportees to, 1121; Polish Jewish deportees in, 132, 135,191-192 Israel: difficulty of early years in, 276, 277; emigration of Polish Jews from, 276-277; postwar migrations from Poland, 245, 260, 262. See also Palestine Ive (Iwye, Iwje), deportations from, 141 Jacob story (Genesis), as model for Polish Jews’ choice, 15-16, 49 JAFC (Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee), 206; evolution into Jewish cultural organization, 174-176,179; influence on Soviet Jewish culture, 292; as little-mentioned in memoirs, 174; and privileged cultural figures, 223, 236; as Soviet front organization, 174,206 Janicka, Elżbieta, 294-295 Japan, escape of Polish Jews through, 63, 326-327n74 JDC (American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, Joint): aid to Jewish DPs, 266, 275; aid to Jewish refugees, 7, 275; aid to Jewish refugees in Lithuania, 60, 61, 205; aid to Jews in Germanoccupied Poland, 205, 240; expulsion from Soviet Union in late 1930s, 205; expulsions from Poland, 253, 264; Joint Agricultural Corporation (Agro-Joint), 205; mission of, 205; readmission to Poland after 1956, 261; records of Jewish postwar emigration, 242, 270; support for Jews leaving Europe in 1930s, 63, 205; support for Polish government aid to Poles in Soviet Union, 206; support for repatriated Polish Jews, 240-241, 242, 246, 258 JDC aid to Jewish refugees in Soviet Union, 206-210,208; Paul Baerwald and, 207; continuation of, after Polish government ejection, 206; J. C. Hyman and, 206; meeting with Solomon Mikhoels and Itsik Fefer,
206; negotiations with Soviets on, 206-207; and refugee morale, 211; refugees’ perceptions of,
INDEX 208-209; Soviet restrictions on, 206-207; Soviet suspicions about, 211 Jedwabne Pogrom, 53-54 Jewish Agency: aid to Polish Jews, 203, 207; and certificates, 210; in Iran, 196; and Palestine Commission in Lithuania, 61; and postwar emigration, 273; Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee. See JAFC Jewish Community in Palestine. See Yishuv Jewish community organizations, Soviet abolishment of, 55 Jewish Historical Institute. See ŻIH Jewish Labor Bund, 24, 33, 84, 168,176, 199; members of (Bundists), 11, 96,109, 113, 143,170, 245, 252 Jewish Labor Committee, 207, 211, 241 Jewish luck, 101, 146 Jobs in eastern Soviet regions for Polish refugees. See Labor in the interior Jodko-Kamińska, Halina, 239-240 Joint. See JDC Jolluck, Katherine, 27, 52, 84,110, 134, 183,184, 297 J. S., 174, 224 K. , Sarah, 163, 181, 228 Kachalino, as refugee destination, 158 Kaganovitch, Albert, 178, 225, 237 Kaminska, Ida, 49, 76-77, 171-172, 223, 234, 244-245, 264,32ІПІ63 Kaminska, Ruth Turków, 233-234 Kaner, Martin, 23-24 Kaner, Moshe, 106, 250-251 Kaner, Moshe Nachům, 230 Kaplan, Chaim, 35, 39,91 Kaplan, Marion, 32, 285 Karski, Jan, 18, 42, 51-52 Katyn Massacre (Katyń), 105, 150, 220, 260, 293, 295; deaths of Polish leaders on route to 70th anniversary event, 293 Katz, Zev, 245, 250 Kazakh SSR (Kazakhstan), xiv-xv; amnes tied Polish Jews in, 177; antisemitism in schools, 170; communal farms for deportees in, 111, 129; deportees in, 214, 281; as destination of amnestied Polish Jews, 151,152; labor installa tions, lack of need for refugee labor, 126; and repatriation, 236; ZPP in, 229 · 417 Kazan (Tatar
ASSR), amnestied Polish Jews in, 169 Kersten, Krystyna, 238, 252 Kestenbojm, Chawa, 67, 83,121,130, 198 Ketubah (wedding contract), 142, 190. See also Marriages of refugee Polish Jews Khanabad (Uzbek SSR), amnestied Polish Jews in, 163 Kherson: amnestied Polish Jews in, 275; and repatriation, 230-231 Khonigsman, Iakov, 55, 235, 237 Khrushchev, Nikita: and refugee refusal of Soviet citizenship, 93; and relaxation of strictures in Poland, 260; and repatria tion, underestimation of demand for, 234; Secret Speech of 1956, 260 Kielce, antisemitism in, 239 Kielce Pogrom, 250-251; and Jews’ decision to leave Poland, 253-254, 255-256, 257, 304 Kirghiz SSR (Kirghizia), amnestied Polish Jews in, 176; repatriations from, 268; ZPP in, 223 Klajman, Leon, 120,122, 194 Klapholz, Bernard, 290 Kleinbaum (Sneh), Moshe, 71 Kochańska, Olga, 122,137,191, 214 Kolkhoz, amnestied Polish Jews’ depar ture from, 165,166; amnestied Polish Jews on, 151,153-154, 159, 163-164, 165-166,174, 181, 185, 189, 195; in Chkalov Oblast, 231; deportees on, 111, 126, 129-130; holding of Polish Jews at, before repatriation, 230, 231; Jewish refugees on, 87, 97; near Kzyl-Orda, 174; lack of food or work for amnestied Polish Jews, 151, 159, 160-161, 163, 165,166, 209, 227, 231; near Turkestan, 273; in Udmurt ASSR, 157 Komi ASSR: amnestied Jews in, 151,165, 167, 186, 231, 275; deportees in, 124-125; labor installations in, 58-59; number of deportees to, 112t; Korenzyer, Tsivia, 221 Korn, Rokhl (Rachel), v, 82, 175 Kosciuszko Division. See Berling’s Army Kosher laws, observance in the USSR, 91, 96,118, 155; in Poland
after the war, 245, 246
418 · INDEX Kot, Stanisław, 177,179,192-193, 200, 204 Kovel (Kowel): and Polish Jews’ repatria tion, 227; refugee life in, 31, 65 Koźmińska-Frejlak, Ewa, 215, 239, 255, 260 Kresy (borderland), Soviet policies in, 103 Kreusler, Abraham, 79,157-158, 164, 211, 222 Kristallnacht (November Pogrom), 19-20 Krzeszów: early experiences under German occupation, 23; flight of Polish Jews from, 38 Krzyżanowski, Łukasz, 248-249 Kuibyshev (Samara): Polish citizens in region of, 222; Polish embassy in, 177, 197, 198, 200, 201, 203, 210; Soviet government in, 200; ZPP activities in, 222 Kuznitsa (Kuźnica), arrival of Jewish refugees in, 55 Kwapiński, Jan, 194-195 Labin, Shmuel, 81, 128,152,195 Labor battalions, Soviet: mission of, 177; mobilization of Polish minorities for, 150,166, 177-178; terrible conditions in, 177, 178 Labor installations: “adapt or die” speech given to new arrivals, 125-126; deaths in, 134, 142; for deportees, as typically uninhabited upon arrival, 125; as destination for deported Poles, 111; and German concentration camps, compared, 298-199, 300-304; horrors of, as forbidden subject in Soviet Union, 299; Jews as staff in, 135; lack of incen tive to close, 145; limited antisemitism in, 135; locations of, 13,111-112, 112r, 124; mortality rates in, 134; museums about, in Russia, 288; number of pris oners in, 103; as part of brutal labor system, 284; for prisoners, as most harsh, 129, 134; residents, numbed emotions of, 134-135; sense of isola tion, 124; Soviet announcement of impossibility of ever leaving, 128, 143; suffering in, 136; types of installations in,
103, 111; worker strikes at, 135 Labor installations, culture in, 136-143; film, music, and drama, 136-137; schools, 137-138; Zionist activities, 137 Labor installations, life in, 125-136; black markets, 128,131-132; construction of shelter necessary in some cases, 125, 126; food shortages and, 128-129, 131-132; and household chores after strenuous work, 131; insect pests and, 130; inspections by officials, 134; lack of resources for self-sustenance, 125; living quarters, 126; mail and pack ages received, 132, 141, 210; malnutri tion and chronic illness, 131,133, 134; medical care, limited access to, 133-134; struggle to find adequate food, 131-132; variation with quality of staff, 135 Labor installations, religious activities in, 138-143; arrests for, 139,140; bar mitzvahs, weddings, and funerals, 142-143; guards’ toleration of, 139-140, 142; holiday observances, 138-139, 140-141; as importance connection to past life, 142; lack of Jewish calendars and, 139; and ritual food, difficulty obtaining, 141-142; and ritual objects, difficulty obtaining, 140; Sabbath observance, 141-142 Labor installations, work in; clothing shortages and, 131; daily quotas for, 128-129; deportees’ lack of fitness for, 129; for early deportees, as easier, 129-130; harsh climate and, 130-131; impossibility for some workers, 128; indoor work, 130; injuries and deaths in, 129, 131; for prisoners, as most harsh, 129; as required, 126, 128; seeming pointlessness of, 126-128; women and, 128. See also Special settlements (spetsposelki) Labor in the interior, avoidance of depor tation, 95; and contact
