Greek democracy and the Junta: regime crisis and the failed transition of 1973
"More than half a century after the imposition of the dictatorship of the Colonels in Greece, a number of questions related to its nature, development and demise remains understudied and feebly answered. One of the most interesting -yet understudied- incidents of the dictatorship is its ill-fat...
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| Format: | Abschlussarbeit Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
London ; New York ; Oxford ; New Delhi ; Sydney
I.B. Tauris
2020
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| Ausgabe: | First edition |
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| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Literaturverzeichnis Register // Gemischte Register |
| Zusammenfassung: | "More than half a century after the imposition of the dictatorship of the Colonels in Greece, a number of questions related to its nature, development and demise remains understudied and feebly answered. One of the most interesting -yet understudied- incidents of the dictatorship is its ill-fated self-transformation attempt into some form of civilian rule in 1973: the so-called 'Markezinis experiment', after the politician who assumed the task of heading the transition government and lead to elections. The whole venture lasted a mere eight weeks, faced heavy opposition from both the opposition elites and the civil society and eventually collapsed by a military hard-liners' coup. The story of this failed attempt raises a series of questions: what was the nature of the dictatorship of the Colonels, and why did it take it six years to seek some form of civilianisation? Were the intentions of Papadopoulos and Markezinis sincere, and were the politicians of the opposition right to refuse to legitimise the 'experiment'? What was the Polytechnic students' uprising role in the demise of the 'experiment'? Was there an American reaction, and was it the main reason for the collapse of the transition, as Markezinis claimed? The book seeks to address the above questions, and argues that the failure of the 'Markezinis experiment' paved the way for the actual transition of 1974 as it happened. The research is supported by foreign (British and American) archival resources, as well as by private archives and personal interviews. The book concludes by briefly seeking to trace some potential alternative paths for the failed self- transformation attempt, and by accounting for the long-term consequences of the failure of the 'Markezinis experiment'."--Bloomsbury Publishing |
| Beschreibung: | xii, 262 Seiten |
| ISBN: | 9781788313919 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Greek democracy and the Junta |b regime crisis and the failed transition of 1973 |c by Ioannis Tzortzis |
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| 520 | |a "More than half a century after the imposition of the dictatorship of the Colonels in Greece, a number of questions related to its nature, development and demise remains understudied and feebly answered. One of the most interesting -yet understudied- incidents of the dictatorship is its ill-fated self-transformation attempt into some form of civilian rule in 1973: the so-called 'Markezinis experiment', after the politician who assumed the task of heading the transition government and lead to elections. The whole venture lasted a mere eight weeks, faced heavy opposition from both the opposition elites and the civil society and eventually collapsed by a military hard-liners' coup. The story of this failed attempt raises a series of questions: what was the nature of the dictatorship of the Colonels, and why did it take it six years to seek some form of civilianisation? Were the intentions of Papadopoulos and Markezinis sincere, and were the politicians of the opposition right to refuse to legitimise the 'experiment'? What was the Polytechnic students' uprising role in the demise of the 'experiment'? Was there an American reaction, and was it the main reason for the collapse of the transition, as Markezinis claimed? The book seeks to address the above questions, and argues that the failure of the 'Markezinis experiment' paved the way for the actual transition of 1974 as it happened. The research is supported by foreign (British and American) archival resources, as well as by private archives and personal interviews. The book concludes by briefly seeking to trace some potential alternative paths for the failed self- transformation attempt, and by accounting for the long-term consequences of the failure of the 'Markezinis experiment'."--Bloomsbury Publishing | ||
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Contents Acknowledgements Chronology of Events 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Introduction: Why did the Junta not end in 1973? From ‘Difficult Democracy to the ‘Wrong Coup’: Greece 1949-67 ‘Greece of Christian Greeks’: The Dictatorship of 21 April 1967 The Early Liberalization, January-September 1973 The ‘Unfinished Revolution’ and the ‘Castrated Parliament’: The Elites and the ‘Experiment’ Fortuna and the ‘Experiment’: Civil Society and the Polytechnic Events The Americans Yet Again? The International Factor and the ‘Experiment’ Concluding Thoughts: The ‘Markezinis Experiment’ between Oblivion and Myth Notes Bibliography Index vi viii 1 13 31 55 77 115 143 171 191 235 249
Bibliography Primary sources Interviews (in alphabetical order) Grigoris Farakos, former Secretary General of the KKE, Georgios Georgalas, regime Under-Secretary of Crete and confidant of Papadopoulos. Leonidas Kyrkos, former Secretary General of the KKE-es. Nikolaos Makarezos, regime leader. Achilleas Mitsos, Professor of the Aegean University of Greece, member of ‘Rigas Feraros’ KKE of the Interior youth. Stylianos Pattakos, regime leader. Georgios Rallis, minister in the Karamanlis governments and ex-Prime Minister of Greece. Ioannis Varvitsiotis, minister in the Karamanlis governments. Spyros Zournatzis, Markezinis’ government spokesman. Greek Newspapers and Magazines Akropolis Eleftheros Kosmos Epikaira Kathimerini Vradyni Private Archives Kyrkoss archive Markezinis’ notes, Markezinis’ archive, Athens: Etaireia ton Filon tou Laou Zournatzis’ archive ‘Voice of Truth’ KKE Radio broadcast transcripts, Farakos’ archive
236 Bibliography Public archives UK Foreign Office, the National Archives (in date order) FCO 9/1709,2/1/1973. FCO 9/1711,26/4/1973. FCO 9/1712,20/111973. FCO 9/1713,6/6/1973. FCO 9/1713,15/6/1973. FCO 9/1713,4/8/1973. FCO 9/1714,1/9/1973. FCO 9/1716,6/9/1973. FCO 9/1716,25/10/1973. FCO 9/1716,2/11/1973. FCO 9/1716,8/11/1973. FCO 9/1717,6/12/1973. FCO 9/1717,25/11/1973. FCO 9/1729,1/11/1973. FCO 9/1732,17/9/1973. FCO 9/1732,13/11/1973. FCO 9/1998,11/1/1974. USA FRUS (Foreign Relations of United States) Vol. XXX, GREECE; CYPRUS; TURKEY, 1973-6 (in date order) Memorandum from Acting Secretary of State Rush to President Nixon, 12/6/1973, Ford Library. National Security Adviser, Scowcroft, Daily Work Files. National Intelligence Estimate: Short-Term Prospects in Greece, 19/7/1973. Telegram From the Embassy in Greece to the Department of State, Views of PM Markezinis, 18/11/1973. Telegram from the Embassy in Greece to the Department of State, The Military in Greece: Dominant Political Power at the Crossroads - A Country Team Assessment, 8/2/1974.
Bibliography 237 NARA (National Archives and Records Administration) (in date order) CIA Intelligence Memorandum, Papadopoulos: a Question of Survival, 25/9/1972. CIA Memorandum, Some Alternative to the Papadopoulos Regime, 9/11/1972. Secretary of State to USICNCEUR, Further Reflections on Greek Regimes Proclamation of a Republic, 21/6/1973. Tasca to State Department, Possible US Statement on new GOG, 6/10/1973. Jackson to State Department,‘Makedonia’ Exclusive Interview with Andreas Papandreou, 23/10/1973. Central Intelligence Bulletin, 26/10/1973. Secretary of State to US Embassy in Athens, Resupply to Israel, 26/10/1973. Secretary of State to US Embassy in Moscow, Political Manoeuvres on the Left, 26/10/1973. Jackson to Secretary of State, Reported Statement by ех-PM Karamanlis, 30/10/1973. Embassy in Greece to the Department of State, Greece’s Apparent New Master: Demetrios Ioannides; Some Fears, 26/11/1973. Central Intelligence Bulletin, 27/11/1973. State Department to US Embassy in Tehran, Fall of Papadopoulos, 29/11/1973. Central Intelligence Bulletin, 3/12/1973. State Department to all NATO Capitals, Current Situation in Greece, 5/12/1973.Action Memorandum from the Director of the Policy Planning Staff (Lord) to Secretary of State Kissinger, US Policy Toward Greece, 15/2/1974. Secondary sources Books and chapters Agüero, F. 1995. Soldiers, Civilians and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Alivizatos, N. 1983. Οι πολιτικοί θεσμοί σε κρίση 1922-1974: Όψεις της ελληνικής εμπειρίας ( The Political
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Couloumbis, T, Petropoulos, J. and Psomiades, H. 1986. Foreign Interference in Greek Politics: A Historical Perspective. New York: Pella Publishing Company. Demertzis, N. 1997. Greece in European Political Cultures: Conflict or Convergence? Ed. R. Eatwell. London: Routledge. Dertilis, G. 1977. Κοινωνικός μετασχηματισμός Kat στρατιωτική επέμβαση, 1880-1909 (Social Change and Military Intervention, Greece 1880-1909). Athens: Exandas.
