Behavior analysis for effective teaching:
Modern teachers increasingly encounter students who enter their classroom with low motivation, learning problems, or disruptive behavior. The mission of this book is to provide teachers and other human service professionals specific tools they can use to teach more effectively without using the puni...
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| Format: | Book |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
New York ; London
Routledge
2020
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| Edition: | Third edition |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Klappentext |
| Summary: | Modern teachers increasingly encounter students who enter their classroom with low motivation, learning problems, or disruptive behavior. The mission of this book is to provide teachers and other human service professionals specific tools they can use to teach more effectively without using the punitive methods that are too often part of educational practices. At the same time, the book explains the behavioral science on which behavioral practices are based. --from publisher description |
| Physical Description: | xxviii, 327 Seiten Illustationen |
| ISBN: | 9781138337190 9781138337183 |
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Record in the Search Index
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| adam_text | CONTENTS List of Figures xxi List of Tables xxiv Preface xxvi Acknowledgements xxvii To the Instructor and To the Student xxviii Chapter 1 Adding Science to the Art of Teaching Overview Objectives The Importance of Teachers What Teaching Is and Is Not Preliminary Definition of Teaching The Science ofBehavior Two Kinds of Behavior Operant Behavior and Operant Conditioning Contingencies of Reinforcement Why Sdence Is Needed: The Training of Elephants From Punishing Students to Reinforcing Their Actions Behavior Analysis in Action Example: Tag Teaching Gymnastics Example: Replacing Loud Talking with Writing in a Second Grade Example: Using Positive Procedures Instead of Paddling to Reduce Disruptive Behavior ix 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 8 8 9 9 10 11 Ψ
x · Contents Example: Increasing High School Attendance Example: Improving Note-Taking in a Large College Lecture Class Features ofBehavior Analysis Combining Art with Science Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes 12 13 13 14 15 16 Chapter 2 Finding the “Causes” of Behavior Overview Objectives What Is a “Cause” ? Functional Relations Dependent and Independent Variables in Explanation Explanatory Fictions: “Explanations” that Do Not Explain A University Example of Reasons for Student Behavior Finding the Truth of Proposed “Causes” “Causes” that Do Not Help in Teaching Why Brain Activity Does Not Explain Classroom Behavior Why Developmental Stages Do Not Explain Behavior Why Time Is Not Useful for Explaining Behavior Why Future Goals and Expectations are Not Helpful as Causes Genetic Endowment and Its Role in Behavior Which Environment as a Cause? Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes 18 18 18 19 20 21 22 24 24 25 25 26 26 27 27 28 29 29 33 Chapter 3 How We Learn Overview Objectives What We Mean by “Learning” Two Kinds of Learning: Respondent and Operant Conditioning Respondent Conditioning Respondents in the Classroom Operant Conditioning The Discovery of Operant Conditioning The Cumulative Record Equipment Failure The Study of Relationships^ Not Rats 34 34 34 35 35 35 36 38 38 40 40 41 42 42 43 44 44 Operant Behavior in the Classroom The Two-Term Contingency Kinds of Consequences Reinforcement 12
Contents · xi Can Reinforcement Fail to Work? The Difference between Reinforcement and Rewards Example: Unplanned Reinforcement in a First Grade Class: The “Criticism Trap” Example: Timing the End of a College Lecture to Improve Behavior Positive and Negative Reinforcers Aversive Control: Punishment Extinction and Intermittent Reinforcement Timing of Reinforcement Extinction Extinction Bursts Example: Extinction Binst in a Fifth Grader The Difference between Extinction and Forgetting The Three-Term Contingency -The Rok ofAntecedents or Context Differences between Antecedent Control in Respondent and Operant Conditioning Implicationsfor Teaching Student Activity Shaping New Skills through Selecting the Best of Current Performance Next Step Determined by Current Student Performance The Need for Fluent Performance Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes Chapter 4 Decreasing Behavior Overview Objectives Ms. Rennix’s Story Control through Punishment in America s Schools: A Tradition It Is Time to Replace Why People Punish Behavior They Do Not Like Punishment Defined How and When Punishment “Works1* The Problem of Concurrent Reinforcement Conditions Needed for Punishment to Permanently Suppress Behavior Undesirabk Effects ofPunishment Effects of Punishment on the Behavior of Students Punished Escape and Avoidance as Effects of Punishment Counter Aggression as a By-Product of Punishment Effects of Punishment on the Behavior of Onlooking Students Effects of Punishment on the Behavior of the Person Administering Punishment Decreasing Behavior through Extinction When Ignoring