with Soviet citizens, 95-96; failure to attract recruits, 90; flight east in 1941, 156, 185; goals of program, 86; improve-
INDEX ment over time in program, 88; local officials’ failure to provide necessary jobs, 87; motives for accepting, 96, 97, 282; perception of, as failed program, 88; and reality of jobs vs. promises, 86-87; recruitment for, 86, 88-90, 89; refugees’ decisions to leave, 87, 90; word-of-mouth suppression of recruiting for, 87 Lanceter, Henryk, 268 Landau, Emil, 127,197 Landsmanshaftn (hometown associations), 209 Latvia: Polish Jews’ efforts to reach, 59; Soviet arrests and deportations in, 110, 145,146 Leaders, Polish, imprisonment of, 107, 108-109 Lebedeva, Natalia, 104, 134,152 Lederman, Dov, 62, 133, 163,167, 203 Lemberg, See Lvov Leningrad (St. Petersburg), as refugee destination, 187 Levi, Primo, 300-301 Levin, Dov, 36, 55, 63, 72, 81, 88 Lewinowna, Emma, 130,137,196 Lewinsky, Tamar, 265 Lib., Id., 228-229, 370n68 Libraries in Soviet-occupied Polish territory, censorship of, 77-78 Lida: deportations from, 115,121, 172; as refugee stop, 145 Lieberman, I. (I. Lib.), 180,193, 226, 370n68 Life and Fate (Grossman), 298-299 Lipski, Jane, 108, 186, 233, 234 Lithuania: deal with Soviet to recover Vilnius, 57-58; large Jewish community in, 57; Polish deportees from, and am nesty agreement, 145; Polish Jews’ flight to, 47; refugee flow to and from, 27; Soviet arrests and deportations in, 110, 145,146; Soviet occupation of, 62; Soviet rule in, 62-63; Zionists in, 61-62. See also Flight to Lithuania by Polish Jews Litvak, Yosef, 5-6, 7,11, 36, 93, 225 Łódź: Ghetto, gender imbalance in, 30; and Jewish search for missing relatives, · 419 69; and Polish Jews’ repatriation, 227, 234,
240, 241, 242; as postwar Jewish hub, 240,247; reestablishment of Jewish culture in, 244, 245; and resurgence of Jewish religious life, 245-246 London, Polish government-in-exile in, 18, 107,110, 144, 150, 179, 192, 199, 200, 202, 203, 204, 205, 219, 220, 297; Polish military in, 195 Lower Silesia: as postwar Jewish hub, 247; repatriated Polish Jews in, 240,241-242, 244, 250, 263; and resurgence of Jewish religious life, 246 Lublin: flight from, 55, 201, 235; German policies in, 42, 218, 219; liberation, 9, 226, 227, 252; and Polish Jews’ repatria tion, 226, 227, 268, 270; streams of refugees from, 28. See also Majdanek, Holocaust evidence in Luck. See Lutsk Ludmir. See Vladimir-Volynskii Luehrmann, Sonja, 6 Luft, Ester, 107 Lutsk (Luck), Jews’ welcoming of Soviet Army to, 52; refugees in, 31, 69, 87, 216 Lvov (Lemberg, Lviv, Lwów): arrests, trials, and prisons in, 85, 106, 107, 178; arrival of Jewish refugees in, 38, 41, 54, 55, 56, 300; black market in, 66; deportations from, 94, 117; education in, 67-68, 78,132; emigration from, 57, 58; flight from, 171; former Polish Jews settling in after liberation, 235; and German invasion, 16; Jewish religious practice in, 81; Jews’ greeting of Red Army in, 54; and Polish Jews’ repatria tion from, 227, 244; Polish Jews sending aid from, 140; Polish newspaper in, 76; refugee life in, 65, 66-67, 74-75, 83, 132, ЗЗІПІ60; Soviet aid for refugees in, 56; Soviet nationalization of homes and businesses in, 67, 83; Yiddish theater in, 76-77 Lwów. See Lvov Lyda. See Lida Magnitogorsk, Polish Jewish refugees in, 5, 87-88, 89, 97
420 · INDEX Mail and packages: for amnestied Jews, 13, 156,159, 210-211; codes in, to avoid censors, 210; for deportees, 132,141, 210; and family debates over flight to Soviet Union, 69; across GermanSoviet border, during time of GermanSoviet alliance, 22, 210, 213-214, 282; importance for morale, 7, 211; Jews’ efforts to contact lost relatives, 69, 175, 198, 210, 215, 218-219, 257-59, 266; from Jews in German-occupied Poland, 92, 99, 213-214; from Katyn prisoners, 105; and Polish Jews' maintaining of ties to family, 282; in search of emigra tion aid, 63, 275; from workers in the interior, 87, 88-89, 89 Majdanek, Holocaust evidence in, 216, 227 Małkinia Station, as stopping place for border crossers, 39, 41 Mandelbrot, Lejb and Maria, 145-146 Mankowitz, Zeev, 3-4, 270 Margulies-Shnitzer, Yaffa, 67, 71, 82, 94 Mari ASSR: number of deportees to, 112t; schools in labor installations in, 137; ZPP activities in, 221-222 Markish, Peretz, 50, 54, 75, 78 Marriages of refugee Polish Jews: as a reason to stay in the USSR, 236; with Soviet Jews, 60; in the USSR, 81,142, 169,177, 187-190; after the war, 268, 269 Matzah: in Central Asian exile, 172-173, 173; in labor installations, 141; in relief packages, 209. See also Passover (Pesach) Medvedeva-Nathoo, Olga, 4,176 Megdal, Meyer, 25, 26 Megilath Russland (Rubinstein), 75 Melbourne, Australia, 276, 278, 281 Memoirs and testimonies as sources: scholarship on, 9-10; use of, 7-8 Memoirs and testimonies of Polish Jews, 2-3; author and, 5; and Holocaust taboos, 8-9; and influence of expected conven tions on Holocaust accounts, 47-48;
likely accuracy of, 48; objectivity of, 6, 9-10; role of listener in, 10; as sources, 6-11; and survivors’ guilt, 46-47,48-49; as written long afterward, 45-46 Mengele, Joseph, 48 Michlic, Joanna, 6, 51, 54 Mikhoels, Solomon, 75,175,206, 236 Milch, Baruch, 53, 73 Minz, Baruch (Bűnek), 56,178,215 Minz, Pearl, 120,133,141,154-155,171, 178,186,189, 214-215,230 Molotov, Vyacheslav, 138,227 Molotov (Perm) Oblast, amnestied Jews in, 201; Jewish deportees in, 128; number of deportees to, 112r Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (Nazi-Soviet Pact, Non-Aggression Pact), 17,20, 22, 99, 303; agreed-upon German-Soviet border in, 38; German goal in, 17,144 Monuments created by survivors, 267 Monument to the Fallen and Murdered in the East (Warsaw), 293,294, 294-295 Monument to the Ghetto Heroes (Warsaw), 283 Morgenshtern, Henokh and Shmuel, 69 Mount of Remembrance, Jerusalem, Garden of the Righteous among the Nations, 284 Mush. See Nowa Mysz Müsterberg. See Ziębice Mysh Nova. See Nowa Mysz Nalewajko-Kulikov, Joanna, 245,253 Narodnyi Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del. See NKVD National Democratic Party, Poland (Endeks), 239 Naye Lebn, Dos, 243-244 Nazis: as anti-communist, 22; authoritari anism of, and Soviet authoritarianism, similarities and differences, 300-304. See also entries under German Nazi-Soviet Pact. See Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact Neverov (Neweroff), Alexander, 148 NKVD (Narodnyi Komissariat Vnutren nikh Del, People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs), 27,58, 84, 85; amnes tied Polish Jews and, 152; arrests of border crossers, 107; arrests of Jewish deportees, 114; blocking of Zionist travel
to Palestine, 153; and deporta tions of Polish Jews, 117, 120, 121, 141, 146; files of, as unavailable, 291; harass ment of amnestied Polish Jews, 159;