Bibliography 239 Diamantouros, P.-N. 1986.‘Regime change and the prospects for democracy in Greece: 1974-1983’, in G. O’Donnell, P. Schmitter and L. Whitehead (eds), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Prospects for Democracy, Voi. II: Southern Europe. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Di Palma, G. 1990. To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions. Berkeley: University of California Press. Etzioni-Halevy, E. 1993. The Elite Connection. Cambridge: Polity. Featherstone, K. 1987.‘Introduction, in K. Featherstone and D. Katsoudas (eds), Political Change in Greece: Before and After the Colonels, pp. 1-13. London: Croom Helm. Featherstone, K. and Katsoudas, D. (eds). 1987. Political Change in Greece: Before and After the Colonels. London: Croom Helm. Genevoix, M. 1973. The Greece ofKaramanlis or the Difficult Democracy. London: Macmillan. Gill, G. 2000. The Dynamics of Démocratisation. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Gillespie, C. 1990.‘Models of democratic transition in South America: negotiated reform versus democratic rupture’, in D. Ethier (ed.), Democratic Transition and Consolidation in Southern Europe, Latin America and Southeast Asia, pp. 45-72. Basingstoke: Paigrave Macmillan. Goldbloom, M. 1972.‘United States policy in post-war Greece’, in R. Clogg and G. Yannopoulos (eds), Greece under Military Rule, pp. 228-45. London: Seeker and Warburg. Grigoriadis, P. 1975. Ιστορία της δικτατορίας (History of the Dictatorship). Athens: Kapopoulos. Haggard, S. and Kaufmann, R.R. 1995. The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press. Haralambis, D. 1985. Στρατός και πολιτική εξουσία: η δομή της εξουσίας στη μετεμψυλιακή Ελλάδα ( The Army and Political Power: Power Structure in Post-Civil War Greece). Athens: Exandas. Haralambis, D. 1999. Ή δικτατορία ως αποτέλεσμα αντιφάσεων της μετεμφυλιακής δομής του πολιτικού συστήματος και οι αρνητικές της συνέπειες’ (‘The dictatorship as a result of the contradictions of the post-civil war structure of the political system and its negative consequences’), in G. Athanasatou, A. Rigos and S. Seferiadis (eds), Η Δικτατορία 1967-1974 {The Dictatorship 1967-1974). Athens: Kastaniotis. Hatzivassilioiu, E. 2009.‘Αυταπάτες, διλήμματα και η αποτυχία της πολιτικής: Ο στρατός στην πορεία προς τη δικτατορία’ (‘Illusions, dilemmas and the
240 Bibliography failure of politics: The army on the course to the dictatorship’], in Gr Psalidas (ed.),Από τον Ανένδοτο στη Δικτατορία (From the Unyielding Struggle to the Dictatorship), pp. 417-42. Athens: Papazissis. Hatzivassilioiu, E. 2010. Ελληνικός φιλελευθερισμός (Greek Liberalism). Athens:
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Index activism (see also Polytechnic demonstrations; resistance) anti-American 171 anti-bailout deal demonstrations 1 demonstrations by workers 57,127 demonstrations of 1965 21 demonstrations of 1968/1971 49 student movements 56,135,138, 188,206n.ll student unrest of 1973. See Polytechnic demonstrations Adenauer, Konrad 157 agents provocateurs 128,222n.43 Agnew, Spiro 150,151 agricultural sector 17 aid 17 Alivizatos, N. 19,23,65 AMAG (American Mission for Aid to Greece) 17 amnesty, for political prisoners 66 Andrews, K. 127,128 Androutsopoulos, Adamantios 104, 105-6,108,135,140-1,186, 216Ո.113 Anghelis, Odysseas 62,70,97,99,130 Apogevmatini 90 Apostates (Renegades) 21 Arab-Israeli conflict. See Yom Kippur War Arapakis, N. 84,85,163,166,186 arms embargo 149 arms trade 230n.38 Asia Minor, withdrawal from 7 Aslanidis, George 34,38 ASPIDA 27,195Ո.21 Athens University faculties, decision to occupy the campus 123-5 (see also Polytechnic demonstrations) austerity, memorandums of 1 authoritarianism authoritarian regimes 9 of Ioannidis 136 transition from 143,174-5,185-6 the United States and 146 Averoff, Evangelos 41-2,51,61,62, 87-8,106,138,142,152,189 Axis occupation (1941) 8 Barkman, Karl 43,65,66,69,83, 89-90,95,97,113,127,158, 161,191 Battle, George 147 Bonanos, Grigorios 70-1,79,81,100, 102,106-7,111,112 Brandt, Willy 159 Brillakis, Antonis 92 castrated parliament 82-94 Ceausescu, Nicolae 159 censorship 66,118,119,133,174 Central Intelligence Agency (KYP) (Greek) 100-1,126,128, 198Ո.57 Chief of the Armed Forces 70 Christian Greeks. See chapter 2 Christianiki 67 Christoloukas,
Chief Constable 125, 134 CIA Communist Party of Greece (KKE) and 165 Generals’coup (1967 coup) 146-7,227Ո.Յ, 228n.7 Ioannidis and 166-7,233n.93 myth of the omnipotent CIA 167 November 25 coup and 144 Polytechnic demonstrations and 144 civil service 19
250 civil society awakening of 4 democratic transition and 6,10, 137 lack of support for Markezinis 2 Markezinis experiment and 117-21,136,138 Papadopoulos regime and 47-54 passivity of the people 47, 50,52, 192 Polytechnic demonstrations and 57 civil war (1944-1949) 8,14 class emergent middle class 17-18 political class 4 working classes 18 clientelism the Generals’ coup and 52 the military and 18,23 politics and 18,23 Cold War 15,146,157,162 communism anti-communism 25,26,52 fear of 23,24,137,138-9 Communist Party of Greece (KKE) 15,16,46,85,91-2,95,119, 138,165,167 conspiracies conspiracy theories 5,136-7, 141-2,144,145,170,192 Ioannidis and 38,216n. 111 the military and 25-7 by naval officers 61-2 Constantine II of Greece 21-2,35,61, 63,148 Constitutional Court 19,74,92 constitutions constitution (1952) 16,19,23, 108 constitution (1968) 41,43,45,63, 64 constitution (1973) 64,73,98,108 construction 18 Consultative Committee 52-3,177 Index corruption bribary and 195n.22 elections and 17,26,27,157, 194Ո.10,197Ո.43 the Generals’coup and 51 in the military 70-1,209n.61 Couloumbis, Theodore 42-3,53,85, 90,95 Council of Europe 45,152 Council of Ministers 71 Council of the Nation 64 coups 1909 coup (Goudi coup) 7 1922 11 September coup 7 1951 coup 25 1967 Greek counter-coup attempt (royal coup) 4,35,41,60 1973 25 November coup led by Ioannidis 100-3,104-5,108, 139,140-1,142,143,144,175, 187,233Ո.93 coup attempt in Spain February 1981 184 Generals’ coup (1967 coup). See Generals’coup (1967 coup) naval conspiracy 61-2,87,207n.32 Crete 164 crisis of 1965-7 20-2,27,30 culture,
politics and 16 Cyprus 1967 crisis between Greece and Turkey 35 1974 Cyprus crisis 2,6,107-8, 110,111,136,146,167,168, 169,185 Greek-Cypriot relations 160 Ioannidis and 169 Markezinis government and 160 Papadopoulos regime and 153-5 the United States and 148,154,168 Czechoslovakia, Soviet invasion of 46 Danopoulos, C. 77 Daskalopoulos, Head of Greek police 125
251 Index debt, of Greece 50,119 (see also economy) Demirel, Suleyman 182 democracy 1949-1961 14-19 breakdown of in 1965-7 20-2 conditions needed for democratization 83,186 democratic transition and civil society 6,10,137 democratic transition by regime self-transformation 8-10 democratization and Papadopoulos 181-2 democratization and Markezinis 68-9,133-4 democratization studies 8-10 elections and 94 the international factor 10 Ioannidis and 34,42 Karamanlis’ request for restoration of 40 limited‘democratization’ 68-9 the military and 78 pressures for démocratisation 18-19 Spain and democratization 8, 179-80 third wave of democratization 6 transition to 4,6 Democratic Defence 48 deportation camps 105 détente, between the Western and Eastern blocs 159 Diamantouros, P.-N. 31,185 dictatorship(s) of the colonels (1967) 1,8,29-30, 110 (see also chapter 2) dictadura (new dictatorship) 99-109 ending of 4,8 Metaxas dictatorship 33 moving from a ‘hard’ to a ‘soft’ form of 63 transition to democracy and 10 diplomacy of the Netherlands 43 of the United States 42-3,147,150 dissidence, suppression of 136 EAM-ELAS-Polytechnic 138 Ecevit, Bulent 182 economy deficit of Greece 50,119 economic development 17-18 economic growth 18,33,50,93, 152 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 49-50,54,56 international economic recession 162 Papadopoulos regime and 151-2 EDA (United Democratic Left) 14-15,17,19,21,29,53 EENA (Union of Greek Young Officers) 26 Egypt Nasserite dictatorship 24, 33 remnants of the army escaping to 8,25 Yom Kippur War 162 EK (Centre Union) Andreas Papandreou/ radicalization and
20-2 constitutional amendment and 19 creation of the 15 elections of 28 May 1967 and 21-2 electoral fraud and 17 the ERE and 19 factionalism/fatal crisis in the 20-1,27 Generals’ coup (1967 coup) and 28,43-4,45,146 the Markezinis experiment and 84,89-90,96 elections 1958 elections 24 1961 elections 17,21,26,27, 197Ո.43
252 Index 1963 elections 20,26 1964 elections 20 1967 elections (proposed) 21,22 1974 elections 142,157 corruption and 17,26,27,157, 194Ո.10,197Ո.43 democracy and 94 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 41,43,45 the Karamanlis government and 109,194Ո.10 reform and 10,95,96,194n.7, 194Ո.10 requirements for free and fair elections 156 in universities 57,58,122 Eleftheros Kosmos 60,97 elites anti-elitism 26,33 dictatorial 10 economic 93-4 elites/counter-elites and the Markezinis experiment 95-9, 113,114 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 39-47 the military as 24 opposition elites and the Markezinis experiment 10, 82-94,112 outgoing dictatorial 9 political 2,3,4,5,6,39-47,108, 186 employment 17,18 energy provision 17 Enosis 154 EPEN (National Political Union) 190 Epikaira 138 EPOK (National Cultural Movement) 58-9,72,177,206n.l8 ERE (National Radical Union) dominate position of 14 the EK and 19 electoral fraud and 17,194n.l0 Generals’ coup (1967 coup) and 27-8,29,40,41,43-4 Kanellopoulos and 14,21,194n.l0 Karamanlis and 14,21 the Markezinis experiment and 84,89,96 the military and 26 ES (Greek Rally) 14,44 ESA (Greek Military Police) 2,36-7, 62,81,82,100,105,128,134, 136,185 Etzioni-Halevy, E. 10 European Economic Community (EEC) Greece and 11,56,151-2,153 Greece becoming a republic and 156 Markezinis experiment and 146, 160-1,206Ո.7 trade and 151 Evelpides cadets 36,44 Evren, Kenan 182 exiles 45,118 extremists 34,184 factionalism the EK (Centre Union) and 20-1, 27 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 32-3,34-9 in the military 25-7 Farakos, Grigoris 12,46,110 foreign factor 47-8,136,144,170 (see
also international factor) foreign influence, in politics 11,146 foreign investment 17 foreign policy Markezinis and 159-60 Papadopoulos regime and 150-1, 229Ո.26 foreign press, giving a positive impression to 95,119 France, trade with Greece 152 Free Greeks 48 free market 50
