Wind farm noise: measurement, assessment and control
Gespeichert in:
| Hauptverfasser: | , , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Chichester
Wiley
2017
|
| Schriftenreihe: | Wiley series in acoustics, noise and vibration
|
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Klappentext |
| Beschreibung: | Includes bibliographical references and index |
| Beschreibung: | xviii, 605 Seiten |
| ISBN: | 9781118826065 |
Internformat
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Wind farm noise |b measurement, assessment and control |c Colin H. Hansen, Con J. Doolan, Kristy L. Hansen |
| 264 | 1 | |a Chichester |b Wiley |c 2017 | |
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| 490 | 0 | |a Wiley series in acoustics, noise and vibration | |
| 500 | |a Includes bibliographical references and index | ||
| 650 | 4 | |a Wind power plants |x Noise | |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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|---|---|
| adam_text | Contents
Wiley Series in Acoustics, Noise and Vibration xv
Preface xv ¿i
1 Wind Energy and Noise 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Development of the Wind Energy Industry 2
1.2.1 Early Development Prior to 2000 2
1.2.2 Development since 2000 8
1.2.3 Support Received by the Wind Industry 11
1.3 History of Wind Turbine Noise Studies 13
1.3.1 Modern Wind Turbine Sound Power Levels 16
1.4 Current Wind Farm Noise Guidelines and Assessment Procedures 18
1.4.1 ETSU-R-97 (used mainly in the UK and Ireland) 18
1.4.2 National Planning Policy Frameworkfor England 25
1.4.3 World Health Organisation Guidelines 25
1.4.4 DEFRA Guidelines 27
1.4.5 Noise Perception Index 28
1.5 Wind Farm Noise Standards 29
1.5.1 General Environmental Noise Standards 29
1.5.2 IEC 61400-11 29
1.5.3 NZS6808 31
1.5.4 AS4959 31
1.6 Regulations 32
1.6.1 What Should be Included in a Wind Farm Noise Regulation 32
1.6.2 Existing Noise Ordinances and Regulations 38
1.7 Inquiries and Government Investigations 43
1.7.1 Australia 2010-2014 43
1.7.2 Canada 48
1.7.3 Denmark 2013 50
1.7.4 Northern Ireland 2013 51
1.7.5 Scotland 51
1.7.6 Wales 51
Current Consensus on Wind Farm Noise 52
References 52
1.8
co co
vili I Contents
2 Fundamentals of Acoustics and Frequency Analysis 57
2.1 Introduction 57
2.2 Basic Acoustics Concepts 57
2.2. i i?ooř Mean Square Sound Pressure 58
2.2.2 Statistical Descriptors and Their Use 59
2.2.3 Amplitude, Frequency, Wavelength, Wavenumber and Speed for
Single-frequency Sound 60
2.2.4 Units for Sound Pressure Measurement 62
2.2.5 Sound Power 63
2.2.6 Beating 64
2.2.7 Amplitude Modulation and Amplitude Variation 66
2.2.8 Decibel Addition 69
2.2.9 Decibel Subtraction 70
2.2.10 Noise Source Directivity 71
2.2.11 Weighting Networks 71
2.2.12 Noise Level Measures 73
2.2.13 Sound in Rooms 76
2.3 Basic Frequency Analysis 79
2.3.1 Digital Filtering 82
2.3.2 Octave Band and 1/3-Octave Band Analysis 83
2.3.3 Octave and 1/3-Octave Filter Rise and Settling times 84
2.4 Advanced Frequency Analysis 88
2.4.1 Auto Power Spectrum and Power Spectral Density 91
2.4.2 Linear Spectrum 95
2.4.3 Leakage 95
2.4.4 Windowing 96
2.4.5 Sampling Frequency and Aliasing 103
2.4.6 Overlap Processing 103
2.4.7 Zero Padding 105
2.4.8 Uncertainty Principle 105
2.4.9 Time Synchronous Averaging and Synchronous Sampling 105
2.4.10 Hilbert Transform 106
2.4.11 Cross-spectrum 107
2.4.12 Coherence 109
2.4.13 Frequency-response (or Transfer) Function 110
2.4.14 Coherent Output Power 111
2.4.15 Convolution 112
2.4.16 Auto-correlation and Cross-correlation Functions 113
2.4.17 Maximum Length Sequence 115
