Metalurgia aramei în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni:
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Romanian |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Suceava
Ed. Univ. "Ştefan cel Mare" din Suceava [u.a.]
2012
|
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Beschreibung: | Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Copper metallurgy in the civilizations Precucuteni and Cucuteni |
| Beschreibung: | 612 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |
| ISBN: | 9786069332948 9789736663970 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Metalurgia aramei în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni |c Ion Mareş |
| 264 | 1 | |a Suceava |b Ed. Univ. "Ştefan cel Mare" din Suceava [u.a.] |c 2012 | |
| 300 | |a 612 S. |b Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 500 | |a Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Copper metallurgy in the civilizations Precucuteni and Cucuteni | ||
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text | CUPRINS
INTRODUCERE
........................................................................... 17
1.
ISTORICUL CERCETĂRILOR
............................................ 29
2.
CONDIŢIILE DE DESCOPERIRE
........................................ 47
2.1.
Concluzii
.................................................................................. 66
3.
PROVENIENŢA ARAMEI
...................................................... 68
3.1.
Tipuri de minerale şi minereuri de cupru
............................ 68
3.2.
Minerale de cupru importante
............................................... 69
3.3.
Posibilitatea exploatării zăcămintelor de cupru în
perioada eneoliticului
............................................................ 71
3.4.
Prospecţia şi mineritul
........................................................... 71
3.5.
Concluzii
................................................................................. 86
4.
PRELUCRAREA ARAMEI ÎN CIVILIZAŢIILE
PRECUCUTENI ŞI CUCUTENI
............................................ 88
4.1.
Tehnologii de prelucrare
....................................................... 88
4.2.
Concluzii
.................................................................................. 131
5.
PIESE DE ARAMĂ DIN CIVILIZAŢIILE
PRECUCUTENI ŞI CUCUTENI. TIPOLOGIE,
CRONOLOGIE ŞI UTILIZARE
............................................ 139
A. Unelte
......................................................................................... 139
А.1.
Dălţi
........................................................................................ 139
A.3. Cârlige de undiţă
.................................................................... 140
A.4. Cârlige
.................................................................................... 142
A.5. Străpungătoare
....................................................................... 142
A.B.
Unelte şi arme. Topoare
........................................................ 146
A.B.l. Topoare-ciocan
................................................................... 147
A.B.3. Topoare de formă mixta
.................................................... 159
A.B.4. Topoare cu două tăişuri dispuse în cruce (topoare-
târnăcop)
............................................................................. 162
A.B.7.
Târnăcoape cu două braţe cu tăiş orizontal şi ascuţit
(sape-pic)
.............................................................................
A.B.8. Topoare-ciocan şi topoare cu două tăişuri dispuse în
cruce de fornă necunoscută
...............................................
LOf
A.B^. Fragmente de topoare care nu mai pot fi clasificate
188
188
А.ВЛ0.
Topoare plate
....................................................................
A.B.ll. Cuţite
.................................................................................
B.Arme
...........................................................................................
200
В.1.
Pumnale
...................................................................................
200
C. Podoabe
......................................................................................
207
C.l. Brăţări
.....................................................................................
208
C.2. Verigi
.......................................................................................
215
C.3. Inele
........................................................................................
216
C.4. Mărgele
...................................................................................
218
C.S.Butoni
......................................................................................
221
C.6. Cercei
......................................................................................
222
C.8. Pandantive
/
amulete
.............................................................
222
A.C.10. Unelte şi podoabe. Ace
.....................................................
236
C.IO. Ace folosite ca podoabe
........................................................
23
Cil. Spirale
...................................................................................
240
C.n. Spirale-ochelari
....................................................................
240
D. Diverse
........................................................................................ 241
5.1.
Concluzii
.................................................................................. 246
6.
CORPUS-UL DESCOPERIRILOR CU OBIECTE DE
ARAMĂ DIN CIVILIZAŢIILE PRECUCUTENI ŞI
CUCUTENI
............................................................................... 249
7.
CONCLUZII
.............................................................................. 360
8.
ZĂCĂMINTELE ŞI APARIŢIILE DE CUPRU DIN
ROMÂNIA
................................................................................. 363
^EXPERIMENT
.......................................................................... 386
10.
REPARTIZAREA TOPOARELOR DE ARAMĂ CU
GAURĂ TRANSVERSALĂ
.................................................... 390
11.
ANEXE
.......................... 392
10
12.
DATE ARHEOZOOLOGICE
REFERITOARE
LA
METALURGIA DIN CULTURA CUCUTENI
(Florentina Carmen Oleniuc)
.................................................... 408
13.