253 Index Garoufalias, Petros 21,27,61,62 Generals’coup (1967 coup) (see also chapter 1) Andreas Papandreou and 28,29 CIA and 146-7,227n.3,228n.7 clientelism and 52 corruption and the 51 developments/faction struggles within the regime (1967-72) 34-5 economy and the 49-50,54,56 EK (Centre Union) and 28,43-4, 45,146 elites and 39-47 ERE (National Radical Union) and 27-8,29,40,41,43-4 factionalism and 32-3,34-9 factors leading to 26 Kanellopoulos and 29,41,42-3, 44,88,197Ո.47 Karamanlis and 39-40,41,42,43, 44 Makarezos and 34,38,45,56 Markezinis and 44,59 the military and 22-5,35 monarchy and 34-5,198n.48 officer corps and 33 Papadopoulos and 31,33-4,36, 37-9,40-1,43-5,198Ո.52 Pattakos and 34,38,147 politics and 41 power and 34-5,37-8 Prometheus Plan and 198n.53 punishment of the 1967 coup instigators 185 resistance and 48-9 returning to some kind of‘political normality’40-4,197n.47 rights and 41 security regime of 48 timing of the coup 198Ո.52 United States and 146-8,228n.7, 228Ո.14 ‘wrong coup’ of 21 April 1967 22-5,27-9 Genevoix, Maurice 17 Georgalas, George 93,114,151 Ghizikis, Phaedon 100,101,104,106, 109,140,143 Gill, G. 134-5 Gillespie, C. 186 Glezos, Manolis 92-3 government, parliament and 22 Great Britain archives of 11 British Foreign Office 11 concerns for the future of Greece 168-9 election fraud and 157 Greece becoming a republic and 156 the Greek army and 8 Markezinis experiment and 158-9 views on the opposition parties 162 Greece anti-Americanism 170-1,192, 228Ո.14 becoming a Republic 7,63,65,66, 156,23ІП.49 debt of 50,119 European Economic Community (EEC) and
11,56,151-2,153 Greek-Cypriot relations 160 Greek-Turkish conflict (1897) 7 Greek-Turkish relations 148,168 public archives 11 Greek Federation of Industrialists (SEB) 68 Greek Industrialists’Association 93 Greek Rally (ES) 14,44 Grigoriadis, P. 36,100,122-3,144,160 Grivas, Georgios 154 Haralambis, D. 18,52,69,104,155 Heath, Edward 159 Hooper, Robin 100,101,112-13,159, 160 human rights abuses 152,185 (see also rights) Huntington, S. 9,63,82,113,143
254 Index IDEA (Sacred Link of Greek Officers) 25-6 identity, political 18 ideology, the military and 23-4 Iliou, Ilias 43,53,91-2,187 import substitution 50 industrialization 50 inflation 119 infrastructure, restoration/ modernization of 18 institutional engineering 16-17 institutionalization, of a dictatorship 10 institutions, politics and 14-19,16 international community, giving a positive impression to 95-6 international factor (see also foreign factor) democracy and the 10 the Markezinis experiment and 145-6,156-62,170 Papadopoulos regime and the 148-53 investment, foreign 17 Ioannidis, Dimitrios authoritarianism of 136 conspiracies and 38,216n. 111 coup of 100-3,104-5,108,139, 140-1,142,143,144,175,187, 233Ո.93 Cyprus and 169 democracy and 34,42 liberalization and 2,6 Markezinis experiment and 3,4,5, 77 the military and 106 the monarchy and 60 the officer corps and 78-9 overthrowing of 111 Papadopoulos and 103,110-11, 132-3,140-1,176,216Ո.107, 216Ո.108 plan to overthrow Papadopoulos and Markezinis 80-2 Polytechnic demonstrations and 82,138-9,143 power of 36-8,71,207Ո.32,210n.4 reign of terror of 105-7 surveillance activities of 210n.4 torture and 185 the United States and 166-7,168, 233Ո.93 Iordanoglou, Chrissafis 122,124 Israel, Yom Kippur War 162 Johnson, Lyndon B. 148,228n.l6 Juan Carlos I of Spain 179,180 Kanellopoulos, Panayotis 1973 25 November coup led by Ioannidis and 104-5,108 Constantine II of Greece and 21-2 declaration of the ‘Republic’ and 65 election fraud and 194n.l0 ERE (National Radical Union) and 14,21,194Ո.10 Generals’ coup (1967 coup) and
29,41,42-3,44,197n.47 under house arrest 132 liberalization and 66,67 the Markezinis experiment and 84,85,88-9,90 student demonstrations and 57, 125-6,128,129,134,137,141 Karakatsanis, Neovi 46 Karamanlis, Constantine attempts at democratic consolidation (1963-5) 19-20 election fraud and 194n.l0 ERE (National Radical Union) and 14,21 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 39-40,41,42,43,44 Markezinis and 142 the Markezinis experiment and 84,85-6,96-7,187
Index the military and 109 monarchy’s support of 14,19-20, 194Ո.4 the naval conspiracy and 61 the officer class and 197n.44 Papadopoulos and 64,84 Polytechnic demonstrations and 142 popularity of 93,108,212n.36 Rallis and 87 request to return to Greece 21,68 resignation of 20 restoration of democracy and 59-60,108-9,189-90 United States opinion of 158 Karter, Georgios 39,44,93,103 Keeley, Robert 29 Kissinger, Henry 145,158,163,164, 165,166,168 Kollias, Constantine 34,35,40 Konofagos, K. 47,125,126,129,132, 136 Konstantopoulos, Savvas 97,142 Kornetis, Kostis 129,136,143-4 Kyrkos, Leonidas 92,138 Ladas, Ioannis 34,38,62,80 law(s) Law 509 92 the state of emergency and 16 Legg, K. 18,31,50 legitimacy, the Papadopoulos regime and 149 Lehman, Dick 147 Leontaritis, G. 62 liberalization controlled 39 democratic transition and 9 early liberalization JanuarySeptember 1973. See chapter 3 Ioannidis and 2,6 Kanellopoulos and 66,67 Markezinis experiment and 2,5,6 opposition elites and 83-94,120 255 Papadopoulos and 39,118 the student movement and 122, 138 Linz, Juan 10,66,94,113 loans, foreign 50 Makarezos, Nikolaos 1973 25 November coup led by Ioannidis and 100,102 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 34,38,45,56 Karamanlis/Markezinis and 85 the Markezinis experiment and 96-7 transition to democracy and 200Ո.12 Makarios, Archbishop 154,155,160, 168 Makedonia 85,90 Manesis, A. 47 Mantoglou,A. 124 Markezinis experiment (see also reforma (1973)) civil society and 117-21,136,138 the end of 101-2,167,176 ERE (National Radical Union) and 84,89,96 European Economic Community (EEC) and
146,160-1,206n,7 failure of 77-8 Great Britain and 158-9 the international factor and 145-6,156-62,170 Ioannidis and 3,4,5,77 Kanellopoulos and 84,85,88-9,90 Karamanlis and 84,85-6,96-7, 187 legacy of 186-92 liberalization and 2,5,6 the military and 78-82,96 opportunity missed or a ruse that failed? 109-15,183 opposition elites and 10,82-94, 112
256 Index Papadopoulos and 3,4-5,31 Papandreou (Andreas) and 90-1 as a point of historical and political reference 3-12 Polytechnic demonstrations and 2.3.117-18,167 the right wing and 83-9 summary of 2 tactics of the elites/counter-elites and 95-9,113,114 United States and 158-9,164-6, 167 what if it had succeeded? 179-86 what was it and why did it fail? 173-9 Yom Kippur War and 162-5 Markezinis, Spyros 1973 25 November coup led by Ioannidis and 101 Cyprus and 168 democratization and 133-4 economic elites and 93-4 economy and 119 failure to gain support of opposition elites 82-3 fall of 111-12,196Ո.37 foreign policy and 159-60 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 44,59 as his own worst enemy 190-1 international image of 157-9 Karamanlis and 142 limited ‘democratization’ and 68-9 Markezinis cabinet 4,5 martial law and 133 the military and 82,96,98-9 Papadopoulos and 3,71-5,80, 95-6,97-8,134 Polytechnic demonstrations and 98.99.117-18,123,125, 129-30,133-4,139,143,190, 219Ո.12,219Ո.14 as Prime Minister 83,95,98-9 Progressive Party of 21,44,190, 236Ո.21 reasons for his failure 4-5 resignation of 80,102 retrospective recognition of 186-7,191-2 the United States and 5,164-7, 170 Marshall Plan 17 martial law constitution (1973) and 64 following the Polytechnic demonstrations 98,103,132, 133,139-40,143 Ioannidis and the failure to lift 105 lifting of 4,38,43,45,66,118, 174 Markezinis and 133 Mitsotakis and 43 Papadopoulos and 99,139-40, 143 Mavros, George asked to form a coalition government 108 Cyprus and 168 EK (Centre Union) and 43,45 European Economic Community (EEC) and 161 under
house arrest 132 the July plebiscite and 65 the Markezinis experiment and 89-90 Papadopoulos and 43,44 Polytechnic demonstrations and 57,129,137,141 McCloskey, Robert 164-5 media anti-Americanism and 171 giving a positive impression to foreign press 95,119 Markezinis and 157-8 propaganda and 51,67,69 public mood and 119 memory, collective 1 Metaxas, Ioannis 8,33 Meynaud, Jean 37
257 Index military clientelism and 18,23 conspiracies and 25-7 corruption and 70-1,209n.61 democracy and 78 ERE (National Radical Union) and 26 factionalism in the 25-7 Generals’ coup (1967 coup) and 35 ideology and 23-4 Ioannidis and 106 Karamanlis and 109 loss of civilian control of the 26 Markezinis and 82,96,98-9 the Markezinis experiment and 78-82,96 military-as-institution 2,183, 184 military police 105 {see also ESA (Greek Military Police)) military service 56,57,122 the monarchy and 22,23,25,26-8, 197Ո.45,198.Ո.49 nationalism and the 23-4,33 officer corps. See officer corps Papadopoulos and the 78 politics and the 7-8,22,23-4,26, 73,184,196Ո.35,197n.44 the Polytechnic demonstrations and 131-2,137,138 power of 13,41,47,64, 111 professionalism and 22-3 public opinion of 196Ո.39 radicalization of the 24 social status and prestige of 24-5, 26 military coups. See coups Military House of the President of the Republic 81 Miller, James 159 Millet 155 Minister of Defence 4 Mitsos, Achilleas 12,53,67,119,120, 127,128-9,135,144,178 Mitsotakis, Constantine (Konstantinos) 20,43,85,90, 189,191 modernization 20,33,50,72 Modiano, Mario 133 Momferratos, Nikolaos 85,236n.26 monarchy (see also names of individual monarchs) abolition of 7,62,207n.34, 23ІП.49 crisis of 1965-7 and 30 fleeing to Rome 35 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 34-5,198Ո.48 as guarantors and personification of the state 194n.4 Ioannidis and 60 the military and 22,23,25,26-8, 197Ո.45,198Ո.49 politics and 15-16,19-20,21-2,29 restoration of 15-16,38 support of Karamanlis 14,19-20, 194Ո.4 Le Monde 40,95,169,187 Moskos,
Charles 24 Motherland Party, Turkey 182 Murtagh, P. 49,166,167 myth (see also conspiracies) constitutive 188 of the omnipotent CIA 167 Polytechnic myth 192 Nafpliotis, Alexandras 160 Nasser Hussein, Gamal Abdel 24,33 ‘Nasserites’, in the officer corp 196Ո.37 National Assembly 7 National Cultural Movement (Ethnikon Politistikon Kinima -EPOK) 58-9,72,177, 206η. 18 National Liberation Front 138 National People’s Liberation Army 138 National Resistance Council 49 National Schism (1910s) 25
258 Index nationalism, the military and 23-4,33 nationalist discourse 51 NATO 11,147,148,152,157,166 naval conspiracy 61-2,87,207n.32 Netherlands, diplomacy of 43 networks, political clientelist 18 New Democracy Party 189 New York Times 133,159 Nixon, Richard 149,157,158,165 Notaras, G. 47,48 Novas, George 90 O’Donnell, G. 9,175 officer corps anti-communist and corporatistoriented 8 extremism of 184 Generals’ coup (1967 coup) and 33 ideology and 23-4 Ioannidis and 78-9 Karamanlis and 197n.44 ‘Nasserites’ 196Ո.37 perceived predominance of 30 professionalism and 22-3,77-8 social status and prestige and 24-5,26 oil shock 162 Olson, Mancur 52 Ozai, Turgut 182,183 Palamas, Christos 85,162,163,165, 167,187 Panagoulis, Alexandras 49,118 Panhellenic Liberation Movement (PAK) 45-6,48,49 Panspoudastiki 128 Papadopoulos, Georgios 1973 25 November coup led by Ioannidis and 100,102 assassination attempt 49 conspiracy theories 144 corruption and 197n.43 criticisms of 93 Cyprus and 154-5,168 democratization and 181-2 EENA (Union of Greek Young Officers) and 26 fall of 2,102-3,110-11,196n.37 foreign policy of 150-1,229n.26 Generals’ coup (1967 coup) and 31,33-4,36,37-9,40-1,43-5, 198Ո.52 Ioannidis and 103,110-11,132-3, 140-1,176,216Ո.107, 216Ո.108 Karamanlis and 64,84 liberalization and 39,118 loss of support for 74-5,78,79 Markezinis and 3,71-5,80,95-6, 97-8,134 Markezinis experiment and 3, 4-5,31 martial law and 99,139-40,143 the military and 78 nepotism and favouritism of 51 Polytechnic demonstrations and 117-18,124,126,130,131,132, 136,139-40,143,216Ո.106, 225Ո.93 power and 41,59,64,79