INDEX late-war suspicion of foreigners, 211; operation of Gulag system by, 111; and passportization drives, 178-179; and Polish officers, arrests of, 104; and Polish POWs, murder of, 150; and Polish repatriation process, 228; pris oners shot by, 106; record keeping by, 145; recruitment of Polish Jewish infor mants, 177, 180-184; reports on Polish antisemitism, 249; sexual abuse of arrested women, 185 Non-Aggression Pact. See MolotovRibbentrop Pact Norm (Soviet labor quota), 128-129, 172. See also Labor installations, work in North Caucasus, Holocaust in, 217 Novaya Mysh (Nowa Mysz, Mysh Nova, Mush), Jewish refugees in, 95,156 November Pogrom (Kristallnacht), 19-20 Növik, Leib, 58,106-107, 108, 128-129, 134, 139,152 Novosibirsk: Jewish deportees in, 126, 140-141, 283; special settlements near, 123, 126, 134,140, 162,175, 186, 231 Novosibirsk Oblast, number of deportees to, 112i Nowa Mysz. See Novaya Mysh Nowe Widnokręgi, 199-200, 215 Nusekh Poyln (the Polish Way), 212-213, 253,254 Nussbaum, Klemens, 179, ЗббпІО Old Soviet border: German Army’s crossing of, 144; restrictions on crossing by Polish Jewish refugees, 98 Omri, Shalom, 18, 25, 44, 117, 118, 131, 247-248, 272 Omsk Oblast: labor installations in, 124, 133; number of deportees to, 112r Oneg Shabbes. See Warsaw Ghetto Operation Barbarossa. See German invasion of Soviet Union Orenstein, Henry, 19, 29, 38, 98 The Origins of Totalitarianism (Arendt), 300, 383n23 Orlansky, Yisrael, 116, 141-142 Orphanages, Polish in Poland, 247 Orphanages, Polish in USSR: antisemi tism in, 195-196; evacuation from 421 Soviet Union, 151,
195-196, 247, 273; Polish Jews in, 160, 197; repatriation of, 229-230 Orphanages, Soviet, Polish Jews in, 162, 232 Orsha: German invasion in 97; labor in the interior in, 90, 96, 214 Orthodox Church, Soviet’s wartime reconciliation with, 174 Orthodox Jews: flight to unoccupied areas, 59; organizational aid, 61, 207, 209, 246; and repatriation, 231, 245-246; Soviet monitoring of, 80; Soviet sup pression of practices, 80-81,141-143, 172, 252, 253 Palestine: Anders Army in, testimonies and Jewish desertions, 139, 188, 194, 198,199, 202, 280, 304; as destination of amnestied Polish Jews, 153,198, 210; as destination of refugees, 46, 57, 163; as destination for repatriated Polish Jews, 225, 256; JDC and other aid to Jewish refugees in Soviet Union from, 208,208, 282; migration from Lithu ania to, 34, 60, 61-62; migration of Jewish DPs to, 258, 266, 269, 270, 271-274, 277, 281; and public opinion on British policies, 273; refugees reaching, 71, 188, 194, 195, 198; Tehran children to, 81,128, 195, 257, 281. See also Yishuv (Jewish Commu nity in Palestine) Palestine Commission in Lithuania, 61-62 Pankowsky, Hannah Davidson, 31, 72, 79, 170,185, 214, 267 Paragraph 11,13, 90, 91, 94, 98, 114. See also Passportization drive (1940) Partisans: anti-partisan campaigns, 302; artists and writers serving with, 245; as DPs, 264-265; Jews fighting with, 233, 288; Soviet newspaper coverage of, 175, 245; Zionists fighting along with, 272. See also Polish Underground Passover (Pesach): celebration in Central Asian exile, 172-174,173; effort to celebrate in labor installation, 140-141; relief
packages with supplies for, 218
422 INDEX Passportization drive (1940): reasons for failure of, 93-94; and refugee motives for return home, 91-92; and refugees’ required choice of citizenship or depar ture, 90; rejection of citizenship by most refugees, 90-91, 93-94; and requirement for refugee residence 100 kilometers from border, 90, 98; Soviet deportation of those refusing citizen ship, 13, 92-93,110,114 Passportization drive (1943), 145, 150, 177,178 Patash, Yehudis, 68,133, 141, 144, 160 People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs. See NKVD Perlov, Yitzchok, 119, 148-149, 152 Pervomaiskii (Pervomayskiy), jobs for Jewish refugees in, 88 Pidvolochysk. See Podvolochisk Pinchuk, Ben-Cion, 53-54, 71, 75, 81-82, 83, 99 Podvolochisk (Podwoloczyska, Pidvolo chysk), refugee life in, 67 Poland: borders in 1946, xvi; citizens’ limited information on Soviet life, 70; number of refugees in Soviet/German invasion, 18, 27-28; post-communist, reckoning with Soviet abuses in, 295-296; Soviet ambivalence about plan for, 143; Soviet and German division of (1939-1940), xi, 16,17, 20, 21-22; wartime destruction in, 238; wartime hardening of attitudes toward minorities, 52. See also Polish People’s Republic; Second Polish Republic Poland, postwar: and destroyed Jewish population, 238, 296; education in, 247; Kielce Pogrom and, 253-254, 255-256, 304; number of Jews murdered in, 250, 251; Zionist youth movements in, 245, 247. See also Polish People’s Republic; Repatriated Polish Jews Poland, postwar, and Jewish life and culture: Jewish emigration and, 253, 256, 261,264; reestablishment of, 243-247, 252; religious life,
resur gence of, 245-247 Polenaktion, 19 Poles, non-Jewish: as central focus of Polish government-in-exile, 192; postwar absence of Jewish, Ukrainian, Belorus sian, and Lithuanian populations, 238; Soviet deportations of, 120; Soviet mobilization for labor battalions, 150, 166,177-178; view of Soviet deporta tions, vs. Polish Jewish view, 293-298; wartime hardening of attitudes of, 52 Poles, non-Jewish, relations with Polish Jews, 191-205; abuses of Jews in Soviet Union, 198-199; amnesty and, 192; and Anders Army, 192; in Berling’s Army, 154; blaming of Jews for postwar Polish communism, 53, 254-255,297-298; conflict with Polish Jews after amnesty, 154; conflict with Polish Jews in labor installations, 126; factors affecting, 191; improvement with shared suffering of deportation, 191-192; in interwar Poland, 191; Jews with valuable skills and, 196; and Polish aid to refugees in Soviet Union, 200-203; scholars’ interest in, 51. See also Antisemitism, Polish Polish aid to refugees in Soviet Union, 200-203; distribution network for, 200, 205; and gathering of information on Polish refugees, 202; Jewish participa tion in, 203; local variations in, 204; organizations supporting, 206; overall inadequacy of resources for, 205; as provision of amnesty agreement, 200; publication of figures on, to deflect accusations of discrimination, 202-203; Soviet shutdown of, 205,220,364n258; and unfair treatment of Jews, 200-203, 204 Polish Army (Second Polish Republic): casualties, 20-21; defense against German invasion, 17, 20; flight of, 18; Jews in, as targets of Nazi punishment, 19;
mobilization, 29; prisoners of war, 20-21; September Campaign, 20-21, 30; soldiers stranded in Soviet zone, and choice to stay or return home, 38 Polish borderlands, Snyder on violence in, 301-302 Polish citizens. See Citizenship, Polish
ÍNDEX Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polskii Komitet Wyzwolenia Nar odowego), population transfer agree ments by, 226 Polish First Army. See Berling’s Army Polish government-in-exile: aid to Polish Jews in Soviet Union, 7,150; flight from advancing Germans, 18; limited con cern about Jewish refugees, 203-204; Poles evacuated from Soviet Union (1942-1943), 200; re-creation of Polish state as goal of, 203; report on Sovietoccupied Polish territory, 51-52; rights granted to, under amnesty agreement, 149; on Soviet deportations of Poles, 110-111 Polish II Corps. See Anders Army Polish Jews: importance of family to, 282; little knowledge of terrors in USSR, 112-113; search for lost family mem bers, 69,157,159, 226,234-235,240, 242-243, 250-251, 257, 259; stereo type as poor soldiers, 192; stereotype as untrustworthy, 183; as story worth telling, 305; survival rate of, 238; and trauma of sudden invasion, 33. See also Flight to Soviet sector by Polish Jews Polish Jews’ communist sympathies: and Jewish blame for communist takeover of Poland, 53, 254-255, 297-298; and Jewish-Polish relations, 191; postwar increase in, 54; as retroactive justifica tion for Polish atrocities, 53-54, 297; and welcoming of Soviet invasion, 51-52. See also Żydokomuna Polish Jews in Soviet Union: alienated identity of, 5; common path of, 2, 8; decision to stay or return to Poland, 213; diverse groups among, 7; educa tional opportunities for, 237; graves of, 289-290,290; as Holocaust refugees, 284; importance of choices made by, 282; influence on Soviet Jews, 289-292; limited awareness of