CORPUS-IJL· DESCOPERIRILOR CU MATERIALE
ARHEOZOOLOGICE REFERITOARE LA
METALURGIA CULTURII CUCUTENI
(Florentina Carmen Oleniuc)
.................................................... 413
SUMMARY
.................................................................................... 431
ABREVIERI
................................................................................... 467
BIBLIOGRAFIE
............................................................................ 473
ILUSTRAŢII
.................................................................................. 507
HĂRŢI
............................................................................................ 597
11
SUMMARY
COPPER METALLURGY IN THE CIVILIZATIONS
PRECUCUTENI AND CUCUTENI is a separate topic on the
Eneolithic civilization, which used copper for the development of
different categories of objects.
The approaching of the subject was from the beginning
conditioned by the difficulty of solving many problems that we tried to
answer. One of these concerns the origin of copper used in ancient
metallurgy to manufacture the wide variation of pieces used in that
time, by the cultures mentioned.
Whether for mapping the locations where are deposits of copper
in Romania (with the kinds of ores and minerals from such metal; see
chapter
8,
map
1)
there are information especially in the geological
literature, they are missing so far in terms of identifying and
archaeology of the old mining operation
(MARES,
2002,
p.
55-61,
347-356).
Problem in copper production technologies used in Cucuteni
and Precucuteni civilizations remains an open topic. So far the
metallography measurement analyses were carried out on objects of
copper from the mentioned cultures, which
certifies
secure
technological processes applied then.
Identification and definition of the technological operations
used in copper production in the Precucuteni and Cucuteni cultures are
determined by the results of the analysis shown above.
We have outlined, on the basis of the data available, as far as
was possible, the drafting operations applied throughout the phases
completed in copper production, following the same methodology in
presenting the technologies by morpho-functional categories, morpho-
technical groups, types and versions of objects. The results of micro
and macro-structural analysis (spectrographic, metallographic,
stereomicroscope observations) were commented for each typological
group and for each investigated object.
429
Ion Mareş
On the typology of copper objects of Precucuteni and Cucuteni
cultures we consider that a complement to the existing data in the
literature
(A. VULPE,
1975;
MAREŞ,
2002),
by establishing types and
variations within groups or categories of objects being studied is not a
closed thing.
Methodological, copper objects from the Precucuteni and
Cucuteni culture are classified as:
1.
morpho-functional categories, denoted by uppercase letters:
A. Tools,
A.B.
Tools and weapons, B. Weapons, C. Ornaments,
A.C.
Tools and ornaments, D. Diverse. For reasons purely theoretical, but
necessary for such an approach in which I had in mind the use of the
objects, I have established the combined group
A.B.
Tools and
weapons, to include here copper axes which, in our sense, had in most
cases a dual use.
We also included in the combined category
A.C.
Tools and
ornaments, a number of needles which have fulfilled either the
function of tools used in household, or the function of ornaments, on
the grounds that so far there are no findings from the Eneolithic, of
copper needles with the ear perforated transversal in the proximal area,
a fact which would allow the certainty in assigning the use.
Similarly, in the category ornaments (C.) were included needles
which had this destination. Furthermore, we have not decided to
appoint a group of axes that have been discovered either singular or in
some archaeological contexts, or part of some deposits, under certain
conditions, and that had a different destination (in connection with the
superstructure of the era, being either votive deposits, or insignia of
power and social prestige).
In the case of valuable deposits containing different types of
objects of ornament, made of various materials,
Ariuşd, Brad,
Carbuna
(SERGEEV,
1963;
KLEJN,
1968;
DERGAČEV,
1998),
Hăbăşeşti,
including copper, or axe-hammer
Vidra
type discovered in the
sanctuary from Cucuteni A2 settlement at
Mărgineni
(see no.
2404),
their meaning and purpose we think it certainly link to the
430
_____
Metalurgia
aramei
în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni
_____
superstructure
of Eneolithic
civilizations and mainly to the religious
practices, the magical rituals, votive deposits, symbols of power and
wealth, prestige and social rank;
2.
morpho-technical or typological groups, defined for each
morpho-functional category, on the basis of its own features that define
and individualizes them, denoted by numerals:
A.B. 4. -
Axes with
double-edge arranged in cross (axes-pecker) ,
3.
types, denoted by numerals: A.B.4.2.
-
Jaszladany type ,
4.
typological variants: A.B.4.2.1.
-
Brad version.