as President of the Republic 63,70 presidential powers of 64-5 public opinion of 118-19 reforma (1973) and 55,77-8,93 student demonstrations and 57,58 the transition process and 63-4 the United States and 5,164,165, 166-7,170 weakness of 178 Papadopoulos regime civil society and 47-54 the international factor 148-53 Papagos, Alexandras 14,25,44 Papandreou, Andreas the ASPIDA group and 27, 195Ո.21 demonstrations at his memorial service 120,123 Generals’ coup (1967 coup) and 28,29
259 Index the Markezinis experiment and 90-1 the monarchy and 21 the Panhellenic Liberation Movement (PAK) and 45-6, 48 the Polytechnic demonstrations and 139-40,167,188 radicalization of the EK (Centre Union) and 20-2 undermining other anti-junta groups 45-6,49 Papandreou, George 15,19-20,21, 27,49,195Ո.24 parliament castrated 82-94 government and 22 Parliamentary Committee for the Restoration of Democratic Legality 65 PASOK 188,189 Passas, Ioannis 72,73,114,198n.57 passivity, of the people 47,50,52,192 Patriotic Front (PAM) 48 patronage 18 Pattakos, Stylianos 34,38,75,100, 102,105,147 Paul of Greece 14,21 Pedaliu, Effie 34 people’s movement 91 Pesmazoglou, John 94,112,153 Pipinellis Memorandum 45 Pipinellis, Panayotis 45,150 plebiscite 63,65-6,67,69-70, 208Ո.56 police (see also ESA (Greek Military Police)) police state 8 the Polytechnic demonstrations and 125-6,128,130-2, 219Ո.12,22ІП.ЗЗ, 22ІП.40, 223Ո.57,224Ո.84 the relaxation of policing 119 political prisoners 4,43,45,47,66,67, 87,105,118,174 politics the centre: the EK and the centre-left 89-91 clientelism and 18,23 conspiracy theories and 137, 141-2 the credibility and passivity of the left 46 culture and 16 exclusivist political system 17 foreign influence in 11,146 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 41 institutions and 14-19 the left wing: the KKE and EDA 91-4 the military and 7-8,22,23-4,26, 73,184,196Ո.35,197Ո.44 military police 105 the monarchy and 15-16,19-20, 21-2,29 parliament/government and 22 patronage/corruption and 30 political elites 2,3,4,5,6,39-47, 108,186 political identity 18 political participation 18
post civil war 14-15 the right wing 83-9 Polytechnic demonstrations 1973 25 November coup led by Ioannidis and 100 casualties of 134,223n.71 conspiracy theories about 144, 192 decision to occupy the campus 123-5 the demonstrations and their aftermath 56-9 the downfall of Papadopoulos and Markezinis and 117-18 ESA (Greek Military Police) and 82 the Greek people and 22ІП.38 Ioannidis and 82,138-9,143
Index 260 the liberalization experiment and 188 Markezinis and 98,99,117-18, 123,125,129-30,133-4,139, 143,190,219Ո.12,219n.l4 Markezinis experiment and 2,3, 117-18,167 the military and 131-2,137,138 Papadopoulos and 117-18,124, 126,130,131,132,136,139-40, 143,216Ո.106,225Ո.93 Papandreou (Andreas) and 139-40,167,188 the police and 125-6,128,130-2, 219Ո.12,22ІП.ЗЗ, 22ІП.40, 223Ո.57,224Ո.84 police firing on demonstrators 131,219Ո.12,223Ո.57 political implications of the events 136-44 the students and the people 121-36 violence and the 131-2,139,141 Polytechnic trials 125,128,134,140, 143,222Ո.43,224Ո.71 Portugal 40 Potts, James 166 power balance of 94 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 34-5,37-8 of Ioannidis 36-8,71,207n.32, 210Ո.4 the military and 13,41,47,64,111 Papadopoulos and 41,59,64,79 state 19 primary sector 50 Progressive Party 21,44,190,236n.21 Prometheus Plan 32,198n.53 propaganda 51,67,69 Przeworski, Adam 9 Psaroudakis, Grigoris 67 public administration 17 public mood 118-19 public works 18,50,51 radicalism, social 33 radicalization, of the military 24 Rallis, Georgios 12,65,67-8,86-7 rapprochement 39 reform, elections and 10,95,96, 194Ո.7,194Ո.10 reforma (1973) 33,55,71,74,77-82, 88,92,93 (see also Markezinis experiment) reforma pactada 8 refugees, Greek from Asia Minor 7 religion 51-2 repression ESA (Greek Military Police) and 36 the Polytechnic demonstrations and 121 Republic, establishment of 7,63,65, 66,156,23ІП.49 resistance the Generals’ coup (1967 coup) and 48-9 lack of 47 (see aho passivity) Polytechnic demonstrations and 144 student movements 56,135,138,
188,206n.ll Revolutionary Committee 37,38, 101-2 Rigas Ferraios 12,122 rights economic and social 19 Generals’ coup (1967 coup) and 41 human rights abuses 152,185 political, civil and individual 16, 134 right to strike 19 Roberts, J. 18,50 Rodakis, P. 167 Roufogalis, Dimitrios 126 ‘royal coup’ (1967) 4,35,60 Rueschemeyer, D. 18 rural out migration 18 Rustow,D. 10
Index Salazar, António de Oliveira 40 Schmitter, P. 9,175 School of Military Cadets (Evelpides) 36,44 secondary sector 17,50 secret services 128 security regime, of the Generals’ coup (1967 coup) 48 Seferis, George 49 self-interest 177 self-transformation attempt 2-3,5,8 Shain,Yossi 66,113 Sifnaios, Panayotis 122,124,125,130, 136 Simitis, Costas 48 Six-Day War 147 sleaze 79 social autism 177 social mobility 23,24 social progress 33 social radicalism 33 social resentment, of the military 25 social status and prestige, the officer corps and 24-5,26 Sorensen, G. 11 Soviet Union Communist Party of Greece (KKE) and 15,91 invasion of Czechoslovakia 46 Markezinis experiment and 159 Spain coup attempt February 1981 184 democratization and 8,179-80 Der Spiegel 95 standard of living 18,52 state the deep state 19-20 intervention in everyday life 16 state of emergency 16 state of siege 28,64 Stavrou, Nikolaos 149 Stepan, A. 10,94 Stephanopoulos, Stephanos 90 Stevens, E. 18 Stevens, J. 18 261 student movements 56,135,138,188, 206n.l 1 (see also activism; Polytechnic demonstrations) Suarez, Adolfo 179-80,235n.4 Sunalp, Turgut 182 Symvouleutiki Epitropi (Consultative Committee). See Consultative Committee Syria, Yom Kippur War 162 Talbot, William Philips 146,147,149 Tasca, Henry 100,149,158,159,166, 167,170,187,236Ո.16 taxation 50 terror campaign 67 tertiary sector 17 Theodorakis, Mikis 48,93,190 Theodorakopoulos, T. 28,50,53,105, 109-10,114-15,141,192 The Times 95 To Vima 97 torture 37,105,152,185 tourism 18 Tovias, Alfred 165 Treaty of Association 161 Treholt, A. 152-3 Truman Doctrine
17 Tsatsos, Constantine 84 Turkey 1967 crisis between Greece and Turkey 35 1974 Cyprus crisis 2,6,107-8, 110,111,136,146,167,168, 169,185 democratization and 182-3 Greek-Turkish conflict (1897) 7 Greek-Turkish relations 148,168 presidential powers in 65 unions 19 United Nations 162 United States 1973 coup and 187 American factor/Yom Kippur War 5,145
262 Index anti-Americanism of Greece 170-1,192,228Ո.14 archives of 11 arms embargo 149 attitudes of the Greeks people towards 148 CIA. See CIA concerns for the future of Greece 169,170 Cyprus and the 148,154,168 diplomacy of 42-3,147,150 free and fair elections and 156 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 146-8,228Ո.7,228Ո.14 Greece and NATO and 157 Greek politics and 11 Ioannidis and 166-7,168,233n.93 Karamanlis and 158 Markezinis and 5,164-7,170 Markezinis experiment and 158-9,164-6,167 military interests in the region 148,151,162-5,168,170 values middle class 17 of the military 24 Vanhanen, T. 186 Varvitsiotis, Ioannis 85,88 Velos 62 Venizelos, Eleftherios 7 Vėrėmis, T. 17,32 victimhood 26 violence, the Polytechnic demonstrations and 131-2, 139,141 {see also torture) Voice of Truth 167,219Ո.16 Voulgaris,Yannis 30 Vradyni 59,86,105 Weiner, Tim 146-7 Western Europe, relations with Greece 152-3 Whitehead, L. 55,161 Woodhouse, Ch. 33,36,74,84,139, 147,151,152,156,167,168 workers, demonstrations by 57,127 Papadopoulos and 5,164,165, 166-7,170 Papadopoulos regime and 145 Polytechnic demonstrations and 144 Truman Doctrine/Marshall Plan 17 views on the opposition parties 162 Yom Kippur War and 162-5 urbanization 18 Yannopoulos, G. 48,50 Yom Kippur War 5,147,162-5 Zacharopoulos, George 23 Zagoriannakos, Dimitrios 70,81,98 Zoitakis, Georgios 36 Zournatzis, S. 56,72,101,130,132 Zumwalt, Elmo 150,163 Ґ Bayerische Staałshihlinłhalt |
| adam_txt |
Contents Acknowledgements Chronology of Events 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Introduction: Why did the Junta not end in 1973? From ‘Difficult Democracy to the ‘Wrong Coup’: Greece 1949-67 ‘Greece of Christian Greeks’: The Dictatorship of 21 April 1967 The Early Liberalization, January-September 1973 The ‘Unfinished Revolution’ and the ‘Castrated Parliament’: The Elites and the ‘Experiment’ Fortuna and the ‘Experiment’: Civil Society and the Polytechnic Events The Americans Yet Again? The International Factor and the ‘Experiment’ Concluding Thoughts: The ‘Markezinis Experiment’ between Oblivion and Myth Notes Bibliography Index vi viii 1 13 31 55 77 115 143 171 191 235 249
Bibliography Primary sources Interviews (in alphabetical order) Grigoris Farakos, former Secretary General of the KKE, Georgios Georgalas, regime Under-Secretary of Crete and confidant of Papadopoulos. Leonidas Kyrkos, former Secretary General of the KKE-es. Nikolaos Makarezos, regime leader. Achilleas Mitsos, Professor of the Aegean University of Greece, member of ‘Rigas Feraros’ KKE of the Interior youth. Stylianos Pattakos, regime leader. Georgios Rallis, minister in the Karamanlis governments and ex-Prime Minister of Greece. Ioannis Varvitsiotis, minister in the Karamanlis governments. Spyros Zournatzis, Markezinis’ government spokesman. Greek Newspapers and Magazines Akropolis Eleftheros Kosmos Epikaira Kathimerini Vradyni Private Archives Kyrkoss archive Markezinis’ notes, Markezinis’ archive, Athens: Etaireia ton Filon tou Laou Zournatzis’ archive ‘Voice of Truth’ KKE Radio broadcast transcripts, Farakos’ archive
236 Bibliography Public archives UK Foreign Office, the National Archives (in date order) FCO 9/1709,2/1/1973. FCO 9/1711,26/4/1973. FCO 9/1712,20/111973. FCO 9/1713,6/6/1973. FCO 9/1713,15/6/1973. FCO 9/1713,4/8/1973. FCO 9/1714,1/9/1973. FCO 9/1716,6/9/1973. FCO 9/1716,25/10/1973. FCO 9/1716,2/11/1973. FCO 9/1716,8/11/1973. FCO 9/1717,6/12/1973. FCO 9/1717,25/11/1973. FCO 9/1729,1/11/1973. FCO 9/1732,17/9/1973. FCO 9/1732,13/11/1973. FCO 9/1998,11/1/1974. USA FRUS (Foreign Relations of United States) Vol. XXX, GREECE; CYPRUS; TURKEY, 1973-6 (in date order) Memorandum from Acting Secretary of State Rush to President Nixon, 12/6/1973, Ford Library. National Security Adviser, Scowcroft, Daily Work Files. National Intelligence Estimate: Short-Term Prospects in Greece, 19/7/1973. Telegram From the Embassy in Greece to the Department of State, Views of PM Markezinis, 18/11/1973. Telegram from the Embassy in Greece to the Department of State, The Military in Greece: Dominant Political Power at the Crossroads - A Country Team Assessment, 8/2/1974.