events in Poland, 7-8, 96-97, 99; limited scholarship on, 281-283, 285-286; lost, relatives’ search for, 234-235; as majority of survivors, 3, 28; as outside historical 423 account, 2-4; packages from loved ones, importance of, 7, 211; as Polish citizens, 4; reports on Soviet life in interior, importance of, 289; resent ment for allegedly shirking military duty, 292; and Soviet citizenship, efforts to force acceptance of, 4,150,219; terms used to describe, 4-5; themes in stories of, 281-282; those rejecting repatriation, 234-237; trauma experienced by, 10-11; value of understanding, for family members of survivors, 279-281. See aho Soviet deportations of Poles to labor installations Polish Jews in Soviet Union, as part of Holocaust story, 284-288; benefits of including, 287-288; as different but importance part, 286; difficulty of separating, 283; and German-Soviet border, ultimate insignificance of, 286; increasing recognition of, 285; as less-well-known part, 279-281; mobility of refugees as challenge in, 287; narra tive methods for including, 286-287; reasons for neglect of, 286; Russian research on Holocaust and, 288-292 Polish Jews’ welcoming of Soviet invasion, 50-54; accounts of, 52,53; lack of actual data on, 51, 54; as little-discussed in refugee memoirs, 51; Polish discrimina tion against Jews and, 53; Polish stereo type of left-leaning Jews and, 51-52; and Soviets as preferable to Nazis, 52-53; as still-contentious issue, 54; as treasonous in Polish view, 53 Polish Ministry of Information and Docu mentation, Polish government-in-exile, 202 Polish People’s
Republic: Anti-Zionist Campaign (1967-1968), 262-264; authorities’ strategies for imposing communism, 252; clampdown on Jewish institutions, 252, 253-254; desire of many Jews to leave, 245, 250; Jews choosing to remain in, 258-259, 262, 264; post-communist reckoning with abuses in, 295-296; Soviet deportations of Poles as forbidden
424 · INDEX Polish People’s Republic (continued) topic in, 293, 295; and Stalinist ex cesses, blaming of Jews for, 260-261. See also Poland, postwar Polish People’s Republic, communism imposed in, 238, 245; blaming of Jews for, 53, 254-255, 297-298; hopes for milder Polish form, 253; and increased security for Jews, 259-260; and Jewish emigration, 253; Jewish hope for nusekh Poyln, 253-254; Jewish involvement in, 254-255, 297-298; nationalization of Jewish schools, 252; opposition of majority to, 251; resis tance to, 251, 259; Stalins promise of free elections and, 251; state control of Jewish institutions, 252, 253; tightening grip of, 259-260 Polish People’s Republic, Jewish emigra tion from, 14, 255-259, 281; after Anti-Zionist Campaign (1967-1968), 263-264; and damage to Jewish cultural life, 253, 256, 261, 264; discussions of, 257-259; factors in, 255-257; as planned before return, 256-257; snowball effect in, 261, 262; tightening of restrictions on, after 1947, 266; time required to prepare for, 256-257 Polish prisoners of war, 20-21 Polish prisoners of war in Soviet Union: camps and prisons for, 103, 104,105, 111; investigation into fate of, 105; and Katyn Massacre, 105, 150, 220, 260, 293, 295; number of, 104; release of some, 104; Soviet abuse and murder of, 104-105, 150 Polish Underground: communist, 219; couriers for, 51, 285; and crossing of German-Soviet border, 39-40; moni toring of German activity, 42; on Polish Jews, 51-52. See also Partisans Polskii Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego. See Polish Committee of National Liberation Poltava, Jewish refugees in,
65, 68, 87, 95 Pomerantz, Jack, 25, 177,179, 186-187, 215-216, 226, 242 Porat, Dina, 4, 59, 63 Press in Soviet-occupied Polish terri tory: antireligious propaganda in, 80; and danger of incorrect speech, 76; and spread of Soviet ideology, 76, 223; strict regulation of, 69, 74, 76, ЗЗІПІ60 Rabbis, Polish, effort to remove from Soviet Union, 197 Rabinowicz, Gitla, 140,196 Rachlin, Rachel, 147 Radzyń: early days of German occupation in, 25; Holocaust in, 216 The Reawakening (Levi), 300-301 Recovered Territories (Ziemie Odzys kane), reestablishment of Jewish life in, 243-244 Red Army (Soviet Army): antisemitism in recruiting for, 180, 215, 366nl0; female Polish Jews in, 180; and Holocaust, un covering of evidence of, 215-217; Jewish soldiers in, 215; Jews adopting nonJewish names to serve in, 180, 366nl0; Polish Jews in, 215; Polish Jews re treating with, 16, 38, 44; retaking of Poland, 226; self-repatriation of Polish Jews in, 226-227, 237; shabby uniforms of, as off-putting in early occupation, 25, 26 Red Army Labor Divisions (Trud Army). See labor battalions, Soviet Red Army Polish Division. See Rerling’s Army Red Cross, support for repatriated Polish Jews, 242 Redlich, Shimon, 223, 245, 292 Refugees, Polish: discussion of terms, 4; in early war, as without destination, 38; in German-Soviet division of Poland, 18, 27-28; German strafing of, 37. See also Flight to Lithuania by Polish Jews; Flight to Soviet sector by Polish Jews; Polish aid to refugees in Soviet Union; Polish Jews in Soviet Union Regenbogen, Azriel, 128, 138, 153, 203 Religion in Soviet-occupied Polish
territory. See Soviet-occupied Polish territory, religion in
INDEX Religion in Soviet Union, as clandestine, 96 Religious roles of women, in Jewish families without male heads, 163 Religious Union of the Mosaic Faith in Poland (Związek Religijny Wyznania Mojżeszowego w Polsce), 253 Repatriated Polish Jews: antisemitism faced by, 238-239, 248-251; areas of congregation, 240, 247; artists and writers among, 245; and decision to stay or leave Poland, 212-213; hunger and disease during travel, 230; and Jewish life, reestablishment of, 243-247, 262; loss of families and former homes, 3-4, 5, 240, 248; medical care for, 241; overwhelming numbers of, in spring and summer 1946, 241-242; as per centage of postwar Jewish population, 255; persons prevented by Soviets from leaving, 233-234; Polish schools and, 252; remarriage and settlement abroad, 14; sad state of, 237-238; search for housing, 240; search for missing family members, 226, 240, 242-243, 250-251, 257, 259, 261; support for, 240-241; varied receptions of, 241; visits to former home towns, 247-248. See also Polish People’s Republic, Jewish emigration from Repatriation of Poles, 236; agreement allowing, 226; Allied debate over, 14; application process for, 228; availability of work as issue in, 232; collection and relocation of Poles prior to, 230-231; departure of first trains, 232; difficulty of contacting all eligible Poles, 229; and Eastern Poles resettling in Western Poland, 238; ending of, 234; and families adding unrelated orphans, 228; and fear of Soviet trickery, 232-233; Jewish cultural activists and, 228; Jews choosing to remain, 234-237, 291; Jews re turning after end