2.5 Summary 117
References 117
Noise Generation 119
.1 Introduction 119
3.1.1 Definitions 120
3.2 Aeroacoustics 122
3.2.1 Turbulence and Sound 122
Contents IX
3.2.2 The Effect of Solid Surfaces 124
3.2.3 The Effect of Moving Solid Surfaces 125
3.3 Aerodynamic Noise Generation on Wind Turbines 128
3.3.1 The Aerodynamic Environment of a Wind Turbine 128
3.3.2 Trailing-edge Noise 131
3.3.3 Separation-stall Noise 138
3.3.4 Tip Noise 139
3.3.5 Turbulence—Leading-edge Interaction Noise 141
3.3.6 Wind-shear Noise 144
3.3.7 Blade—Tower Interaction Noise 145
3.3.8 Thickness Noise 147
3.4 Aero-elasticity and Noise 148
3.5 Other Noise Sources 149
3.6 Summary and Outlook 151
References 152
4 Wind Turbine Sound Power Estimation 157
4.1 Introduction 157
4.2 Aerodynamic Noise Prediction 157
4.2.1 Types of Prediction Methods 157
4.3 Simple Models 158
4.4 Semi-empirical Methods (Class II Models) 159
4.4.1 Overall Framework 159
4.4.2 Aerodynamic Analysis 160
4.4.3 Boundary-layer Estimates 163
4.4.4 Airfoil Noise Models 164
4.4.5 Inflow Noise Model 166
4.4.6 Prediction of Total Sound Power 168
4.5 Computational Methods (Class III Models) 168
4.6 Estimations of Sound Power From Measurements 169
4.6.1 Instrumentation 170
4.6.2 Procedure 171
4.6.3 Data Analysis 172
4.6.4 Comments on Turbine Sound Power Measurements 174
4.6.5 Possible Improvements to Procedures for Measuring Turbine Sound
Power Levels 175
4.7 Summary 177
References 177
5 Propagation of Noise and Vibration 180
5.1 Introduction 180
5.2 Principles Underpinning Noise Propagation Modelling 182
5.2.1 Spherical Spreading, Adiv 183
5.2.2 A tmospheric Absorption, Aatm 186
5.2.3 Ground Effect, Agr 187
5.2.4 Meteorological Effects, Amet
5.2.5 Barrier Effects, Ahar 209
188
Contents
5.2.6 Miscellaneous Propagation Effects, Amisc 209
5.2.7 Infrasound and Low-frequency Noise 210
5.2.8 Propagation Modelling Procedure 210
5.3 Simplest Noise Propagation Models 212
5.4 Danish Low-frequency Propagation Model 213
5.5 CONCAWE (1981) 214
5.5.1 Spherical Spreading, Ki 214
5.5.2 Atmospheric Absorption, K2 214
5.5.3 Ground Effects, / 3 215
5.5.4 Meteorological Effects, /C4 215
5.5.5 Source-height Effects, / 5 218
5.5.6 Barrier Attenuation, K6 218
5.5.7 In-plant Screening, K7 221
5.5.8 Vegetation Screening, Kv 221
5.5.9 Limitations of the CONCAWE Model
5.6 IS09613-2 (1996) Noise Propagation Model 223
5.6.1 Ground Effects, Agr 224
5.6.2 Barrier Attenuation, Abar 225
5.6.3 Vegetation Screening, Aj 227
5.6.4 Effect of Reflections other than Ground Reflections 228
5.6.5 Recommended Adjustments to the IS09613-2 Model for Wind Farm
Noise 228
5.6.6 Limitations of the IS09613-2 Model 230
5.7 NMPB-2008 Noise Propagation Model 231
5.7.1 Ground, Barrier and Terrain Excess Attenuation, Agr+bar 232
5.7.2 Reflections from Vertical Surfaces 241
5.7.3 Limitations of the NMPB-2008 Model 242
5.8 Nord2000 Noise Propagation Model 242
5.8.1 Combination of Sound Rays from the Same Source Arriving at the
Receiver via Different Paths 244
5.8.2 Ground, Barrier and Terrain Excess Attenuation, Agr+har 249
5.8.3 Multiple Ground Reflections 252
5.8.4 Excess Attenuation, Asc, due to a Ray Travelling Through a Scattering
Zone 255
5.8.5 Excess Attenuation, Ar, due to Reflection from a Facade or
Building 256
5.8.6 Limitations of the Nord2000 model 25 9
5.9 Harmonoise (2002) Noise Propagation Engineering Model 260
5.9.1 Combination of Sound Rays from the Same Source Arriving at the
Receiver via Different Paths (for Calculating A?r+bar) 263
5.9.2 Coordinate Transformation for the Ground Profile 264
5.9.3 Ground, Barrier and Terrain Excess Attenuation, Agr+bar 266