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Index activism (see also Polytechnic demonstrations; resistance) anti-American 171 anti-bailout deal demonstrations 1 demonstrations by workers 57,127 demonstrations of 1965 21 demonstrations of 1968/1971 49 student movements 56,135,138, 188,206n.ll student unrest of 1973. See Polytechnic demonstrations Adenauer, Konrad 157 agents provocateurs 128,222n.43 Agnew, Spiro 150,151 agricultural sector 17 aid 17 Alivizatos, N. 19,23,65 AMAG (American Mission for Aid to Greece) 17 amnesty, for political prisoners 66 Andrews, K. 127,128 Androutsopoulos, Adamantios 104, 105-6,108,135,140-1,186, 216Ո.113 Anghelis, Odysseas 62,70,97,99,130 Apogevmatini 90 Apostates (Renegades) 21 Arab-Israeli conflict. See Yom Kippur War Arapakis, N. 84,85,163,166,186 arms embargo 149 arms trade 230n.38 Asia Minor, withdrawal from 7 Aslanidis, George 34,38 ASPIDA 27,195Ո.21 Athens University faculties, decision to occupy the campus 123-5 (see also Polytechnic demonstrations) austerity, memorandums of 1 authoritarianism authoritarian regimes 9 of Ioannidis 136 transition from 143,174-5,185-6 the United States and 146 Averoff, Evangelos 41-2,51,61,62, 87-8,106,138,142,152,189 Axis occupation (1941) 8 Barkman, Karl 43,65,66,69,83, 89-90,95,97,113,127,158, 161,191 Battle, George 147 Bonanos, Grigorios 70-1,79,81,100, 102,106-7,111,112 Brandt, Willy 159 Brillakis, Antonis 92 castrated parliament 82-94 Ceausescu, Nicolae 159 censorship 66,118,119,133,174 Central Intelligence Agency (KYP) (Greek) 100-1,126,128, 198Ո.57 Chief of the Armed Forces 70 Christian Greeks. See chapter 2 Christianiki 67 Christoloukas,
Chief Constable 125, 134 CIA Communist Party of Greece (KKE) and 165 Generals’coup (1967 coup) 146-7,227Ո.Յ, 228n.7 Ioannidis and 166-7,233n.93 myth of the omnipotent CIA 167 November 25 coup and 144 Polytechnic demonstrations and 144 civil service 19
250 civil society awakening of 4 democratic transition and 6,10, 137 lack of support for Markezinis 2 Markezinis experiment and 117-21,136,138 Papadopoulos regime and 47-54 passivity of the people 47, 50,52, 192 Polytechnic demonstrations and 57 civil war (1944-1949) 8,14 class emergent middle class 17-18 political class 4 working classes 18 clientelism the Generals’ coup and 52 the military and 18,23 politics and 18,23 Cold War 15,146,157,162 communism anti-communism 25,26,52 fear of 23,24,137,138-9 Communist Party of Greece (KKE) 15,16,46,85,91-2,95,119, 138,165,167 conspiracies conspiracy theories 5,136-7, 141-2,144,145,170,192 Ioannidis and 38,216n. 111 the military and 25-7 by naval officers 61-2 Constantine II of Greece 21-2,35,61, 63,148 Constitutional Court 19,74,92 constitutions constitution (1952) 16,19,23, 108 constitution (1968) 41,43,45,63, 64 constitution (1973) 64,73,98,108 construction 18 Consultative Committee 52-3,177 Index corruption bribary and 195n.22 elections and 17,26,27,157, 194Ո.10,197Ո.43 the Generals’coup and 51 in the military 70-1,209n.61 Couloumbis, Theodore 42-3,53,85, 90,95 Council of Europe 45,152 Council of Ministers 71 Council of the Nation 64 coups 1909 coup (Goudi coup) 7 1922 11 September coup 7 1951 coup 25 1967 Greek counter-coup attempt (royal coup) 4,35,41,60 1973 25 November coup led by Ioannidis 100-3,104-5,108, 139,140-1,142,143,144,175, 187,233Ո.93 coup attempt in Spain February 1981 184 Generals’ coup (1967 coup). See Generals’coup (1967 coup) naval conspiracy 61-2,87,207n.32 Crete 164 crisis of 1965-7 20-2,27,30 culture,
politics and 16 Cyprus 1967 crisis between Greece and Turkey 35 1974 Cyprus crisis 2,6,107-8, 110,111,136,146,167,168, 169,185 Greek-Cypriot relations 160 Ioannidis and 169 Markezinis government and 160 Papadopoulos regime and 153-5 the United States and 148,154,168 Czechoslovakia, Soviet invasion of 46 Danopoulos, C. 77 Daskalopoulos, Head of Greek police 125
251 Index debt, of Greece 50,119 (see also economy) Demirel, Suleyman 182 democracy 1949-1961 14-19 breakdown of in 1965-7 20-2 conditions needed for democratization 83,186 democratic transition and civil society 6,10,137 democratic transition by regime self-transformation 8-10 democratization and Papadopoulos 181-2 democratization and Markezinis 68-9,133-4 democratization studies 8-10 elections and 94 the international factor 10 Ioannidis and 34,42 Karamanlis’ request for restoration of 40 limited‘democratization’ 68-9 the military and 78 pressures for démocratisation 18-19 Spain and democratization 8, 179-80 third wave of democratization 6 transition to 4,6 Democratic Defence 48 deportation camps 105 détente, between the Western and Eastern blocs 159 Diamantouros, P.-N. 31,185 dictatorship(s) of the colonels (1967) 1,8,29-30, 110 (see also chapter 2) dictadura (new dictatorship) 99-109 ending of 4,8 Metaxas dictatorship 33 moving from a ‘hard’ to a ‘soft’ form of 63 transition to democracy and 10 diplomacy of the Netherlands 43 of the United States 42-3,147,150 dissidence, suppression of 136 EAM-ELAS-Polytechnic 138 Ecevit, Bulent 182 economy deficit of Greece 50,119 economic development 17-18 economic growth 18,33,50,93, 152 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 49-50,54,56 international economic recession 162 Papadopoulos regime and 151-2 EDA (United Democratic Left) 14-15,17,19,21,29,53 EENA (Union of Greek Young Officers) 26 Egypt Nasserite dictatorship 24, 33 remnants of the army escaping to 8,25 Yom Kippur War 162 EK (Centre Union) Andreas Papandreou/ radicalization and
20-2 constitutional amendment and 19 creation of the 15 elections of 28 May 1967 and 21-2 electoral fraud and 17 the ERE and 19 factionalism/fatal crisis in the 20-1,27 Generals’ coup (1967 coup) and 28,43-4,45,146 the Markezinis experiment and 84,89-90,96 elections 1958 elections 24 1961 elections 17,21,26,27, 197Ո.43
252 Index 1963 elections 20,26 1964 elections 20 1967 elections (proposed) 21,22 1974 elections 142,157 corruption and 17,26,27,157, 194Ո.10,197Ո.43 democracy and 94 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 41,43,45 the Karamanlis government and 109,194Ո.10 reform and 10,95,96,194n.7, 194Ո.10 requirements for free and fair elections 156 in universities 57,58,122 Eleftheros Kosmos 60,97 elites anti-elitism 26,33 dictatorial 10 economic 93-4 elites/counter-elites and the Markezinis experiment 95-9, 113,114 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 39-47 the military as 24 opposition elites and the Markezinis experiment 10, 82-94,112 outgoing dictatorial 9 political 2,3,4,5,6,39-47,108, 186 employment 17,18 energy provision 17 Enosis 154 EPEN (National Political Union) 190 Epikaira 138 EPOK (National Cultural Movement) 58-9,72,177,206n.l8 ERE (National Radical Union) dominate position of 14 the EK and 19 electoral fraud and 17,194n.l0 Generals’ coup (1967 coup) and 27-8,29,40,41,43-4 Kanellopoulos and 14,21,194n.l0 Karamanlis and 14,21 the Markezinis experiment and 84,89,96 the military and 26 ES (Greek Rally) 14,44 ESA (Greek Military Police) 2,36-7, 62,81,82,100,105,128,134, 136,185 Etzioni-Halevy, E. 10 European Economic Community (EEC) Greece and 11,56,151-2,153 Greece becoming a republic and 156 Markezinis experiment and 146, 160-1,206Ո.7 trade and 151 Evelpides cadets 36,44 Evren, Kenan 182 exiles 45,118 extremists 34,184 factionalism the EK (Centre Union) and 20-1, 27 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 32-3,34-9 in the military 25-7 Farakos, Grigoris 12,46,110 foreign factor 47-8,136,144,170 (see
also international factor) foreign influence, in politics 11,146 foreign investment 17 foreign policy Markezinis and 159-60 Papadopoulos regime and 150-1, 229Ո.26 foreign press, giving a positive impression to 95,119 France, trade with Greece 152 Free Greeks 48 free market 50
253 Index Garoufalias, Petros 21,27,61,62 Generals’coup (1967 coup) (see also chapter 1) Andreas Papandreou and 28,29 CIA and 146-7,227n.3,228n.7 clientelism and 52 corruption and the 51 developments/faction struggles within the regime (1967-72) 34-5 economy and the 49-50,54,56 EK (Centre Union) and 28,43-4, 45,146 elites and 39-47 ERE (National Radical Union) and 27-8,29,40,41,43-4 factionalism and 32-3,34-9 factors leading to 26 Kanellopoulos and 29,41,42-3, 44,88,197Ո.47 Karamanlis and 39-40,41,42,43, 44 Makarezos and 34,38,45,56 Markezinis and 44,59 the military and 22-5,35 monarchy and 34-5,198n.48 officer corps and 33 Papadopoulos and 31,33-4,36, 37-9,40-1,43-5,198Ո.52 Pattakos and 34,38,147 politics and 41 power and 34-5,37-8 Prometheus Plan and 198n.53 punishment of the 1967 coup instigators 185 resistance and 48-9 returning to some kind of‘political normality’40-4,197n.47 rights and 41 security regime of 48 timing of the coup 198Ո.52 United States and 146-8,228n.7, 228Ո.14 ‘wrong coup’ of 21 April 1967 22-5,27-9 Genevoix, Maurice 17 Georgalas, George 93,114,151 Ghizikis, Phaedon 100,101,104,106, 109,140,143 Gill, G. 134-5 Gillespie, C. 186 Glezos, Manolis 92-3 government, parliament and 22 Great Britain archives of 11 British Foreign Office 11 concerns for the future of Greece 168-9 election fraud and 157 Greece becoming a republic and 156 the Greek army and 8 Markezinis experiment and 158-9 views on the opposition parties 162 Greece anti-Americanism 170-1,192, 228Ո.14 becoming a Republic 7,63,65,66, 156,23ІП.49 debt of 50,119 European Economic Community (EEC) and
11,56,151-2,153 Greek-Cypriot relations 160 Greek-Turkish conflict (1897) 7 Greek-Turkish relations 148,168 public archives 11 Greek Federation of Industrialists (SEB) 68 Greek Industrialists’Association 93 Greek Rally (ES) 14,44 Grigoriadis, P. 36,100,122-3,144,160 Grivas, Georgios 154 Haralambis, D. 18,52,69,104,155 Heath, Edward 159 Hooper, Robin 100,101,112-13,159, 160 human rights abuses 152,185 (see also rights) Huntington, S. 9,63,82,113,143