Inappropriate Behavior Will “Work” 45 45 46 47 47 48 48 48 48 49 49 50 50 51 51 51 52 52 52 53 54 57 59 59 59 60 60 61 61 62 62 63 64 64 65 65 67 67 68 68
xii · Contents Example: Eliminating Insulting Comments through Extinction Alternatives to Punishment: Extinction Plus Reducing the Likelihood ofBehavior Problems through Building Alternative Behaviors Direct Instruction as a Way to Reduce Behavior Problems through Teaching How to Talk Effectively Prevention of Discipline Problems through Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports When Punitive “Discipline” Is Needed Ownership: Involving Students in Setting Rules of Conduct Handling Serious Behavior Problems Handling Situations that Have to Be Stopped NOW Offering Alternatives When Trouble Looms Example: Cheating at a University When to Seek Help Functional Behavioral Assessment and Analysis Guidelines for Responsible Conduct When Using Punishment Reducing Behavior through Differential Reinforcement Procedures Turning Negatives into Positives Example: Getting Teenagers to Stop Littering in a Common Room Example: Bonuses Instead of Fines What to Do about Sybil: Handling Non-Compliance Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes Chapters Setting Goals to Improve Achievement Overview Objectives Teachers’Concerns Stating Objectives in Terms of Student Actions Improving on “Paying Attention” as a Goal Why “Tasks Completed” Ts a Better Goal than “Time on Task” Working Smarter, Not Longer BehavioralObjectives for Academic Goals Tests as Objectives Planning Ahead: Setting Goah before School Begins State-Mandated Instructional Goals and Standards Fluency: The Missing Criterion Benefits of Fluency How Fluency Aids Creativity How to Write Clear Behavioral Objectives State
Objectives in Terms of Behavior to Build Specify Actions You Can Count Include the General Difficulty Level of Problems or Materials Used 68 69 70 70 71 72 72 73 73 73 73 74 74 75 76 77 77 77 77 78 78 84 86 86 86 87 87 88 88 88 88 89 89 89 90 90 91 91 91 92 92
Contents · хШ Set Standards for Mastery 92 Include Fluency Standards Where Needed 93 Avoid Redundancy in Your Lists of Objectives 94 “Covering” Content Versus Teaching Well 94 Worthwhile Objectives and Performance Domains 94 Objectives for Verbally-Governed and Event-Governed Behavior 95 Writing Objectives from Test Items or Other Evaluation Procedures 96 Matching Objectives with Evaluations 97 Objectives for Social Behavior 98 Summary 99 Exercises with Sample Answers 100 Notes 104 Chapter 6 Improving Sensitivity to Progress: Recording and Graphing Overview Objectives Why Measure? Measurement as a “Reality Check” Example: Misjudging the Effect of a Treatment for a Kindergarten Student s Pinching Judgments about Academic Progress Measuring to Evaluate Your Own Effectiveness What to Measure: Properties ofBehavior Rate of Behavior (Count per Unit of Time) Duration of Behavior Latency Example of Improving Latency: Reducing Time to Start Working Force and Magnitude Form of Behavior or Products of Behavior Combining Properties of Behavior for Measurement: Rating Scales Criterion-Referenced Measurement Norm-Referenced Measurement Reliability, Accuracy, and Validity ofMeasurement Reliability of Measurement Interobserver Agreement Accuracy of Measurement Measurement Validity Graphing to Show Change Revealing Details of Progress The “Gee Whiz” Graph Example: Using Graphs to Motivate Composition in a Second Grade Feedback on Teaching Effectiveness for Improving Instruction 106 106 106 107 107 107 108 108 109 109 109 110 110 111 111 111 112 112 113 113 113 113 114 115 115 116 117 118
xiv · Contents Chapter 7 Graphing Formats Bar Graphs for Contrast or Category Comparisons Line Graphs for Progress Cumulative Records Percentage Graphs: Their Uses and Limitations Number Graphs (Count without Time) Rate Graphs Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes 119 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 125 130 Teaching Basic Skills to Mastery with Precision Teaching Overview Objectives Definition ofFluency Benefits ofFluent Performance The Needfor More Efficient Practice Fluency and Creativity Precision Teaching in Action Example: A Teacher Starts Precision Teaching in A High School Algebra Class Steps in Precision Teaching Step One- Pinpoint: First Things First, One at a Time Designing ¿terases or Worksheets for Your Pinpointed Behavior Pinpoints for Improving Quality or Precision Step Two - Part One: Recording Rate Calculating Rate of Behavior (Called “Frequency” by Precision Teachers) Removing Restrictions over Performahce: Ceilings over Measuring Rate Example: A Fifth Grader Hits a Ceiling Step Two - Part Two: Charting on the Standard Celeration Chart (SCC) Illustration: Graphing the Performance of Stock Prices to Show Percent of Change The Y-Axes of the Standard Celeration Chart The Standard Celeration Chart as an Equalizer Example: Mr. Meier’s Charts Highlight Ratios of Improvement The X-Axis of the Standard Celeration Chart Floors that Limit the Area of the Standard Celeration Chart You Can See Multiple Timings on the Standard Celeration Chart Celeration: Tracking Progress Drawing Celeration Lines Using Celeration to Predict Progress Technical Features of the