5.9.4 Excess Attenuation due to Scattering 266
5.9.5 Excess Attenuation, Ar, due to Reflection from a Facade or
Building 267
5.9.6 Limitations of the Harmonoise Model 268
5.10 Required Input Data for the Various Propagation Models 269
5.10.1 CONCAWE 269
5.10.2 IS09613-2 269
5.10.3 NMPB-2008 270
5.10.4 Nord2000 271
5.10.5 Harmonoise 271
5.11 Offshore Wind Farm Propagation Models 272
5.12 Propagation Model Prediction Uncertainty 272
5.13 Outside versus Inside Noise at Residences 276
5.14 Vibration Propagation 280
5.14.1 Vibration Generation 281
5.14.2 Vibration Propagation 281
5.14.3 Vibration Detection 282
5.15 Summary 283
References 285
6 Measurement 289
6.1 Introduction 289
6.2 Measurement of Environmental Noise Near Wind Farms 290
6.2.1 Instrumentation 291
6.2.2 Effects of Wind 300
6.2.3 Wind Screens for Microphones 301
6.2.4 Microphone Height 307
6.2.5 Ambient or Background Noise Assessment 307
6.2.6 A- and C-weighted Levels 314
6.2.7 Infrasound and Low-frequency Noise 317
6.2.8 Indoor Measurements 322
6.2.9 Outdoor-to-indoor Noise Reduction 324
6.2.10 Amplitude Modulation and Variation 328
6.2.11 Psychoacoustic Descriptors 349
6.2.12 Tonality 351
6.2.13 Additional Turbine Noise Analysis Techniques 363
6.2.14 Compliance Testing 365
6.2.15 Beamforming for Source Localisation on Full-scale Wind
Turbines 386
6.2.16 Measurement Uncertainty 387
6.3 Vibration 393
6.3.1 Instrumentation 394
6.3.2 Measurement 394
6.3.3 Analysis 395
6.4 Wind, Wind Shear and Turbulence 395
6.4.1 Instrumentation 395
6.4.2 Measurement 399
6.4.3 Analysis 401
6.5 Reporting on Noise, Vibration and Meteorological Conditions 405
6.6 Wind Tunnel Testing 408
6.6.1 Wind Tunnel Techniques 409
xii I Contents
6.6.2 Noise Measurements in Wind Tunnels 413
6.6.3 Review of some Recent Measurements 422
6.7 Conclusions 425
References 425
7 Effects of Wind Farm Noise and Vibration on People 436
7.1 Introduction 436
7.2 Annoyance and Adverse Health Effects 441
7.2.1 Amplitude Modulation, Amplitude Variation and Beating 453
7.3 Hearing Mechanism 455
7.3.1 External Ear 455
7.3.2 Middle Ear 455
7.3.3 Inner Ear 457
7.3.4 Frequency Response of the Human Ear 459
7.4 Reproduction of Wind Farm Noise for Adverse Effects Studies 465
7.5 Vibration Effects 467
7.6 Nocebo Effect 467
7.7 Summary and Conclusion 468
References 470
8 Wind Farm Noise Control 476
8.1 Introduction 476
8.2 Noise Control by Turbine Design Modification 477
8.2.1 Optimisation of Blade Design 4 78
8.2.2 Trailing-edge Treatments 479
8.2.3 Blade-pitch Control 481
8.2.4 Phase Control 483
8.2.5 Control of Noise Resulting from Aeroacoustic Excitation of the
Blades 485
8.2.6 Control of Noise Resulting from Mechanical Excitation of the
Gearbox, Blades and Tower 486
8.3 Optimisation of Turbine Layout 487
8.4 Options for Noise Control at the Residences 488
8.4.1 Active Noise Control 488
8.4.2 Masking 492
8.5 Administrative Controls 492
8.6 Summary 493
References 493
9 Recommendations for Future Research 496
9.1 Introduction 496
9.2 Further Investigation of the Effects of Wind Farm Noise on People 497
9.3 Improvements to Regulations and Guidelines 499
9.4 Propagation Model Improvements 504
9.5 Identification and Amelioration of the Problem Noise Sources on Wind
Turbines 504
Contents I xiii
9.5.1 Identification of Noise Sources 504
9.5.2 Amelioration of Noise Sources 505
9.6 Reducing Low-frequency Noise Levels in Residences 506
References 506
A Basic Mathematics 507
A.l Introduction 507
A. 2 Logarithms 507
A3 Complex Numbers 508
AA Exponential Function 508
B The BPM model 509
B. l Boundary-layer Parameters 509
B.2 Turbulent Trailing-edge Noise Model 511