254 Index IDEA (Sacred Link of Greek Officers) 25-6 identity, political 18 ideology, the military and 23-4 Iliou, Ilias 43,53,91-2,187 import substitution 50 industrialization 50 inflation 119 infrastructure, restoration/ modernization of 18 institutional engineering 16-17 institutionalization, of a dictatorship 10 institutions, politics and 14-19,16 international community, giving a positive impression to 95-6 international factor (see also foreign factor) democracy and the 10 the Markezinis experiment and 145-6,156-62,170 Papadopoulos regime and the 148-53 investment, foreign 17 Ioannidis, Dimitrios authoritarianism of 136 conspiracies and 38,216n. 111 coup of 100-3,104-5,108,139, 140-1,142,143,144,175,187, 233Ո.93 Cyprus and 169 democracy and 34,42 liberalization and 2,6 Markezinis experiment and 3,4,5, 77 the military and 106 the monarchy and 60 the officer corps and 78-9 overthrowing of 111 Papadopoulos and 103,110-11, 132-3,140-1,176,216Ո.107, 216Ո.108 plan to overthrow Papadopoulos and Markezinis 80-2 Polytechnic demonstrations and 82,138-9,143 power of 36-8,71,207Ո.32,210n.4 reign of terror of 105-7 surveillance activities of 210n.4 torture and 185 the United States and 166-7,168, 233Ո.93 Iordanoglou, Chrissafis 122,124 Israel, Yom Kippur War 162 Johnson, Lyndon B. 148,228n.l6 Juan Carlos I of Spain 179,180 Kanellopoulos, Panayotis 1973 25 November coup led by Ioannidis and 104-5,108 Constantine II of Greece and 21-2 declaration of the ‘Republic’ and 65 election fraud and 194n.l0 ERE (National Radical Union) and 14,21,194Ո.10 Generals’ coup (1967 coup) and
29,41,42-3,44,197n.47 under house arrest 132 liberalization and 66,67 the Markezinis experiment and 84,85,88-9,90 student demonstrations and 57, 125-6,128,129,134,137,141 Karakatsanis, Neovi 46 Karamanlis, Constantine attempts at democratic consolidation (1963-5) 19-20 election fraud and 194n.l0 ERE (National Radical Union) and 14,21 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 39-40,41,42,43,44 Markezinis and 142 the Markezinis experiment and 84,85-6,96-7,187
Index the military and 109 monarchy’s support of 14,19-20, 194Ո.4 the naval conspiracy and 61 the officer class and 197n.44 Papadopoulos and 64,84 Polytechnic demonstrations and 142 popularity of 93,108,212n.36 Rallis and 87 request to return to Greece 21,68 resignation of 20 restoration of democracy and 59-60,108-9,189-90 United States opinion of 158 Karter, Georgios 39,44,93,103 Keeley, Robert 29 Kissinger, Henry 145,158,163,164, 165,166,168 Kollias, Constantine 34,35,40 Konofagos, K. 47,125,126,129,132, 136 Konstantopoulos, Savvas 97,142 Kornetis, Kostis 129,136,143-4 Kyrkos, Leonidas 92,138 Ladas, Ioannis 34,38,62,80 law(s) Law 509 92 the state of emergency and 16 Legg, K. 18,31,50 legitimacy, the Papadopoulos regime and 149 Lehman, Dick 147 Leontaritis, G. 62 liberalization controlled 39 democratic transition and 9 early liberalization JanuarySeptember 1973. See chapter 3 Ioannidis and 2,6 Kanellopoulos and 66,67 Markezinis experiment and 2,5,6 opposition elites and 83-94,120 255 Papadopoulos and 39,118 the student movement and 122, 138 Linz, Juan 10,66,94,113 loans, foreign 50 Makarezos, Nikolaos 1973 25 November coup led by Ioannidis and 100,102 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 34,38,45,56 Karamanlis/Markezinis and 85 the Markezinis experiment and 96-7 transition to democracy and 200Ո.12 Makarios, Archbishop 154,155,160, 168 Makedonia 85,90 Manesis, A. 47 Mantoglou,A. 124 Markezinis experiment (see also reforma (1973)) civil society and 117-21,136,138 the end of 101-2,167,176 ERE (National Radical Union) and 84,89,96 European Economic Community (EEC) and
146,160-1,206n,7 failure of 77-8 Great Britain and 158-9 the international factor and 145-6,156-62,170 Ioannidis and 3,4,5,77 Kanellopoulos and 84,85,88-9,90 Karamanlis and 84,85-6,96-7, 187 legacy of 186-92 liberalization and 2,5,6 the military and 78-82,96 opportunity missed or a ruse that failed? 109-15,183 opposition elites and 10,82-94, 112
256 Index Papadopoulos and 3,4-5,31 Papandreou (Andreas) and 90-1 as a point of historical and political reference 3-12 Polytechnic demonstrations and 2.3.117-18,167 the right wing and 83-9 summary of 2 tactics of the elites/counter-elites and 95-9,113,114 United States and 158-9,164-6, 167 what if it had succeeded? 179-86 what was it and why did it fail? 173-9 Yom Kippur War and 162-5 Markezinis, Spyros 1973 25 November coup led by Ioannidis and 101 Cyprus and 168 democratization and 133-4 economic elites and 93-4 economy and 119 failure to gain support of opposition elites 82-3 fall of 111-12,196Ո.37 foreign policy and 159-60 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 44,59 as his own worst enemy 190-1 international image of 157-9 Karamanlis and 142 limited ‘democratization’ and 68-9 Markezinis cabinet 4,5 martial law and 133 the military and 82,96,98-9 Papadopoulos and 3,71-5,80, 95-6,97-8,134 Polytechnic demonstrations and 98.99.117-18,123,125, 129-30,133-4,139,143,190, 219Ո.12,219Ո.14 as Prime Minister 83,95,98-9 Progressive Party of 21,44,190, 236Ո.21 reasons for his failure 4-5 resignation of 80,102 retrospective recognition of 186-7,191-2 the United States and 5,164-7, 170 Marshall Plan 17 martial law constitution (1973) and 64 following the Polytechnic demonstrations 98,103,132, 133,139-40,143 Ioannidis and the failure to lift 105 lifting of 4,38,43,45,66,118, 174 Markezinis and 133 Mitsotakis and 43 Papadopoulos and 99,139-40, 143 Mavros, George asked to form a coalition government 108 Cyprus and 168 EK (Centre Union) and 43,45 European Economic Community (EEC) and 161 under
house arrest 132 the July plebiscite and 65 the Markezinis experiment and 89-90 Papadopoulos and 43,44 Polytechnic demonstrations and 57,129,137,141 McCloskey, Robert 164-5 media anti-Americanism and 171 giving a positive impression to foreign press 95,119 Markezinis and 157-8 propaganda and 51,67,69 public mood and 119 memory, collective 1 Metaxas, Ioannis 8,33 Meynaud, Jean 37
257 Index military clientelism and 18,23 conspiracies and 25-7 corruption and 70-1,209n.61 democracy and 78 ERE (National Radical Union) and 26 factionalism in the 25-7 Generals’ coup (1967 coup) and 35 ideology and 23-4 Ioannidis and 106 Karamanlis and 109 loss of civilian control of the 26 Markezinis and 82,96,98-9 the Markezinis experiment and 78-82,96 military-as-institution 2,183, 184 military police 105 {see also ESA (Greek Military Police)) military service 56,57,122 the monarchy and 22,23,25,26-8, 197Ո.45,198.Ո.49 nationalism and the 23-4,33 officer corps. See officer corps Papadopoulos and the 78 politics and the 7-8,22,23-4,26, 73,184,196Ո.35,197n.44 the Polytechnic demonstrations and 131-2,137,138 power of 13,41,47,64, 111 professionalism and 22-3 public opinion of 196Ո.39 radicalization of the 24 social status and prestige of 24-5, 26 military coups. See coups Military House of the President of the Republic 81 Miller, James 159 Millet 155 Minister of Defence 4 Mitsos, Achilleas 12,53,67,119,120, 127,128-9,135,144,178 Mitsotakis, Constantine (Konstantinos) 20,43,85,90, 189,191 modernization 20,33,50,72 Modiano, Mario 133 Momferratos, Nikolaos 85,236n.26 monarchy (see also names of individual monarchs) abolition of 7,62,207n.34, 23ІП.49 crisis of 1965-7 and 30 fleeing to Rome 35 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 34-5,198Ո.48 as guarantors and personification of the state 194n.4 Ioannidis and 60 the military and 22,23,25,26-8, 197Ո.45,198Ո.49 politics and 15-16,19-20,21-2,29 restoration of 15-16,38 support of Karamanlis 14,19-20, 194Ո.4 Le Monde 40,95,169,187 Moskos,
Charles 24 Motherland Party, Turkey 182 Murtagh, P. 49,166,167 myth (see also conspiracies) constitutive 188 of the omnipotent CIA 167 Polytechnic myth 192 Nafpliotis, Alexandras 160 Nasser Hussein, Gamal Abdel 24,33 ‘Nasserites’, in the officer corp 196Ո.37 National Assembly 7 National Cultural Movement (Ethnikon Politistikon Kinima -EPOK) 58-9,72,177, 206η. 18 National Liberation Front 138 National People’s Liberation Army 138 National Resistance Council 49 National Schism (1910s) 25
258 Index nationalism, the military and 23-4,33 nationalist discourse 51 NATO 11,147,148,152,157,166 naval conspiracy 61-2,87,207n.32 Netherlands, diplomacy of 43 networks, political clientelist 18 New Democracy Party 189 New York Times 133,159 Nixon, Richard 149,157,158,165 Notaras, G. 47,48 Novas, George 90 O’Donnell, G. 9,175 officer corps anti-communist and corporatistoriented 8 extremism of 184 Generals’ coup (1967 coup) and 33 ideology and 23-4 Ioannidis and 78-9 Karamanlis and 197n.44 ‘Nasserites’ 196Ո.37 perceived predominance of 30 professionalism and 22-3,77-8 social status and prestige and 24-5,26 oil shock 162 Olson, Mancur 52 Ozai, Turgut 182,183 Palamas, Christos 85,162,163,165, 167,187 Panagoulis, Alexandras 49,118 Panhellenic Liberation Movement (PAK) 45-6,48,49 Panspoudastiki 128 Papadopoulos, Georgios 1973 25 November coup led by Ioannidis and 100,102 assassination attempt 49 conspiracy theories 144 corruption and 197n.43 criticisms of 93 Cyprus and 154-5,168 democratization and 181-2 EENA (Union of Greek Young Officers) and 26 fall of 2,102-3,110-11,196n.37 foreign policy of 150-1,229n.26 Generals’ coup (1967 coup) and 31,33-4,36,37-9,40-1,43-5, 198Ո.52 Ioannidis and 103,110-11,132-3, 140-1,176,216Ո.107, 216Ո.108 Karamanlis and 64,84 liberalization and 39,118 loss of support for 74-5,78,79 Markezinis and 3,71-5,80,95-6, 97-8,134 Markezinis experiment and 3, 4-5,31 martial law and 99,139-40,143 the military and 78 nepotism and favouritism of 51 Polytechnic demonstrations and 117-18,124,126,130,131,132, 136,139-40,143,216Ո.106, 225Ո.93 power and 41,59,64,79
as President of the Republic 63,70 presidential powers of 64-5 public opinion of 118-19 reforma (1973) and 55,77-8,93 student demonstrations and 57,58 the transition process and 63-4 the United States and 5,164,165, 166-7,170 weakness of 178 Papadopoulos regime civil society and 47-54 the international factor 148-53 Papagos, Alexandras 14,25,44 Papandreou, Andreas the ASPIDA group and 27, 195Ո.21 demonstrations at his memorial service 120,123 Generals’ coup (1967 coup) and 28,29