Standard Celeration Chart Advantages §f the Standard Celeration Chart 131 131 131 132 132 132 134 134 134 136 136 136 137 137 137 138 139 139 140 141 141 141 142 144 144 145 145 146 147 147
Contents * Chapter 8 ХУ A Simplified Chart for One-Minute Timings Introducing Students to the Standard Celeration Chart Behavior Change Pictures: Reading Patterns of Celerations Step Three: Change Step Four: Try, Try Again The Sakajawea Project: Results of School- Wide Precision Teaching Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes 147 148 148 149 150 150 150 151 155 Shaping New Behavior: Selection by Postcedents Overview Objectives Origins of Shaping Selection by Consequences: Two-Term Free Operant” Shaping Shaping and Variability What is Strengthened during Shaping? Difficulties in Shaping ֊ Whose Mistakes are They? The Lack of Punishment or “Correction” in Two-Term Shaping Disadvantages of Lures Two-Term Shaping in Daily Life Shaping the Beginning Talking in a Baby Example: The Importance of Timing of Attention in the Development of Talking Two-Term Shaping in the Classroom What Works as Reinforcement in the Classroom Example: Two-Term Shaping of Going to Desks in a Third Grade: “She’s Timing Us.” Shaping Individual Behavior with Conditioned Reinforcers Adjusting to Your Students’Initial Behavior Creating Conditioned Reinforcers Initial Steps: Setting One Property to Reinforce at a Time Pacing and Its Effects TAG Teaching with Conditioned Reinforcers in a Classroom Full of Students Adjusting according to Moment to Moment Progress Keeping Your Teaching Individualized and Flexible Shaping Paying Attention Shaping of Complex Academic Performance Programmed Instruction Shaping Principles in Instructional Design Increasing Active Responding in the Classroom Low Rates of
Responding When Introducing New Material Increasing Responding with Lecture Fill-In Sheets/Guided Notes Increasing Oral Responding with Direct Instruction Improving Teaching within the Lecture Format 156 156 156 157 158 159 159 160 161 161 161 162 162 163 163 163 165 165 165 166 167 167 167 168 168 168 169 171 171 172 173 173 176
xvi · Contents Adding a Mastery Criterion for Progression Additional Successive Approximation Techniques Selecting Among Alternatives Before Naming Providing High-Contrast Examples before Moving to Finer Distinctions Increasing the Number of Parts to Consider Reversing the Sequencing of Steps: Backward Chaining Starting with Prompts and Then Withdrawing Them Timing of Prompts Delayed Prompting Why to Reduce the Need for Correction Procedures Fading and Vanishing Prompts Good Shaping: Errorless Learning Example: Responding Only to Positives: A Suzuki Story What If Your Students Make Mistakes? Improving on Discrete Trial Teaching (DTT) by Adding Fluency AddingHexibility to the Sequencing of Tasks Eliminating the Aversiveness of “Correction” Procedures Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes Chapter 9 The Role of Antecedents in Teaching Concepts and Understanding Overview Objectives Seat Work, Labs, and Exercises Getting the “Right” Answerfor the Wrong Reason Inappropriate Cueing by Pictures Inappropriate Antecedent Control in Math Word Problems Faulty Cueing Through Position The Blackout Technique: A Toolfor Evaluating Instructional Design _____ Observing Student Behavior to Find Faulty Cueing What Is Neededfor Understanding? Grammatical “Give-Away” Cues: Jabberwock Comprehension Generalization (Abo Called Induction) Discrimination Why “Voluntary” and “Involuntary” Is an Inaccurate Distinction that Causes Problems Simple Discrimination Training Extinction and Punishment in Discrimination Training The Role of Evocative Stimuli in Chains of Behavior Example: Dual Functions
of Stimuli in Backward Chaining of Writing .the Letter Ќ 178 178 179 179 181 181 182 183 183 183 184 184 184 185 185 186 186 186 188 191 193 193 194 194 194 195 196 197 198 200 201 201 203 203 204 204 205 205 205 206
Contents · xvii “Understanding” Concepts and Principles Introducing a New Concept Abstract Concepts Selecting Examples and Non-Examples for Teaching Concepts and Principles Example: Teaching the Concept of Area Example: Teaching the Concept of Fractions Example: Teaching the Concept of Mammal Examples and Non-Examples in the Humanities Properties through Which Generalization Occurs in the Classroom Physical Similarity: Modeling for Generalization Generalization through Relationship Equivalence Relations (Stimulus Equivalence) Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes Chapter 10 Verbal Behavior: Teaching Language Skills Overview Objectives Why Did Skinner Write a Whole Book about Verbal Behavior? What is Unique about Skinner’s Analysis? A Functional Analysis The Primary Contingencies over Verbal Behavior The Mand The Tact Control by Verbal Stimuli The Mand and Its Importance in Teaching Formal Requirements for the Mand Teaching Manding to Replace Problem Behavior Deprivation asan Establishing Operation (EO) Aversive Stimulation as an Establishing Operation Establishing Operations: Making a Reinforcer More Salient or Significant Special Characteristics of the Mand The Tact: Responding to Features of One’s Immediate World Contingencies over the Tact Research on the Independence of Mands and Tacts Special Characteristics of the Tact Control by Prior Verbal Stimuli Point-to-Point Correspondence Point-to-Point Correspondence in the Same Medium Point-to-Point Correspondence in Different Media Non Point-to-Point Correspondence: The Intraverbal (Also Called “Sequelic”). Joint