of, 234; legal context for, 226; near misses of chance for, 235; number of Poles involved in, 237; number of Polish Jews involved in, 237; from orphanages, 229; Orthodox Soviet Jews’ special interest in, 228; peak of, » 425 234; Poles in Red Army as first among, 226-227, 237; registration for, 231-232; reunion of families during, 229-230; self-repatriations, 226-227, 229, 231, 237; short notice for, 232; as slow pro cess, 226; Soviet citizenship as obstacle to, 219; Soviet citizens joining, 234; and Soviet concerns about escape of citizens, 228, 229; Soviet state as obstacle to, 219; Stalin’s reasons for, 225; and support of Soviet bureaucracy, 227-228; transportation for, 232; and unbeatable Polish citizens, 232; ZPP oversight of 225, 226, 227. See also ZPP (Związek Patriotów Polskich w ZSRR) Repatriation of Poles, second wave after Stalin’s death, 234,260-262; as Gomułka Aliyah, 261; number of Jews in, 260; rapid emigration from Poland, 260 Revisionist Zionists, Soviet monitoring and arrest of, 84, 113. See also Betar members, flight to Lithuania Rich, Betty, 37, 55, 83, 91-92, 169, 181-182, 227, 243, 274 Rieger, Aleena, 227, 266, 270-271, 272 Rogers, Irene, 166, 186, 229 Romania, refugees from, 148. See also Flight to Hungary and Romania, by Polish government and military Romer, Tadeusz, 179, 202, 326ո74 Roseman, Mark, 302, 304 Rosh Hashanah, German invasion on, 23, 29; in USSR, 139, 140 Rosja (2018 film), 232 Rotstein, S., 184-185,190 Rozenberg, Lena Jedwab, 156-157, 168, 218, 224 Rozenberg, Yosef, 23-24, 38, 68,132, 135,136 Rudnicka, Maria, 106, 128 Russia, Gulag
museums in, 288 Russian nationalism, Soviets’ wartime encouragement of, 174 Russian Revolution, and Holocaust, Nolte on, 301 Ruta, Magdalena, 124, 245, 253 Rutki (Rutki-Kossaki), black market in, 84 Rzeszów, repatriated Jews in, 249
426 INDEX Sabbath observance: in Central Asian Sexual interactions of Polish territory exile, 172; in labor installations, Jewish refugees, 184-191; marriages, 141-142 transactional, 187-90; sexual assaults Safronovitch, Yitzhak Meir, 172,173, 201, and rapes, 184-185; transactional rela 246 tionships of men, 186-187; transactional Saler, Mendel, 25, 65, 266 relationships of women, 185-186 Saler, Yankl, 24-25, 33, 65,118-119,128, Sfard, Dovid, 223-224, 239,264, 291 156,160-161, 228 Shadkhanovich, David, 117-118 Samara. See Kuibyshev Shafran, Simcha, 60,155,172,231 Samarkand: graves of Polish Jews in, 289; Shanghai, Jewish community in, refugees and, 161,186, 206, 289; repa 326֊327n74 triation from 229 Shapiro, Chaim, 47, 72, 81,173-174,197 Samuels, Klara, 34,59, 68, 98,106 Shmeruk, Chone, 76,179 San River: consecutive occupations of lands Shoah Foundation (Visual History near, 38; crossing of, with smugglers’ Archive): testimonies of, 9,18, 32, aid, 39; driving Jews across, 23, 284; 44,123,136,137,160,168,186,209, flight across, 29, 154; and German230-231, 235, 267,268, 269, 277 Soviet border in Poland, 21; proximity Shore, Marci, 179, 253 to border, 35 Shternfeld, Shaul, 19,55,58, 87, 93, Saved by Deportation (2007 film), 294 135, 145,152,168-169,182,201, 218, Schatz, Jaff, 95, 238, 253, 254 261 Scholarship on Polish Jews in Soviet Shternshis, Anna, 288, 291 Union, 2-4, 5-6,11 Shvarts, Yosef, 125,126 Schools, Polish, for refugees in Soviet Siberia: deportees’ fear of, 122; deportees Union, 203-204; refugees’ views on, in, 281; as difficult to define, 123; as 224; Soviet
shutdown of, 205; So refugees’ general term for remote viet takeover of, 220-221,222-223 regions, 102, 123-124 Schools in Soviet-occupied Polish Siegelbaum, Lewis, 151 territory: antireligious propaganda Sieradzki, Mietek, 40, 209, 262, 263 in, 78-80; anti-Zionist propaganda in, Sikorski, Władysław, 199-200 79; changes to languages used, 78; Sikorski-Maisky Pact. See Amnesty curricular changes, 78-79; extracur agreement for Poles in Soviet Union ricular activities, 79 Skorr, Henry, 31, 229 Schools in Soviet Union: in labor installa Slezkine, Yuri, 123,124 tions, 137-138; and Sovietization, Smolar, Hersh, 74, 95,225, 234 332nl87 Snyder, Timothy, 11,301-304 Schorr, Mojżesz, 108-109 Society for Safeguarding the Health of the Schumacher (Szumacher), Israel, 77, Jewish Population. See TOZ 244-245 Socio-Cultural Association of Jews in Second Polish Republic: ethno-nationalism Poland. See TSKŻ of, 191; Jewish population in, 296. See Sommerstein, Emil, 179, 224, 241 also Polish Army (Second Polish Sources, 6-11; memoirs and testimonies as, 6-11, 277; objectivity of, 6; sec Republic) Second World War. See World War II ondary research, 11; Soviet records, Seder, in labor installations, 140-141. inaccessibility of, 6, 27, 111, 135, 288, See also Passover (Pesach) 290-291. See also Memoirs and testi Selver-Urbach, Sara, 24, 27, 34 monies of Polish Jews Seri-Levi, Naama, 268-269 Soviet Army. See Red Army
INDEX Soviet citizenship. See Citizenship, Soviet Soviet deportations: from Baltic states, 103, 110, 146-147; equal effect on all ethnic groups, 296; in Estonia, 110, 145,146; in Latvia, 110, 145, 146; in Lithuania, 110,145, 146; of Polish non-Jews, 120 Soviet deportations of Poles to labor installations, 2,109-112,281; anticipa tion of, 113-114; arrests of deportees, 112-116; class warfare and, 110; common misconceptions about, 280-281; deception about destina tion, 114,115; and deportees’ fictional marriages, 188; deportees lack of news from war, 7-8, 96-97, 99; deportees’ memoirs’ focus on experience, 7; de portees’ regret at not anticipating, 115-116; early mix of Polish Jews and non-Jews, 120; efforts to avoid, 94; ethnic cleansing and, 110; as forbidden topic in communist Poland, 293, 295; four waves of, 109-110; inadvertent saving of Jews by, 100, 101,146-147, 155, 284, 293-294, 295-296; as inseparable from Holocaust, 299-300, 304-305; interethnic Polish relations in, 297; Jews collaborating in, 115, 342n69; in June of 1940,121; large number of Jews in, 296; in larger context of Soviet population transfers, 102, 103-104; limits on possessions allowed, 114, 115; motives for, 110; neighbors’ aid to deportees, 116; number of deportees, 110; as part of brutal labor system, 284; percentage of Jews in, 111; planning for, 120; Polish vs. Polish Jewish view of, 293-298; procedures for, 113-116; relatives’ aid to deportees, 96; as result of Jewish refusal to accept Soviet citizenship, 13, 92-93, 110,114; separation of families in, 111, 114-117, 120-121; suffering of Jews
in, 293-294; value of Jewish perspective on, 296-297; Warsaw monument commemorating, 293,294, 294-295; as wound in Polish society, 13. See also Arrest and incarceration of · 4Z7 Poles; Labor installations; Travel to labor installations Soviet homes, “red corner” in, 137 Soviet invasion of Poland, 20; and Polish POWs, 20-21. See also Polish Jews’ welcoming of Soviet invasion Soviet prisoners of war, 151, 288, 299 Sovietization: in Baltic states, rapidity of, 62-63; schools and, 332nl87 Sovietization in occupied Polish territories, 70-85; antireligious policies, 80-82; antireligious propaganda in press, 80; antireligious propaganda in schools, 78-80; and confiscation of residents’ homes and businesses, 83; and cultural life, strict limits for, 74-78; destructive ness for ethnic Poles, 71; gap between planning and execution in, 71; imme diate commencement of, 70; increasing severity of implementation, 71; and lines as form of social control, 71-72; and lines as primarily for refugees, 72; mass disruptions caused by, 83; and obligatory celebration of Stalin, 72-73, 77, 82; and passive rhetorical structure, 72; and promotion of Belorussians and Ukrainians to top positions, 82, 83; rapidity of, 289; readiness of program for, 70-71; removal of Polish and Hebrew from schools, 78; school curriculum changes, 78-79; and suppression of “speculation,” 83, 84-85; transforma tion of Jewish life by, 81-82; and women in workforce, 83-84; workers’ views on, 83-84 Soviet Jews: amnestied Polish Jews and, 168-169, 173-174, 282; attempts to leave USSR with Polish Jews, 228-229, 234; culture