259 Index the Markezinis experiment and 90-1 the monarchy and 21 the Panhellenic Liberation Movement (PAK) and 45-6, 48 the Polytechnic demonstrations and 139-40,167,188 radicalization of the EK (Centre Union) and 20-2 undermining other anti-junta groups 45-6,49 Papandreou, George 15,19-20,21, 27,49,195Ո.24 parliament castrated 82-94 government and 22 Parliamentary Committee for the Restoration of Democratic Legality 65 PASOK 188,189 Passas, Ioannis 72,73,114,198n.57 passivity, of the people 47,50,52,192 Patriotic Front (PAM) 48 patronage 18 Pattakos, Stylianos 34,38,75,100, 102,105,147 Paul of Greece 14,21 Pedaliu, Effie 34 people’s movement 91 Pesmazoglou, John 94,112,153 Pipinellis Memorandum 45 Pipinellis, Panayotis 45,150 plebiscite 63,65-6,67,69-70, 208Ո.56 police (see also ESA (Greek Military Police)) police state 8 the Polytechnic demonstrations and 125-6,128,130-2, 219Ո.12,22ІП.ЗЗ, 22ІП.40, 223Ո.57,224Ո.84 the relaxation of policing 119 political prisoners 4,43,45,47,66,67, 87,105,118,174 politics the centre: the EK and the centre-left 89-91 clientelism and 18,23 conspiracy theories and 137, 141-2 the credibility and passivity of the left 46 culture and 16 exclusivist political system 17 foreign influence in 11,146 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 41 institutions and 14-19 the left wing: the KKE and EDA 91-4 the military and 7-8,22,23-4,26, 73,184,196Ո.35,197Ո.44 military police 105 the monarchy and 15-16,19-20, 21-2,29 parliament/government and 22 patronage/corruption and 30 political elites 2,3,4,5,6,39-47, 108,186 political identity 18 political participation 18
post civil war 14-15 the right wing 83-9 Polytechnic demonstrations 1973 25 November coup led by Ioannidis and 100 casualties of 134,223n.71 conspiracy theories about 144, 192 decision to occupy the campus 123-5 the demonstrations and their aftermath 56-9 the downfall of Papadopoulos and Markezinis and 117-18 ESA (Greek Military Police) and 82 the Greek people and 22ІП.38 Ioannidis and 82,138-9,143
Index 260 the liberalization experiment and 188 Markezinis and 98,99,117-18, 123,125,129-30,133-4,139, 143,190,219Ո.12,219n.l4 Markezinis experiment and 2,3, 117-18,167 the military and 131-2,137,138 Papadopoulos and 117-18,124, 126,130,131,132,136,139-40, 143,216Ո.106,225Ո.93 Papandreou (Andreas) and 139-40,167,188 the police and 125-6,128,130-2, 219Ո.12,22ІП.ЗЗ, 22ІП.40, 223Ո.57,224Ո.84 police firing on demonstrators 131,219Ո.12,223Ո.57 political implications of the events 136-44 the students and the people 121-36 violence and the 131-2,139,141 Polytechnic trials 125,128,134,140, 143,222Ո.43,224Ո.71 Portugal 40 Potts, James 166 power balance of 94 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 34-5,37-8 of Ioannidis 36-8,71,207n.32, 210Ո.4 the military and 13,41,47,64,111 Papadopoulos and 41,59,64,79 state 19 primary sector 50 Progressive Party 21,44,190,236n.21 Prometheus Plan 32,198n.53 propaganda 51,67,69 Przeworski, Adam 9 Psaroudakis, Grigoris 67 public administration 17 public mood 118-19 public works 18,50,51 radicalism, social 33 radicalization, of the military 24 Rallis, Georgios 12,65,67-8,86-7 rapprochement 39 reform, elections and 10,95,96, 194Ո.7,194Ո.10 reforma (1973) 33,55,71,74,77-82, 88,92,93 (see also Markezinis experiment) reforma pactada 8 refugees, Greek from Asia Minor 7 religion 51-2 repression ESA (Greek Military Police) and 36 the Polytechnic demonstrations and 121 Republic, establishment of 7,63,65, 66,156,23ІП.49 resistance the Generals’ coup (1967 coup) and 48-9 lack of 47 (see aho passivity) Polytechnic demonstrations and 144 student movements 56,135,138,
188,206n.ll Revolutionary Committee 37,38, 101-2 Rigas Ferraios 12,122 rights economic and social 19 Generals’ coup (1967 coup) and 41 human rights abuses 152,185 political, civil and individual 16, 134 right to strike 19 Roberts, J. 18,50 Rodakis, P. 167 Roufogalis, Dimitrios 126 ‘royal coup’ (1967) 4,35,60 Rueschemeyer, D. 18 rural out migration 18 Rustow,D. 10
Index Salazar, António de Oliveira 40 Schmitter, P. 9,175 School of Military Cadets (Evelpides) 36,44 secondary sector 17,50 secret services 128 security regime, of the Generals’ coup (1967 coup) 48 Seferis, George 49 self-interest 177 self-transformation attempt 2-3,5,8 Shain,Yossi 66,113 Sifnaios, Panayotis 122,124,125,130, 136 Simitis, Costas 48 Six-Day War 147 sleaze 79 social autism 177 social mobility 23,24 social progress 33 social radicalism 33 social resentment, of the military 25 social status and prestige, the officer corps and 24-5,26 Sorensen, G. 11 Soviet Union Communist Party of Greece (KKE) and 15,91 invasion of Czechoslovakia 46 Markezinis experiment and 159 Spain coup attempt February 1981 184 democratization and 8,179-80 Der Spiegel 95 standard of living 18,52 state the deep state 19-20 intervention in everyday life 16 state of emergency 16 state of siege 28,64 Stavrou, Nikolaos 149 Stepan, A. 10,94 Stephanopoulos, Stephanos 90 Stevens, E. 18 Stevens, J. 18 261 student movements 56,135,138,188, 206n.l 1 (see also activism; Polytechnic demonstrations) Suarez, Adolfo 179-80,235n.4 Sunalp, Turgut 182 Symvouleutiki Epitropi (Consultative Committee). See Consultative Committee Syria, Yom Kippur War 162 Talbot, William Philips 146,147,149 Tasca, Henry 100,149,158,159,166, 167,170,187,236Ո.16 taxation 50 terror campaign 67 tertiary sector 17 Theodorakis, Mikis 48,93,190 Theodorakopoulos, T. 28,50,53,105, 109-10,114-15,141,192 The Times 95 To Vima 97 torture 37,105,152,185 tourism 18 Tovias, Alfred 165 Treaty of Association 161 Treholt, A. 152-3 Truman Doctrine
17 Tsatsos, Constantine 84 Turkey 1967 crisis between Greece and Turkey 35 1974 Cyprus crisis 2,6,107-8, 110,111,136,146,167,168, 169,185 democratization and 182-3 Greek-Turkish conflict (1897) 7 Greek-Turkish relations 148,168 presidential powers in 65 unions 19 United Nations 162 United States 1973 coup and 187 American factor/Yom Kippur War 5,145
262 Index anti-Americanism of Greece 170-1,192,228Ո.14 archives of 11 arms embargo 149 attitudes of the Greeks people towards 148 CIA. See CIA concerns for the future of Greece 169,170 Cyprus and the 148,154,168 diplomacy of 42-3,147,150 free and fair elections and 156 Generals’coup (1967 coup) and 146-8,228Ո.7,228Ո.14 Greece and NATO and 157 Greek politics and 11 Ioannidis and 166-7,168,233n.93 Karamanlis and 158 Markezinis and 5,164-7,170 Markezinis experiment and 158-9,164-6,167 military interests in the region 148,151,162-5,168,170 values middle class 17 of the military 24 Vanhanen, T. 186 Varvitsiotis, Ioannis 85,88 Velos 62 Venizelos, Eleftherios 7 Vėrėmis, T. 17,32 victimhood 26 violence, the Polytechnic demonstrations and 131-2, 139,141 {see also torture) Voice of Truth 167,219Ո.16 Voulgaris,Yannis 30 Vradyni 59,86,105 Weiner, Tim 146-7 Western Europe, relations with Greece 152-3 Whitehead, L. 55,161 Woodhouse, Ch. 33,36,74,84,139, 147,151,152,156,167,168 workers, demonstrations by 57,127 Papadopoulos and 5,164,165, 166-7,170 Papadopoulos regime and 145 Polytechnic demonstrations and 144 Truman Doctrine/Marshall Plan 17 views on the opposition parties 162 Yom Kippur War and 162-5 urbanization 18 Yannopoulos, G. 48,50 Yom Kippur War 5,147,162-5 Zacharopoulos, George 23 Zagoriannakos, Dimitrios 70,81,98 Zoitakis, Georgios 36 Zournatzis, S. 56,72,101,130,132 Zumwalt, Elmo 150,163 Ґ Bayerische Staałshihlinłhalt |
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| author | Tzortzis, Ioannis ca. 20./21. Jh |
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| author_facet | Tzortzis, Ioannis ca. 20./21. Jh |
| author_role | aut |
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| era | Geschichte 1973 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1973 |
| format | Thesis Book |
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Jh.</subfield><subfield code="e">Verfasser</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)1193190223</subfield><subfield code="4">aut</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="245" ind1="1" ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Greek democracy and the Junta</subfield><subfield code="b">regime crisis and the failed transition of 1973</subfield><subfield code="c">by Ioannis Tzortzis</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="250" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">First edition</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="264" ind1=" " ind2="1"><subfield code="a">London ; New York ; Oxford ; New Delhi ; Sydney</subfield><subfield code="b">I.B. Tauris</subfield><subfield code="c">2020</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="300" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">xii, 262 Seiten</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="336" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">txt</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacontent</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="337" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">n</subfield><subfield code="2">rdamedia</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="338" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">nc</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacarrier</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="502" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">Dissertation</subfield><subfield code="c">University of Birmingham</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="520" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">"More than half a century after the imposition of the dictatorship of the Colonels in Greece, a number of questions related to its nature, development and demise remains understudied and feebly answered. One of the most interesting -yet understudied- incidents of the dictatorship is its ill-fated self-transformation attempt into some form of civilian rule in 1973: the so-called 'Markezinis experiment', after the politician who assumed the task of heading the transition government and lead to elections. The whole venture lasted a mere eight weeks, faced heavy opposition from both the opposition elites and the civil society and eventually collapsed by a military hard-liners' coup. The story of this failed attempt raises a series of questions: what was the nature of the dictatorship of the Colonels, and why did it take it six years to seek some form of civilianisation? Were the intentions of Papadopoulos and Markezinis sincere, and were the politicians of the opposition right to refuse to legitimise the 'experiment'? What was the Polytechnic students' uprising role in the demise of the 'experiment'? Was there an American reaction, and was it the main reason for the collapse of the transition, as Markezinis claimed? The book seeks to address the above questions, and argues that the failure of the 'Markezinis experiment' paved the way for the actual transition of 1974 as it happened. The research is supported by foreign (British and American) archival resources, as well as by private archives and personal interviews. The book concludes by briefly seeking to trace some potential alternative paths for the failed self- transformation attempt, and by accounting for the long-term consequences of the failure of the 'Markezinis experiment'."