Control over Verbal Behavior Audience Control 207 207 208 209 209 210 210 210 210 210 211 212 213 214 217 219 219 219 220 220 221 221 222 222 222 224 224 224 225 225 226 227 227 228 228 228 229 231 232 232 232 233 233
xviii · Contents Talking When an Audience Is Not Present The Autoclitic Grammar as Autoclitic Behavior Teaching Reading Comprehension What is Reading with Understanding? Grades Four On: The Role of Intraverbal Behavior in Comprehension Teaching Creative Writing Example: Communicating through Writing in a Second Grade Example: Communicating through Writing in a Sixth Grade Class Example: Improving Essay Writing in a College Course Movingfrom Instructional Contingencies to Natural” Contingencies Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes Chapter 11 Indusion Overview Objectives Inclusion in the General Education Environment Four Types of Inclusive Practices Collaborating with Others The Special Education Teacher Classroom Assistants Related Services Assessment of Students with Special Needs Verbal Skills Assessment The Verbal Milestones Assessment Transition Assessment Academic Assessment Assessing Social Skills Joint Attention Perspective-Taking Problem Behavior Assessment Functional Analysis Behavior Support Plans Earning Instructional Control Control Access to Your Students’ Reinforcers Make Interactions Fun Follow through with Instructional Demands Reinforce Cooperative Actions Fade in Instructional Requirements Know the Student’s Establishing Operations and Your Own Teaching Procedures 234 234 234 235 235 238 239 240 240 240 242 242 243 245 248 248 248 249 249 250 250 251 251 251 251 252 252 254 254 255 255 256 257 258 258 259 259 259 260 260 260 260
Contents · xix Discrete Trial Instruction Errorless Learning Group Contingencies Example: Implementing the Group Contingency in a General Education Classroom Goah Selecting Goals Data Collection Self-Management through Self-Monitoring Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes 261 261 261 Chapter 12 Beyond Testing: Reaching the Ultimate Goals of Education Overview Objectives Curiosity and Motivation for Continued Learning Outside School Top-Down Systems: Control by Authority Figures Bottom-Up Control: Consequences Coming from Students’ Own Actions Why the Sources of Consequences Matter for the Future Names for “Bottom-Up” Control: “Intrinsic,” “Natural,” and “Automatic” Rewards or Reinforcement Automatic Reinforcement, Intrinsic Rewards, and Natural Consequences Creating New “Natural,” “Intrinsic,” or “Automatic” Reinforcers Incorporation of “Natural,” Consequences into Teaching through Active Participation Bringing Daily Life into the Classroom Example: Simulating Personal Finances after Graduation Adding “Easy” or “Fun” Problems to Worksheets Progress as a “Natural” Consequence of Practice Where New Interests Come From Pairing of Others’Behavior with Reinforcing or Aversive Events Using Approval, Grades, and Other Teacher-Added Consequences to Create “Automatic Reinforcement” Teacher Approval or Praise The Role of Schedules of Reinforcement in Producing Persistence and “Motivation” Using Grades Wisely Do You Have to Grade Everything? Use and Misuse of Tangible Rewards, Activities, and Privileges Tangible Rewards in Behavioral Contracts Tangible Rewards Versus Bribes
Timing of Offering of Rewards Activities and Privileges as Consequences for Behavior 269 269 269 270 270 .4 262 263 263 264 264 264 265 268 271 272 273 273 273 274 274 274 275 276 276 277 279 279 279 281 281 282 282 282 282 283
xx · Contents Research on “Extrinsic” versus “Intrinsic”Rewards The Typical Format for Research on the Effect of “Extrinsic Rewards” Contingencies Determine Effects Creative Behavior and Creative Problem-Solving Fluency as One Measure of Creative Behavior Removing Punitive Contingencies over Unique Actions The Importance of Basic Skills in Creating Prompting Unique Responses Creative Problem-Solving Can Creativity Be Taught? Social Behavior Self-Control and Anger Management Self-Management for Long-Term Benefits “Reinforcing” Oneself as a Self-Management Technique Recording Progress on One’s Own Behavior Self-Esteem Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes 284 284 284 285 286 286 286 287 288 288 289 290 290 292 292 292 292 293 295 Glossary 297 Bibliography 310 Index 320
Behavior Analysis for Effective Teaching is a clear, comprehensive book on ♦he integration of non-aversive behavior analysis principles into classrooms and other school settings. Carefully revised and updated throughout, this third edition includes new content on precision teaching and a new chapter on how teachers can provide appropriate education for students with special disabilities who are included in their classrooms. Focused on merging behavior management with effective student instruction and illustrated with examples from real teachers experiences, the book is an ideal primary resource for undergraduate and graduate courses in teacher education, special education, school psychology, and school counseling, as well as for preparation toward the BACB Credentialing Exam.