of, 291-292; and ErlichAlter case, 176; and Holocaust, 215, 287; influence of Polish cultural life on, 75,174, 289-292. See also JAFC (Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee) Soviet-occupied Polish territory: accusa tions of Jews benefiting from, 51; auto matic Soviet citizenship for residents, 150; censorship of Polish libraries, 77-78; closing of yeshivas, 60; confiscation of
428 - ÍNDEX Soviet-occupied Polish territory (continued) houses and businesses, 67; limited population exchanges with Germany, 92; monitoring of Jews in, 84; number of Poles in, 21; number of Polish Jews in, 21; plebiscite for Poles to request annexation, 70, 327nnl21-122; Polish caricaturing of Soviet practices, 72; Polish Jews’ jokes about Soviet life, 73-74; and Polish nationalism, rise of, 52; political activity of Polish Jews in, 82; registration of Poles in, 27; regulation of Jewish and Polish press, 69, 74, 76; remaining of most Jews in, 64; residents’ obligation to publicly proclaim Soviet excellence, 82; short ages in, 71, 73; Soviet citizenship for residents, 70; Soviet consolidation of power in, 21-22; Soviet troops’ spending sprees in, 56; value of relatives and friends to refugees in, 67; and Yiddish lending libraries, establishment of, 78. See also Sovietization in occupied Polish territories Soviet-occupied Polish territory, cultural life in: approved reading, 78; arrests of Polish writers, 76; and danger of incorrect speech, 74-75, 76; influence on Soviet Jews, 75, 174; and Jewish comedians, constraints on, 77; limited support available for loyal artists, 74; Soviet effort to limit Polish literary output, 75-76; and spread of Soviet ideology, 75; strict limits for, 74-78; writers’ turn to children’s literature and journalism, 76; Yiddish theater, 76-77 Soviet-occupied Polish territory, daily life in, 64-69; black markets, 65-66, 66, 68, 81, 84-85; and free education, 67-68; housing shortages, 64-65; lack of discrimination against Jews, 67; leader ship role
of children, 68; local friends and family, value of, 67; moves in search of opportunity, 66-67; older generation’s difficulty adjusting, 67; relative happiness of, 67-68; search for separated family members, 69; work, difficulty of finding, 65 Soviet-occupied Polish territory, religion in: antireligious propaganda in press, 80; antireligious propaganda in schools, 78-80; clandestine practice of, 81; close monitoring of, 80-81; policies to discourage and suppress, 80-82; Soviet policies to cut off new adherents, 81 Soviet penal system: Bolsheviks’ expansion of, 102; camaraderie across ethnic lines in, 108-109; cruel conditions in prisons, 107-108, 109; and disillusionment of Polish communists, 108; number of inmates in, 103; prisoner organization in, 109; vast infrastructure of, 103 Soviet Polish Army. See Berling’s Army Soviet population transfers, 102; motives for, 102; turn to ethnic cleansing, 102-104. See also Soviet deportations of Poles to labor installations Soviet soldiers: required positive view of Soviet Union, 56; spending sprees in occupied Polish territory, 56 Soviet Union: antireligious policies, effects of, 296; antireligious policies, wartime relaxation of, 174; authoritarianism of, and Nazi authoritarianism, similarities and differences, 300-304; concern about image abroad, 206; daily life in, 95-96; equality of poor treatment in, 71; Great Purges of 1937-1938,103; internal surveillance system, 181; policy implementation in 1917, 70; ration cards, as tied to employment, 165; records, inaccessibility of, 6, 27, 111, 135, 288, 290-291 Special settlements
(spetsposelki), 13, 103, 111-12; in Altai region, 138; in Asino, 127,130, 132,136,137-138, 142; culture in, 137; departure of amnestied Poles from, 151; food shortages in, 132; inability of some amnestied Poles to leave, 165; medical care in, 133-134; news of Polish amnesty and, 144; near Novosibirsk, 123, 134,162, 175, 186, 231; near Redva, 137; separation of families in, 230; near Sverdlovsk Oblast, 137,162; as typical destination for deported Jewish refugees, 139; value
ÍNDEX of Jewish accounts of, 296-297; varying condition in, 136; in Vologda region, 209; welcome speech in, 126; work in, 130. See also Labor installations "Speculation,” Soviet suppression of, 83, 84-85; impact on Polish Jews, 83, 84-85 Stahl, Dina, 132, 135, 195 Stalin, Joseph: antisemitism of, 192, 383n23; death of, 146, 234, 260, 261; decision to keep annexed Polish territo ries, 219; declining interest in Western relations, 211; inadvertent saving of Jews, 101, 284,292; and Jewish stereo types, 192; obligatory celebration of, 72-73, 77, 82, 99, 126, 223, 224; plans for Polish territory, 143, 219, 225; policies in postwar Poland, 253, 255; promise of free Polish elections, 251; and USSR’s inward turn, 205; Wasilewska and, 220; willingness to allow return of Polish Jews, 225 Stalingrad, Battle of, 164, 176, 179, 205, 220 Stalingrad (Volgograd), as refugee destination, 158 Staliniri (Tskhinvali, Tskhinval): amnes tied Polish Jews in, 169; recruitment of informants in, 181-182 Stalinism, 23, 260, 288, 300, 305 Starkiewicz, Helena, 25, 106,108,126, 132, 188, 201, 226-227 Steinberg, Avraham, 115, 138, 208-209, 295 Steinberg, Rabbi Baruch, 105, 295 Steinlauf, Michael, 254-255 Stettin. See Szczecin Stola, Dariusz, 255, 262-263, 264 Storch, Helena, 246 Surviving Remnant (She erit Hapletah), 4, 6, 245, 255, 273, 287 The Survivor (Des Pres), 300 Sverdlovsk (Yekaterinburg), and repatria tion, 232 Sverdlovsk Oblast: deportees in, 126; as destination for amnestied Poles, 165; number of deportees to, 112t; and repatriation, 231; special settlement near, 137, 162 · 429 Sword,
Keith, 7, 83, 109-110,154, 203 Szafran, Feiwel, 257-258 Szaynok, Bożena, 240, 249 Szczecin (Stettin): letter collection in, 257-259; repatriated Polish Jews in, 242, 244, 247 Szedlecki, Ann, 19, 54, 88, 122, 155, 182, 185, 237-238 Szer, Włodzimierz, 47, 118,138, 142,189, 217-218, 219, 226, 258-259 Tajik SSR (Tajikistan), 156 Taraz. See Dzhambul Tarnów, flight of Polish Jews from, 37-38 Tashkent: aid to Polish refugees in, 203, 207; cultural activities for refugees in, 171; as destination for amnestied Poles, 148-149, 152,153, 156, 159, 160,165, 171,197, 232, 236; flood of refugees in, 148-149, 158-159, 166; gender imbal ance among Jews in, 30; housing short ages in, 166; news of Holocaust in, 216-217; orphanages in, 195; reputation for bounty, 148, 152; ZPP in, 224 Tashkent, City of Bread (Neverov), 148, 152, 153, 156 Taube, Herman, 104, 153,154, 161, 166-167, 188, 275 Teheran Children, 215, 217, 273 Teitel, Khanina, 65, 124,131, 151, 328n92 Temkin, Gabriel and Hanna, 258-259 The Thaw, 146, 234, 260, 299 Theater, Yiddish: in Poland after the war, 244, 253, 264; in USSR, 76-77, 171-172 “To a Jewish Dancer” (Markish), 50, 75 Toryal (Mari ASSR), amnestied Polish Jews in, 170 Towarzstwo Ochrony Zdrowia Ludności Żydowskiej. See TOZ Towarzystwo Społeczno-Kulturalne Żydów w Polsce. See TSKŻ TOZ (Towarzstwo Ochrony Zdrowia Ludności Żydowskiej, Society for Safeguarding the Health of the Jewish Population): care for repatriated Polish Jews, 240-241; care for Jewish refugees in Lithuania, 60-61