--Bloomsbury Publishing</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="648" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Geschichte 1973</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1=" " ind2="4"><subfield code="a">European history / bicssc</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1=" " ind2="4"><subfield code="a">Dictatorship / Greece</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1="0" ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Militärdiktatur</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4074805-4</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="651" ind1=" " ind2="4"><subfield code="a">Greece / Politics and government / 1967-1974</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="651" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Griechenland</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4022047-3</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="655" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4113937-9</subfield><subfield code="a">Hochschulschrift</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd-content</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Griechenland</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4022047-3</subfield><subfield code="D">g</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="1"><subfield code="a">Militärdiktatur</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4074805-4</subfield><subfield code="D">s</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="2"><subfield code="a">Geschichte 1973</subfield><subfield code="A">z</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2=" "><subfield code="5">DE-604</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="776" ind1="0" ind2="8"><subfield code="i">Erscheint auch als</subfield><subfield code="n">Online-Ausgabe, ebk.</subfield><subfield code="z">978-1-78831-787-0</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="776" ind1="0" ind2="8"><subfield code="i">Erscheint auch als</subfield><subfield code="n">Online-Ausgabe, ePDF</subfield><subfield code="z">978-1-78831-786-3</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="856" ind1="4" ind2="2"><subfield code="m">Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment</subfield><subfield code="q">application/pdf</subfield><subfield code="u">http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032053322&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA</subfield><subfield code="3">Inhaltsverzeichnis</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="856" ind1="4" ind2="2"><subfield code="m">Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment</subfield><subfield code="q">application/pdf</subfield><subfield code="u">http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032053322&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA</subfield><subfield code="3">Literaturverzeichnis</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="856" ind1="4" ind2="2"><subfield code="m">Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment</subfield><subfield code="q">application/pdf</subfield><subfield code="u">http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032053322&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA</subfield><subfield code="3">Register // Gemischte Register</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="940" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="n">oe</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="940" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="q">BSB_NED_20200505</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="942" ind1="1" ind2="1"><subfield code="c">909</subfield><subfield code="e">22/bsb</subfield><subfield code="f">09047</subfield><subfield code="g">495</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="943" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-032053322</subfield></datafield></record></collection> |
| genre | (DE-588)4113937-9 Hochschulschrift gnd-content |
| genre_facet | Hochschulschrift |
| geographic | Greece / Politics and government / 1967-1974 Griechenland (DE-588)4022047-3 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Greece / Politics and government / 1967-1974 Griechenland |
| id | DE-604.BV046641969 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-03T14:14:28Z |
| indexdate | 2024-08-31T00:51:43Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9781788313919 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-032053322 |
| oclc_num | 1154003168 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 DE-Bo133 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 DE-Bo133 |
| physical | xii, 262 Seiten |
| psigel | BSB_NED_20200505 |
| publishDate | 2020 |
| publishDateSearch | 2020 |
| publishDateSort | 2020 |
| publisher | I.B. Tauris |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Tzortzis, Ioannis ca. 20./21. Jh. Verfasser (DE-588)1193190223 aut Greek democracy and the Junta regime crisis and the failed transition of 1973 by Ioannis Tzortzis First edition London ; New York ; Oxford ; New Delhi ; Sydney I.B. Tauris 2020 xii, 262 Seiten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Dissertation University of Birmingham "More than half a century after the imposition of the dictatorship of the Colonels in Greece, a number of questions related to its nature, development and demise remains understudied and feebly answered. One of the most interesting -yet understudied- incidents of the dictatorship is its ill-fated self-transformation attempt into some form of civilian rule in 1973: the so-called 'Markezinis experiment', after the politician who assumed the task of heading the transition government and lead to elections. The whole venture lasted a mere eight weeks, faced heavy opposition from both the opposition elites and the civil society and eventually collapsed by a military hard-liners' coup. The story of this failed attempt raises a series of questions: what was the nature of the dictatorship of the Colonels, and why did it take it six years to seek some form of civilianisation? Were the intentions of Papadopoulos and Markezinis sincere, and were the politicians of the opposition right to refuse to legitimise the 'experiment'? What was the Polytechnic students' uprising role in the demise of the 'experiment'? Was there an American reaction, and was it the main reason for the collapse of the transition, as Markezinis claimed? The book seeks to address the above questions, and argues that the failure of the 'Markezinis experiment' paved the way for the actual transition of 1974 as it happened. The research is supported by foreign (British and American) archival resources, as well as by private archives and personal interviews. The book concludes by briefly seeking to trace some potential alternative paths for the failed self- transformation attempt, and by accounting for the long-term consequences of the failure of the 'Markezinis experiment'."--Bloomsbury Publishing Geschichte 1973 gnd rswk-swf European history / bicssc Dictatorship / Greece Militärdiktatur (DE-588)4074805-4 gnd rswk-swf Greece / Politics and government / 1967-1974 Griechenland (DE-588)4022047-3 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4113937-9 Hochschulschrift gnd-content Griechenland (DE-588)4022047-3 g Militärdiktatur (DE-588)4074805-4 s Geschichte 1973 z DE-604 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, ebk. 978-1-78831-787-0 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, ePDF 978-1-78831-786-3 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032053322&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032053322&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Literaturverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032053322&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Tzortzis, Ioannis ca. 20./21. Jh Greek democracy and the Junta regime crisis and the failed transition of 1973 European history / bicssc Dictatorship / Greece Militärdiktatur (DE-588)4074805-4 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4074805-4 (DE-588)4022047-3 (DE-588)4113937-9 |
| title | Greek democracy and the Junta regime crisis and the failed transition of 1973 |
| title_auth | Greek democracy and the Junta regime crisis and the failed transition of 1973 |
| title_exact_search | Greek democracy and the Junta regime crisis and the failed transition of 1973 |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Greek democracy and the Junta regime crisis and the failed transition of 1973 |
| title_full | Greek democracy and the Junta regime crisis and the failed transition of 1973 by Ioannis Tzortzis |
| title_fullStr | Greek democracy and the Junta regime crisis and the failed transition of 1973 by Ioannis Tzortzis |
| title_full_unstemmed | Greek democracy and the Junta regime crisis and the failed transition of 1973 by Ioannis Tzortzis |
| title_short | Greek democracy and the Junta |
| title_sort | greek democracy and the junta regime crisis and the failed transition of 1973 |
| title_sub | regime crisis and the failed transition of 1973 |
| topic | European history / bicssc Dictatorship / Greece Militärdiktatur (DE-588)4074805-4 gnd |
| topic_facet | European history / bicssc Dictatorship / Greece Militärdiktatur Greece / Politics and government / 1967-1974 Griechenland Hochschulschrift |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032053322&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032053322&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032053322&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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