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CONTENTS List of Figures xxi List of Tables xxiv Preface xxvi Acknowledgements xxvii To the Instructor and To the Student xxviii Chapter 1 Adding Science to the Art of Teaching Overview Objectives The Importance of Teachers What Teaching Is and Is Not Preliminary Definition of Teaching The Science 'ofBehavior Two Kinds of Behavior Operant Behavior and Operant Conditioning Contingencies of Reinforcement Why Sdence Is Needed: The Training of Elephants From Punishing Students to Reinforcing Their Actions Behavior Analysis in Action Example: Tag Teaching Gymnastics Example: Replacing Loud Talking with Writing in a Second Grade Example: Using Positive Procedures Instead of Paddling to Reduce Disruptive Behavior ix 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 8 8 9 9 10 11 Ψ
x · Contents Example: Increasing High School Attendance Example: Improving Note-Taking in a Large College Lecture Class Features ofBehavior Analysis Combining Art with Science Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes 12 13 13 14 15 16 Chapter 2 Finding the “Causes” of Behavior Overview Objectives What Is a “Cause” ? Functional Relations Dependent and Independent Variables in Explanation Explanatory Fictions: “Explanations” that Do Not Explain A University Example of Reasons for Student Behavior Finding the Truth of Proposed “Causes” “Causes” that Do Not Help in Teaching Why Brain Activity Does Not Explain Classroom Behavior Why Developmental Stages Do Not Explain Behavior Why Time Is Not Useful for Explaining Behavior Why Future Goals and Expectations are Not Helpful as Causes Genetic Endowment and Its Role in Behavior Which Environment as a Cause? Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes 18 18 18 19 20 21 22 24 24 25 25 26 26 27 27 28 29 29 33 Chapter 3 How We Learn Overview Objectives What We Mean by “Learning” Two Kinds of Learning: Respondent and Operant Conditioning Respondent Conditioning Respondents in the Classroom Operant Conditioning The Discovery of Operant Conditioning The Cumulative Record Equipment Failure The Study of Relationships^ Not Rats 34 34 34 35 35 35 36 38 38 40 40 41 42 42 43 44 44 Operant Behavior in the Classroom The Two-Term Contingency Kinds of Consequences Reinforcement 12
Contents · xi Can Reinforcement Fail to Work? The Difference between Reinforcement and Rewards Example: Unplanned Reinforcement in a First Grade Class: The “Criticism Trap” Example: Timing the End of a College Lecture to Improve Behavior Positive and Negative Reinforcers Aversive Control: Punishment Extinction and Intermittent Reinforcement Timing of Reinforcement Extinction Extinction Bursts Example: Extinction Binst in a Fifth Grader The Difference between Extinction and Forgetting The Three-Term Contingency -The Rok ofAntecedents or Context Differences between Antecedent Control in Respondent and Operant Conditioning Implicationsfor Teaching Student Activity Shaping New Skills through Selecting the Best of Current Performance Next Step Determined by Current Student Performance The Need for Fluent Performance Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes Chapter 4 Decreasing Behavior Overview Objectives Ms. Rennix’s Story Control through Punishment in America's Schools: A Tradition It Is Time to Replace Why People Punish Behavior They Do Not Like Punishment Defined How and When Punishment “Works1* The Problem of Concurrent Reinforcement Conditions Needed for Punishment to Permanently Suppress Behavior Undesirabk Effects ofPunishment Effects of Punishment on the Behavior of Students Punished Escape and Avoidance as Effects of Punishment Counter Aggression as a By-Product of Punishment Effects of Punishment on the Behavior of Onlooking Students Effects of Punishment on the Behavior of the Person Administering Punishment Decreasing Behavior through Extinction When Ignoring
Inappropriate Behavior Will “Work” 45 45 46 47 47 48 48 48 48 49 49 50 50 51 51 51 52 52 52 53 54 57 59 59 59 60 60 61 61 62 62 63 64 64 65 65 67 67 68 68
xii · Contents Example: Eliminating Insulting Comments through Extinction Alternatives to Punishment: Extinction Plus Reducing the Likelihood ofBehavior Problems through Building Alternative Behaviors Direct Instruction as a Way to Reduce Behavior Problems through Teaching How to Talk Effectively Prevention of Discipline Problems through Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports When Punitive “Discipline” Is Needed Ownership: Involving Students in Setting Rules of Conduct Handling Serious Behavior Problems Handling Situations that Have to Be Stopped NOW Offering Alternatives When Trouble Looms Example: Cheating at a University When to Seek Help Functional Behavioral Assessment and Analysis Guidelines for Responsible Conduct When Using Punishment Reducing Behavior through Differential Reinforcement Procedures Turning Negatives into Positives Example: Getting Teenagers to Stop Littering in a Common Room Example: Bonuses Instead of Fines What to Do about Sybil: Handling Non-Compliance Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes Chapters Setting Goals to Improve Achievement Overview Objectives Teachers’Concerns Stating Objectives in Terms of Student Actions Improving on “Paying Attention” as a Goal Why “Tasks Completed” Ts a Better Goal than “Time on Task” Working Smarter, Not Longer BehavioralObjectives for Academic Goals Tests as Objectives Planning Ahead: Setting Goah before School Begins State-Mandated Instructional Goals and Standards Fluency: The Missing Criterion Benefits of Fluency \ How Fluency Aids Creativity How to Write Clear Behavioral Objectives State