430 INDEX Tarnopol (Tarnopil): deportation of Jews from, 94; Soviet transformation of Jewish life in, 82 Transnational studies of Holocaust, 11 Travel to labor installations, 116-125; crude accommodations on trains, 117-118; deportees’ descriptions of routes, 121; and deportees’ despair, 120; elder (starosta) presiding over train cars, 117; food in, 117-118; infestation, disease, and poor hygiene during, 119-120; lack of toilets on trains, 118-119; loosening of security in distant areas, 122; mayhem during loading of trains, 117; in mostly Jewish groups, 121; pregnant and nursing women and, 118; as prominent part of deportee narratives, 117; and realiza tion of prisoner status, 116; religious observances during, 121; Soviet planning of, 120; and unfamiliar landscape, 122-123; Volga crossing and, 102,123 Treier, Emanuel, 197-198 Treier, Regina, 197-198 Trudovaiia armita. See Labor bataillons Trunk, Isaiah, 249 Tskhinval[i], See Stalinin TSKŻ (Towarzystwo Społeczno-Kulturalne Żydów w Polsce, Socio-Cultural Associa tion of Jews in Poland): after Anti-Zionist Campaign (1967-1968), 264; curtailing of Jewish culture from, 253; and repa triation, 234; state control of, 252 Tsu a nay lebn (Egit), 244 Tsukunft, 24. See also Jewish Labor Bund Turkestan (Türkistan): collective farm near, 273; and Polish Jews’ repatriation, 227, 232; Polish Jews’ views on autochthonous peoples of, 169 Tych, Feliks, 255-256 Ukraine: borderlands, Snyder on violence in, 301- 302; citizenship for residents of, 90; Great Famine in, 302, 338n7; holding of Poles in, before repatriation, 231, 241;
liberation of 216, 231; Polish Jews remaining in, 235; recruitment of Polish Jewish refugees for jobs in, 86; repatriation from, 232; Soviet ethnic cleansing in, 102-103 Ukraine, Western: arrests and deporta tions in, 110; citizenship for residents of, 90; Jewish flight from, 156; Jewish refugees in, 95,281; Jews in, lack of news about war, 99; packages from, 132; POWs in, 339nl6; Soviet annexa tion of, 70; Soviet policies in, 22 Ukrainian language, in Soviet schools, 68, 78 Ukrainian Poles, Soviet encouragement and supervision of culture, 22, 74, 77; no longer in Poland after the war, 238; Soviet mobilization for labor battalions, 150,177; Soviet prevention of entry into Anders Army, 225 Ukrainians, Polish Jewish interactions with, 73,188, 215; in Soviet-occupied Polish territory, 21 Union of Polish Patriots in the USSR. See ZPP Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, borders, circa 1940, xii—xiii United Kingdom (UK), and aid to Polish Jews in the USSR, 207, 224; alliance with Soviets, 144,179; and antisemitism in Anders Army, 199; and Baltic states, 146; and DP camps, 266; and German invasion of Poland, 17,20; emigration to, 263, 264; and Palestine Mandate, 61, 225, 269, 271, 272-273; and SikorskiMaisky Pact, 144. See also London, Polish government-in-exile in United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), 242, 265, 266 United States: as destination for Jewish DPs, 270, 275, 276, 277; DP falsification of histories to gain admittance, 270-271; immigration quotas, 270 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 9,153 Unoccupied areas: declining number of by
1940,59; Polish Jews’ efforts to reach, 57 UNRRA. See United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration
INDEX Ural Mountains: communal farms for deportees in, 129; as deportation destination, 13, 111, 281; as destination of amnestied Poles, 151, 182; as division between Europe and Asia, 122 Urban, Stuart, 183 Urban, Garrí, 107,134,183,187 Uzbek SSR (Uzbekistan): Bukharan Jews in, 169; as destination of amnestied Poles, 148, 153,160,163, 167,198, 201, 216, 247, 248, 273, 285. See also Tashkent Vaad Hatzala, 61, 207, 209, 210 Vilna (Wilno, Vilnius): arrival of Jewish refugees in, 58, 59-60, 113; deportation from, 5, 146, 201; Lithuanian deal with Soviets to recover, 57-58; as refugee destination, 34,58,106,113,145, 163 Vitebsk: closing of synagogues in, 96; housing shortages in, 64; Polish Jewish refugees in, 45, 64, 96; work for Jewish refugees in, 90 Vladimir-Volynskii (Włodzimierz Wołyński, Volodymyr-Volynskyi, Ludmir): Polish POWs in, 104; refugee life in, 65; refugees in, 98,106 Volga German ASSR (former), deportees from, 142; Polish Jews moved to, 230 Volga River: amnestied Polish Jews near, 189; crossing of, 102, 123, 138, 158 Volgograd. See Stalingrad Volodymyr-Volynskyi. See Vladimir-Volynskii Vologda Oblast: deportees in, 124, 156, 209; number of deportees to, 112r; work in, 128 Wałbrzych (Waldenburg), postwar, 243 War and Genocide (Bergen), 285-286 Warhaftig, Żorach, 29-30, 56, 61-62, 63,73 Warlik, Wanda, 28, 30, 111, 215, 237 Warsaw: gender imbalance in, 30; Monu ment to the Fallen and Murdered in the East, 293, 294, 294-295; Monument to the Ghetto Heroes, 247, 283; news from, 214, 218-219, 283; postwar, 217, · 431 238, 240, 242, 244, 247, 252, 259, 261, 262, 263;
refugee aid to, 66, 214; refugee returns to, 31, 32, 45, 69, 91, 98, 116; war beginning in, 1, 17, 27,30; wartime destruction in, 238 Warsaw Ghetto: Jewish deaths in, 262; Jews seeking refuge in, 98-99; Emanuel Ringelblum, 45; testimonies collected in, 52, 55, 64, 65, 71-72, 78, 84, 91; underground archive of (Oneg Shabbes), 1, 9-10, 45, 52, 84, 322n8 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: anniversary of, in Szczecin, 246; Rapoport sculpture commemoration, 283 Wasilewska, Wanda, 199-200, 220, 227 Wat, Aleksander, 77, 107, 178-179 Wat, Polina, 178-179 Waxman, Zoë, 8, 48, 184 Weinberg, Mieczysław, 236, 237 Weinreich, Mike, 56, 68 Wenig, Larry, 20, 29 Werker, Dora, 115,135, 191-192,194-195 Wilno. See Vilna Witkowska, L., 188,196 Włodzimierz Wołyński. See Vladimir-Volynskii Wolna Polska (Free Poland), 215, 220, 229, 232 Women, Jewish: in Anders Army, 194; German killings of, 23; as heads of household, 30, 111, 121, 163; hygiene in transport, 118; Kaplan on, 32-33; opportunities in USSR, 83; overrepre sentation in ghettos, 30; and prayer, 20; pregnancy and motherhood in transport, 118; presumed safety from Germans, 25, 29, 30, 31; in prison, 108; sexual assaults and rapes of, 184-185; and sexual transactional relationships, 185-186; ties to family, 32; in Under ground, 40 Women, Polish: on collaboration, 183; as heads of household, 111; national identity of, 52; percentages, 222 Women, Soviet, as viewed by Poles: fashion of, 66, 72; labor of, 83-84,128; other cultures of, 169-170; promiscuity of, 186,189
432 INDEX Work camps in Soviet Union. See Labor installations; Special settlements Work in Soviet Union, as obligatory, 128 World Jewish Congress, 207, 209 World War I: leading to refugee crisis, 205; leading to US immigration quotas, 270; Nazis learn from mistakes of, 16-17; new nations created after, 20, 57; perceptions of German Army behavior during, as part of flight decisions, 25-26 World War II; duration of aftermath, vari ation in, 304; Holocaust as inseparable part of, 299-300; integrated histories of, 301-304; Soviet deportations as inseparable part of, 304-305 World War II, end of: limited mention of, in testimonies, 219; and Poles in Soviet Union, obstacles to return, 219 Wygodzki, Rachela Tytelman, 44-45, 115-116, 185, 272-273 Yad Vashem: Garden of Righteous on campus of, 284; testimony for, 9, 251, 271, 273 Yakutsk, cultural life in, 171, 214-215; as destination for amnestied Poles, 155; and passportization drive, 178; repatria tion of Poles from, 230 Yakutsk Oblast: amnesty in, 152; deportees sent to, 112t, 133,154; Yalta Conference, 251 Yekaterinburg. See Sverdlovsk Yermus family, 236 Yetsies Pölyn (Exodus from Poland), 212-213, 278 Yiddish: as connection between Soviet and Polish Jews, 42, 56, 76, 169, 224; decline among Jews in Soviet Union, 96; family efforts to teach to children, 138; loan words in, 212-213; transla tion, 1, 148; after the war, 275, 278 Yidisher Melukhe Miniatur Teatr, 77 Yishuv (Jewish Community in Palestine): JDC relief programs and, 207; lobbying for Polish removal of Jews from Soviet Union, 197-198; and Polish antisemi tism, 199;