B. 3 Blunt Trailing-edge Noise Model 513
Reference 515
C Ground Reflection Coefficient Calculations 516
C. 1 Introduction 516
C.2 Flow Resistivity 517
C3 Characteristic Impedance 518
C.4 Plane-wave Reflection Coefficient 520
C.5 Spherical-wave Reflection Coefficient 521
C. 6 Incoherent Reflection Coefficient 524
References 525
D Calculation of Ray Path Distances and Propagation Times for the
Nord2000 Model 526
D. 1 Introduction 526
D.2 Equivalent Linear Atmospheric Vertical Sound-speed Profile 527
D. 3 Calculation of Ray Path Lengths and Propagation Times 529
D.3.1 Direct Ray 529
D.3.2 Reflected Ray 531
References 532
E Calculation of Terrain Parameters for the Nord2000 Sound
Propagation Model 534
E. l Introduction 534
E.2 Terrain Effects 534
E.3 Approximating Terrain Profiles by Straight-line Segments 539
E.4 Calculation of the Excess Attenuation due to the Ground Effect for Relatively
Flat Terrain with no Diffraction Edges 540
E.5 Calculation of the Excess Attenuation due to the Ground Effect for Relatively
Flat Terrain with a Variable Impedance Surface and no Diffraction
Edges 541
E.6 Calculation of the Excess Attenuation due to the Ground Effect for
Valley-shaped Terrain 543
XIV ! Contents
E.7 Identification of the Two Most Efficient Diffraction Edges 544
E.8 Calculation of the Sound Pressure at the Receiver for each Diffracted Path in
Hilly Terrain 547
E.8.1 Diffraction over a Single Finite-impedance Wedge-shaped
Screen 547
E.8.2 Diffraction over a Finite-impedance Thick screen with Two
Diffraction Edges 550
E.8.3 Diffraction over Two Finite-impedance Wedges 554
E. 9 Calculation of the Combined Ground and Barrier Excess-attenuation
Effects 556
E. 9.1 Terrain Involving a Single Diffraction Wedge 557
E. 9.2 Terrain involving a Double Diffraction Wedge 561
E.9.3 Terrain involving Two Single Diffraction Wedges 561
References 563
F Calculation of Fresnel Zone Sizes and Weights 564
F. l Introduction 564
F.2 Fresnel Zone for Reflection from Flat Ground 564
E3 Fresnel Weights for Reflection from a Concave or Transition Ground
Segment 567
F. 4 Fresnel Weights for Reflection from a Convex Ground Segment 570
Reference 571
G Calculation of Diffraction and Ground Effects for the Harmonoise
Model 572
G. l Introduction 572
G.2 Diffraction Effect, ALD 574
G. 3 Ground Effect 577
G.3.1 Concave Model 579
G.3.2 Transition Model 582
G A Fresnel Zone for Reflection from a Ground Segment 584
References 587
H Active Noise-control System Algorithms 588
H. l Introduction 588
H.2 Single-input, Single-output (SISO) Weight Update Algorithm 588
H.3 Multiple-input, Multiple-output Weight Update Algorithm 590
References 592
Index 593
WIND FARM NOISE
MEASUREMENT. ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL
Colin H. Hansen, University of Adelaide, Australia
Con J. Doolan, University of New South Wales, Australia
Kristy L. Hansen, Flinders University, Australia
A comprehensive guide to wind farm noise prediction,
measurement, assessment, control and effects on people
Wind Farm Noise covers the generation, measurement, propagation, regulation and
adverse health effects of noise produced by large horizontal-axis wind turbines of the
type used in wind farms.
The book begins with a brief history of wind turbine development and the regulation of their
noise at sensitive receivers. It also includes an introductory chapter on the fundamentals of
acoustics relevant to wind turbine noise so that readers are well prepared for later chapters
on noise measurement, noise-generation mechanisms, noise propagation modelling and
the assessment of the noise at surrounding residences.