Objectives in Terms of Behavior to Build Specify Actions You Can Count Include the General Difficulty Level of Problems or Materials Used 68 69 70 70 71 72 72 73 73 73 73 74 74 75 76 77 77 77 77 78 78 84 86 86 86 87 87 88 88 88 88 89 89 89 90 90 91 91 91 92 92
Contents · хШ Set Standards for Mastery 92 Include Fluency Standards Where Needed 93 Avoid Redundancy in Your Lists of Objectives 94 “Covering” Content Versus Teaching Well 94 Worthwhile Objectives and Performance Domains 94 Objectives for Verbally-Governed and Event-Governed Behavior 95 Writing Objectives from Test Items or Other Evaluation Procedures 96 Matching Objectives with Evaluations 97 Objectives for Social Behavior 98 Summary 99 Exercises with Sample Answers 100 Notes 104 Chapter 6 Improving Sensitivity to Progress: Recording and Graphing Overview Objectives Why Measure? Measurement as a “Reality Check” Example: Misjudging the Effect of a Treatment for a Kindergarten Student's Pinching Judgments about Academic Progress Measuring to Evaluate Your Own Effectiveness What to Measure: Properties ofBehavior Rate of Behavior (Count per Unit of Time) Duration of Behavior Latency Example of Improving Latency: Reducing Time to Start Working Force and Magnitude Form of Behavior or Products of Behavior Combining Properties of Behavior for Measurement: Rating Scales Criterion-Referenced Measurement Norm-Referenced Measurement Reliability, Accuracy, and Validity ofMeasurement Reliability of Measurement Interobserver Agreement Accuracy of Measurement Measurement Validity Graphing to Show Change Revealing Details of Progress The “Gee Whiz” Graph Example: Using Graphs to Motivate Composition in a Second Grade Feedback on Teaching Effectiveness for Improving Instruction 106 106 106 107 107 107 108 108 109 109 109 110 110 111 111 111 112 112 113 113 113 113 114 115 115 116 117 118
xiv · Contents Chapter 7 Graphing Formats Bar Graphs for Contrast or Category Comparisons Line Graphs for Progress Cumulative Records Percentage Graphs: Their Uses and Limitations Number Graphs (Count without Time) Rate Graphs Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes 119 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 125 130 Teaching Basic Skills to Mastery with Precision Teaching Overview Objectives Definition ofFluency Benefits ofFluent Performance The Needfor More Efficient Practice Fluency and Creativity Precision Teaching in Action Example: A Teacher Starts Precision Teaching in A High School Algebra Class Steps in Precision Teaching Step One- Pinpoint: First Things First, One at a Time Designing ¿terases or Worksheets for Your Pinpointed Behavior Pinpoints for Improving Quality or Precision Step Two - Part One: Recording Rate Calculating Rate of Behavior (Called “Frequency” by Precision Teachers) Removing Restrictions over Performahce: Ceilings over Measuring Rate Example: A Fifth Grader Hits a Ceiling Step Two - Part Two: Charting on the Standard Celeration Chart (SCC) Illustration: Graphing the Performance of Stock Prices to Show Percent of Change The Y-Axes of the Standard Celeration Chart The Standard Celeration Chart as an Equalizer Example: Mr. Meier’s Charts Highlight Ratios of Improvement The X-Axis of the Standard Celeration Chart Floors that Limit the Area of the Standard Celeration Chart You Can See \ Multiple Timings on the Standard Celeration Chart Celeration: Tracking Progress Drawing Celeration Lines Using Celeration to Predict Progress Technical Features of the
Standard Celeration Chart Advantages §f the Standard Celeration Chart 131 131 131 132 132 132 134 134 134 136 136 136 137 137 137 138 139 139 140 141 141 141 142 144 144 145 145 146 147 147