and Polish migration to Israel, 269; Sommerstein and, 199, 224; support for Polish Zionists, 256-257 Yom Kippur, 16, 159; efforts to celebrate, 81,139-140; in USSR, 136 Yoshkar-Ola: amnestied Polish Jews in, 170; Jewish refugees in, 97; Polish refugees in, 221-222; ZPP in, 217 Zable, Arnold, 278, 279 Zak, Avrom, 124-125, 218-219, 222 Zamari, Yocheved, 64-65, 95, 250, 271-272, 273 Zarnowitz, Victor, 30, 37, 93-94,144-145, 222, 267 Żbikowski, Andrzej, 53, 93, 250 Zdrojowicz, Szlomo, 59, 186 Zerubavel, Frida, 30, 41-42, 57,58, 62, 69, 74, 77-78, 86 Zessin-Jurek, Lidia, 295, 297 Zgorzelec (Görlitz), repatriated Polish Jews in, 244 Ziębice (Miisterberg), repatriated Polish Jews in, 246 Ziemie Odzyskane. See Recovered territories Zifberfeyn, Shmuel, 128 ŻIH (Żydowski Instytut Historyczny, Jewish Historical Institute), 252 Zionists: and aid to Jewish refugees in Soviet Union, 209; and Břicha, 271-274; comradeship during Soviet exile, 137, 153, 168; flight to unoccupied areas, 56, 59, 60, 61, 201; growing among Polish Jewish refugees, 194; in Lithu ania, 60, 61-62,113; Polish Jewish refugees bringing to USSR, 182; postwar activism, 245, 247, 252, 268, 272; and postwar immigration decisions, 212,213, 256-257,276-277; and postwar Polish antisemitism, 260, 263; and postwar testimonies, 10; prewar in Poland, 18; treatment in Soviet territory, 84,113, 120,178, 179,180,182,188, 197, 224, 261; as unwelcome in Soviet territory, 60, 78 Zisfain, Bronia (Proshker), 142, 190, 276 Złoczów. See Zolotchev Zolenfreind, Moshe, 139
INDEX Zolotchev (Złoczów, Zolochív), deporta tions from, 115 ZPP (Związek Patriotów Polskich w ZSRR, Union of Polish Patriots in the USSR), 223; activities of, 217, 220-222, 223-224, 291; and Berling’s Army, oversight of, 225; closing of, 234; collection of data on Poles, 220-221, 222, 226; creation of, 220; hiring of Jewish workers, 223; influence on Soviet Jews, 291; Jewish Organizing Committee of, 223-224; Jews working for, 228; opportunities of affiliation with, 223, 251; Polish Jews’ distrust of, 228, 232; propaganda photos by, 223, 224; providing aid to Poles, 220-221, 224; refugees' confusion about role of, 231; refugees’ views on, 224; schools, 221, 222-223, 224; Wasilewska and, 220 · 433 ZPP, and repatriation: Jews without proper documentation and, 228; moving some Poles west in advance of, 230-231; oversight of, 225, 226, 227, 232; persons prevented by Soviets from leaving, 233; and Polish children in institutions, 229; registration of Poles for, 228, 229, 231-232,240 Zuberman, Helen, 31, 64,119,123-124, 131,136-137,185, 268, 275 Związek Patriotów Polskich w ZSRR. See ZPP Związek Religijny Wyznania Mojżeszowego w Polsce. See Religious Union of the Mosaic Faith in Poland Żydokomuna, 53, 191, 254, 297 Żydowski Instytut Historyczny. See ŻIH Zylbersztejn, Naftali, 133, 134,198 Zynger, Ezra, 230-231, 242, 275 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
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| author | Adler, Eliyana R. 1969- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1161488588 |
| author_facet | Adler, Eliyana R. 1969- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Adler, Eliyana R. 1969- |
| author_variant | e r a er era |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV046970036 |
| classification_rvk | NY 4780 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1225596597 (DE-599)BVBBV046970036 |
| discipline | Geschichte |
| discipline_str_mv | Geschichte |
| era | Geschichte 1940-1946 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1940-1946 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Sowjetunion |
| id | DE-604.BV046970036 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-03T15:47:07Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-10T08:58:55Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9780674988026 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-032378234 |
| oclc_num | 1225596597 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-Re13 DE-BY-UBR DE-12 DE-M352 DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-521 |
| owner_facet | DE-Re13 DE-BY-UBR DE-12 DE-M352 DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-521 |
| physical | X, 433 Seiten, 6 ungezählte Seiten Tafeln Illustrationen, Karten |
| psigel | BSB_NED_20210122 |
| publishDate | 2020 |
| publishDateSearch | 2020 |
| publishDateSort | 2020 |
| publisher | Harvard University Press |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Adler, Eliyana R. 1969- Verfasser (DE-588)1161488588 aut Survival on the margins Polish Jewish refugees in the wartime Soviet Union Eliyana R. Adler Cambridge, Massachusetts ; London, England Harvard University Press 2020 X, 433 Seiten, 6 ungezählte Seiten Tafeln Illustrationen, Karten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Geschichte 1940-1946 gnd rswk-swf Juden (DE-588)4028808-0 gnd rswk-swf Polen Volk (DE-588)4046497-0 gnd rswk-swf Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 gnd rswk-swf Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 g Polen Volk (DE-588)4046497-0 s Juden (DE-588)4028808-0 s Geschichte 1940-1946 z DE-604 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe 978-0-674-98801-9 (DE-604)BV047521060 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032378234&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032378234&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Adler, Eliyana R. 1969- Survival on the margins Polish Jewish refugees in the wartime Soviet Union Juden (DE-588)4028808-0 gnd Polen Volk (DE-588)4046497-0 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4028808-0 (DE-588)4046497-0 (DE-588)4077548-3 |
| title | Survival on the margins Polish Jewish refugees in the wartime Soviet Union |
| title_auth | Survival on the margins Polish Jewish refugees in the wartime Soviet Union |
| title_exact_search | Survival on the margins Polish Jewish refugees in the wartime Soviet Union |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Survival on the margins Polish Jewish refugees in the wartime Soviet Union |
| title_full | Survival on the margins Polish Jewish refugees in the wartime Soviet Union Eliyana R. Adler |
| title_fullStr | Survival on the margins Polish Jewish refugees in the wartime Soviet Union Eliyana R. Adler |
| title_full_unstemmed | Survival on the margins Polish Jewish refugees in the wartime Soviet Union Eliyana R. Adler |
| title_short | Survival on the margins |
| title_sort | survival on the margins polish jewish refugees in the wartime soviet union |
| title_sub | Polish Jewish refugees in the wartime Soviet Union |
| topic | Juden (DE-588)4028808-0 gnd Polen Volk (DE-588)4046497-0 gnd |
| topic_facet | Juden Polen Volk Sowjetunion |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032378234&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032378234&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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