Key features:
• Potential adverse health effects of wind farm noise are discussed in an objective way.
• Means for calculating the noise at residences due to a wind farm prior to construction
are covered in detail, along with uncertainty estimates.
• The effects of meteorological conditions and other influences, such as obstacles,
ground cover and atmospheric absorption, on noise levels at residences are explained.
• Quantities that should be measured as well as how to best measure them in order to
properly characterise wind farm noise are discussed in detail.
• Noise-generation mechanisms and possible means for their control are discussed,
as well as aspects of wind farm noise that still require further research.
The book provides comprehensive coverage of the topic, containing both introductory and
advanced-level material.
Cover image: Dazzo/Gettyimages
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Wiley
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| id | DE-604.BV044394269 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-10T07:51:46Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9781118826065 |
| language | English |
| lccn | 016036077 |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-029796442 |
| oclc_num | 991585633 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-703 DE-83 |
| owner_facet | DE-703 DE-83 |
| physical | xviii, 605 Seiten |
| publishDate | 2017 |
| publishDateSearch | 2017 |
| publishDateSort | 2017 |
| publisher | Wiley |
| record_format | marc |
| series2 | Wiley series in acoustics, noise and vibration |
| spelling | Hansen, Colin H. 1951- Verfasser (DE-588)172125022 aut Wind farm noise measurement, assessment and control Colin H. Hansen, Con J. Doolan, Kristy L. Hansen Chichester Wiley 2017 xviii, 605 Seiten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Wiley series in acoustics, noise and vibration Includes bibliographical references and index Wind power plants Noise Windturbine (DE-588)4189962-3 gnd rswk-swf Lärm (DE-588)4034046-6 gnd rswk-swf Windkraftwerk (DE-588)4128839-7 gnd rswk-swf Windpark (DE-588)4543294-6 gnd rswk-swf Lärmbelastung (DE-588)4034053-3 gnd rswk-swf Windpark (DE-588)4543294-6 s Windkraftwerk (DE-588)4128839-7 s Windturbine (DE-588)4189962-3 s Lärm (DE-588)4034046-6 s Lärmbelastung (DE-588)4034053-3 s DE-604 Doolan, Con J. Verfasser (DE-588)1129883191 aut Hansen, Kristy L. Verfasser (DE-588)1129883280 aut Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, EPUB 978-1-118-82612-6 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, Adobe PDF 978-1-118-82611-9 Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=029796442&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=029796442&sequence=000002&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Klappentext |
| spellingShingle | Hansen, Colin H. 1951- Doolan, Con J. Hansen, Kristy L. Wind farm noise measurement, assessment and control Wind power plants Noise Windturbine (DE-588)4189962-3 gnd Lärm (DE-588)4034046-6 gnd Windkraftwerk (DE-588)4128839-7 gnd Windpark (DE-588)4543294-6 gnd Lärmbelastung (DE-588)4034053-3 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4189962-3 (DE-588)4034046-6 (DE-588)4128839-7 (DE-588)4543294-6 (DE-588)4034053-3 |
| title | Wind farm noise measurement, assessment and control |
| title_auth | Wind farm noise measurement, assessment and control |
| title_exact_search | Wind farm noise measurement, assessment and control |
| title_full | Wind farm noise measurement, assessment and control Colin H. Hansen, Con J. Doolan, Kristy L. Hansen |
| title_fullStr | Wind farm noise measurement, assessment and control Colin H. Hansen, Con J. Doolan, Kristy L. Hansen |
| title_full_unstemmed | Wind farm noise measurement, assessment and control Colin H. Hansen, Con J. Doolan, Kristy L. Hansen |
| title_short | Wind farm noise |
| title_sort | wind farm noise measurement assessment and control |
| title_sub | measurement, assessment and control |
| topic | Wind power plants Noise Windturbine (DE-588)4189962-3 gnd Lärm (DE-588)4034046-6 gnd Windkraftwerk (DE-588)4128839-7 gnd Windpark (DE-588)4543294-6 gnd Lärmbelastung (DE-588)4034053-3 gnd |
| topic_facet | Wind power plants Noise Windturbine Lärm Windkraftwerk Windpark Lärmbelastung |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=029796442&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=029796442&sequence=000002&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT hansencolinh windfarmnoisemeasurementassessmentandcontrol AT doolanconj windfarmnoisemeasurementassessmentandcontrol AT hansenkristyl windfarmnoisemeasurementassessmentandcontrol |