Contents * Chapter 8 ХУ A Simplified Chart for One-Minute Timings Introducing Students to the Standard Celeration Chart Behavior Change Pictures: Reading Patterns of Celerations Step Three: Change Step Four: Try, Try Again The Sakajawea Project: Results of School- Wide Precision Teaching Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes 147 148 148 149 150 150 150 151 155 Shaping New Behavior: Selection by Postcedents Overview Objectives Origins of Shaping Selection by Consequences: Two-Term "Free Operant” Shaping Shaping and Variability What is Strengthened during Shaping? Difficulties in Shaping ֊ Whose Mistakes are They? The Lack of Punishment or “Correction” in Two-Term Shaping Disadvantages of Lures Two-Term Shaping in Daily Life Shaping the Beginning Talking in a Baby Example: The Importance of Timing of Attention in the Development of Talking Two-Term Shaping in the Classroom What Works as Reinforcement in the Classroom Example: Two-Term Shaping of Going to Desks in a Third Grade: “She’s Timing Us.” Shaping Individual Behavior with Conditioned Reinforcers Adjusting to Your Students’Initial Behavior Creating Conditioned Reinforcers Initial Steps: Setting One Property to Reinforce at a Time Pacing and Its Effects TAG Teaching with Conditioned Reinforcers in a Classroom Full of Students Adjusting according to Moment to Moment Progress Keeping Your Teaching Individualized and Flexible Shaping Paying Attention Shaping of Complex Academic Performance Programmed Instruction Shaping Principles in Instructional Design Increasing Active Responding in the Classroom Low Rates of
Responding When Introducing New Material Increasing Responding with Lecture Fill-In Sheets/Guided Notes Increasing Oral Responding with Direct Instruction Improving Teaching within the Lecture Format 156 156 156 157 158 159 159 160 161 161 161 162 162 163 163 163 165 165 165 166 167 167 167 168 168 168 169 171 171 172 173 173 176
xvi · Contents Adding a Mastery Criterion for Progression Additional Successive Approximation Techniques Selecting Among Alternatives Before Naming Providing High-Contrast Examples before Moving to Finer Distinctions Increasing the Number of Parts to Consider Reversing the Sequencing of Steps: Backward Chaining Starting with Prompts and Then Withdrawing Them Timing of Prompts Delayed Prompting Why to Reduce the Need for Correction Procedures Fading and Vanishing Prompts Good Shaping: Errorless Learning Example: Responding Only to Positives: A Suzuki Story What If Your Students Make Mistakes? Improving on Discrete Trial Teaching (DTT) by Adding Fluency AddingHexibility to the Sequencing of Tasks Eliminating the Aversiveness of “Correction” Procedures Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes Chapter 9 The Role of Antecedents in Teaching Concepts and Understanding Overview Objectives Seat Work, Labs, and Exercises Getting the “Right” Answerfor the Wrong Reason Inappropriate Cueing by Pictures Inappropriate Antecedent Control in Math Word Problems Faulty Cueing Through Position The Blackout Technique: A Toolfor Evaluating Instructional Design _ Observing Student Behavior to Find Faulty Cueing What Is Neededfor Understanding? Grammatical “Give-Away” Cues: Jabberwock Comprehension Generalization (Abo Called Induction) Discrimination Why “Voluntary” and “Involuntary” Is an Inaccurate Distinction that Causes Problems Simple Discrimination Training Extinction and Punishment in Discrimination Training The Role of Evocative Stimuli in Chains of Behavior Example: Dual Functions
of Stimuli in Backward Chaining of Writing .the Letter Ќ 178 178 179 179 181 181 182 183 183 183 184 184 184 185 185 186 186 186 188 191 193 193 194 194 194 195 196 197 198 200 201 201 203 203 204 204 205 205 205 206
Contents · xvii “Understanding” Concepts and Principles Introducing a New Concept Abstract Concepts Selecting Examples and Non-Examples for Teaching Concepts and Principles Example: Teaching the Concept of Area Example: Teaching the Concept of Fractions Example: Teaching the Concept of Mammal Examples and Non-Examples in the Humanities Properties through Which Generalization Occurs in the Classroom Physical Similarity: Modeling for Generalization Generalization through Relationship Equivalence Relations (Stimulus Equivalence) Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes Chapter 10 Verbal Behavior: Teaching Language Skills Overview Objectives Why Did Skinner Write a Whole Book about Verbal Behavior? What is Unique about Skinner’s Analysis? A Functional Analysis The Primary Contingencies over Verbal Behavior The Mand The Tact Control by Verbal Stimuli The Mand and Its Importance in Teaching Formal Requirements for the Mand Teaching Manding to Replace Problem Behavior Deprivation asan Establishing Operation (EO) Aversive Stimulation as an Establishing Operation Establishing Operations: Making a Reinforcer More Salient or Significant Special Characteristics of the Mand The Tact: Responding to Features of One’s Immediate World Contingencies over the Tact Research on the Independence of Mands and Tacts Special Characteristics of the Tact Control by Prior Verbal Stimuli Point-to-Point Correspondence Point-to-Point Correspondence in the Same Medium Point-to-Point Correspondence in Different Media Non Point-to-Point Correspondence: The Intraverbal (Also Called “Sequelic”). Joint
Control over Verbal Behavior Audience Control 207 207 208 209 209 210 210 210 210 210 211 212 213 214 217 219 219 219 220 220 221 221 222 222 222 224 224 224 225 225 226 227 227 228 228 228 229 231 232 232 232 233 233
xviii · Contents Talking When an Audience Is Not Present The Autoclitic Grammar as Autoclitic Behavior Teaching Reading Comprehension What is Reading with Understanding? Grades Four On: The Role of Intraverbal Behavior in Comprehension Teaching Creative Writing Example: Communicating through Writing in a Second Grade Example: Communicating through Writing in a Sixth Grade Class Example: Improving Essay Writing in a College Course Movingfrom Instructional Contingencies to "Natural” Contingencies Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes Chapter 11 Indusion Overview Objectives Inclusion in the General Education Environment Four Types of Inclusive Practices Collaborating with Others The Special Education Teacher Classroom Assistants Related Services Assessment of Students with Special Needs Verbal Skills Assessment The Verbal Milestones Assessment Transition Assessment Academic Assessment Assessing Social Skills Joint Attention Perspective-Taking Problem Behavior Assessment Functional Analysis Behavior Support Plans Earning Instructional Control Control Access to Your Students’ Reinforcers Make Interactions Fun Follow through with Instructional Demands Reinforce Cooperative Actions Fade in Instructional Requirements Know the Student’s Establishing Operations and Your Own Teaching Procedures 234 234 234 235 235 238 239 240 240 240 242 242 243 245 248 248 248 249 249 250 250 251 251 251 251 252 252 254 254 255 255 256 257 258 258 259 259 259 260 260 260 260
Contents · xix Discrete Trial Instruction Errorless Learning Group Contingencies Example: Implementing the Group Contingency in a General Education Classroom Goah Selecting Goals Data Collection Self-Management through Self-Monitoring Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes 261 261 261 Chapter 12 Beyond Testing: Reaching the Ultimate Goals of Education Overview Objectives Curiosity and Motivation for Continued Learning Outside School Top-Down Systems: Control by Authority Figures Bottom-Up Control: Consequences Coming from Students’ Own Actions Why the Sources of Consequences Matter for the Future Names for “Bottom-Up” Control: “Intrinsic,” “Natural,” and “Automatic” Rewards or Reinforcement Automatic Reinforcement, Intrinsic Rewards, and Natural Consequences Creating New “Natural,” “Intrinsic,” or “Automatic” Reinforcers Incorporation of “Natural,” Consequences into Teaching through Active Participation Bringing Daily Life into the Classroom Example: Simulating Personal Finances after Graduation Adding “Easy” or “Fun” Problems to Worksheets Progress as a “Natural” Consequence of Practice Where New Interests Come From Pairing of Others’Behavior with Reinforcing or Aversive Events Using Approval, Grades, and Other Teacher-Added Consequences to Create “Automatic Reinforcement” Teacher Approval or Praise The Role of Schedules of Reinforcement in Producing Persistence and “Motivation” Using Grades Wisely Do You Have to Grade Everything? Use and Misuse of Tangible Rewards, Activities, and Privileges Tangible Rewards in Behavioral Contracts Tangible Rewards Versus Bribes
Timing of Offering of Rewards Activities and Privileges as Consequences for Behavior 269 269 269 270 270 .4 262 263 263 264 264 264 265 268 271 272 273 273 273 274 274 274 275 276 276 277 279 279 279 281 281 282 282 282 282 283
xx · Contents Research on “Extrinsic” versus “Intrinsic”Rewards The Typical Format for Research on the Effect of “Extrinsic Rewards” Contingencies Determine Effects Creative Behavior and Creative Problem-Solving Fluency as One Measure of Creative Behavior Removing Punitive Contingencies over Unique Actions The Importance of Basic Skills in Creating Prompting Unique Responses Creative Problem-Solving Can Creativity Be Taught? Social Behavior Self-Control and Anger Management Self-Management for Long-Term Benefits “Reinforcing” Oneself as a Self-Management Technique Recording Progress on One’s Own Behavior Self-Esteem Summary Exercises with Sample Answers Notes 284 284 284 285 286 286 286 287 288 288 289 290 290 292 292 292 292 293 295 Glossary 297 Bibliography 310 Index 320
Behavior Analysis for Effective Teaching is a clear, comprehensive book on ♦he integration of non-aversive behavior analysis principles into classrooms and other school settings. Carefully revised and updated throughout, this third edition includes new content on precision teaching and a new chapter on how teachers can provide appropriate education for students with special disabilities who are included in their classrooms. Focused on merging behavior management with effective student instruction and illustrated with examples from real teachers' experiences, the book is an ideal primary resource for undergraduate and graduate courses in teacher education, special education, school psychology, and school counseling, as well as for preparation toward the BACB Credentialing Exam. |
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