Typological codes were needed for the individualization of each
object in the database, for statistical and computerized processing of
the material, in the limits of the documentation that I had my disposal.
Within morpho-functional categories, conventionally marked
(which will be looked at as variable reference points), were defined
types and its variants, some registered after our classification (chisels,
hammers, hooks for fishing rods, hooks, knives, daggers, bracelets,
shackles, rings, beads, earrings, cufflinks, pendants, belts, columns,
ace and various), while for others, as I pointed out above (axes group),
I used the typology established by Prof.
Alexandru Vulpe
in the
monograph on copper axes in Romania
(A. VULPE,
1975),
to which I
added some new types and I have completed the corpus with
discoveries of such objects after
1975.
Morphology comprises the essential data regarding the objects
description: contour, section, the distal extremity
(DE),
the distal part
(DP), the medial part (MP), the proximal part (PP), proximal extremity
(PE), signs, markings etc., by following the same presentation
methodology (see Chapter
5).
Morphometry contains dimensional parameters (expressed in
centimetres, weight in kilograms; see abbreviations in the corpus) for
each piece studied by us or for data taken from literature, these
parameters being registered, along with the spectrograph analyses, in
corpus.
431
Ion Mareş
Also important is the issue of the context in which were found
the copper pieces of the Precucuteni and Cucuteni culture. From the
analysis of the data we possess, we find that pieces of copper, mostly
(in the case of axes), are isolated and coincidental discoveries (corpus,
passim). From the settlements come many copper objects, diverse in
terms of typology, discovered in safe conditions and, in many
instances, with clear references for dating. A real importance is the
interpretation of discoveries of deposits, of objects discovered in the
sanctuaries, in dwelling, in
/
on and near the fireplaces, household pits,
complex, in the culture stratification, as a part of anthropomorphic
statuettes etc.
Metallurgy of copper in the Precucuteni and Cucuteni culture is
an important area in which reputed experts from our country and from
abroad and have made a significant contribution.
1.
HISTORY OF RESEARCHES
By the end of the 19th century were written a few works that
make reference to copper objects of prehistory, from this pioneering
period of Romanian archaeology.
Archaeologist
Ferenc László
undertook systematic
archaeological researches in Eneolithic sit situated on the
Dealul
Tyiszk from
Ariuşd,
among the discoveries being a repository with
objects of ornament and pieces of copper, published by him in
1911
(F.
LÁSZLÓ,
1911^.50-51,258).
Between
1909
and
1910
the German professor Hubert
Schmid
has conducted excavations in the eponymous resort of Cucuteni culture
at
Cetăţuia, Băiceni,
the results of investigations being included in the
monograph Cucuteni (SCHMIDT,
1932).
From these researches have
resulted and copper pieces included by the German scholar in the
monograph mentioned above.
In Moldova, in the
1930s,
excavations were undertaken in
several archaeological sites. During archaeological campaigns in
1936,
1938-1939
and
1948,
made by
Radu Vulpe
and Ecaterina
Vulpe
at the
432
_____
Metalurgia
aramei
în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni
_____
Izvoare
site, were discovered copper objects included in the
monograph
Izvoare
written by
Radu Vulpe (R. VULPE,
1957,
p. Ill,
263-265).
The priest
Constantin Matasă,
a passionate archaeologist,
undertook archaeological research in the cucutenian settlement of
Frumuşica
(during
1939
and
1942)
and the copper objects were
published in the monograph
Frumuşica,
written in French
(MATASÄ,
1946,
p.
20, 22-23, 88-89, 158, 162).
The cucutenian site from
Hăbăşeşti
was archaeologically
exhaustive investigated during the period
1949-1950
by a collective
headed by Vladimir Dumitrescu.
Hăbăşeşti
monograph, published in
1954,
gave the author the opportunity to bring about both a detailed
analysis of the deposit with ornament objects (some made of copper)
and brass pieces resulted from these researches, and the interpretation
of the discoveries (chronologically, analogies, typology etc.) (VL.
DUMITRESCU
ET AL.,
1954,
p.
269-271, 435, 439-440, 465-466).
Another Eneolithic site archaeologically exhaustive investigated is the
one from
Târpeşti
-
Râpa lui
Bodai, and publication, in English, of the
monograph
Târpeşti
prepared by
Silvia Marinescu-Bîlcu
offers the
analysis of copper objects
(MARINESCU-BÎLCU,
1981,
p.
29, 58, 69-
70,74-76,78,80-81).
In the numerous archaeological campaigns carried out by
Hortensia
Dumitrescu and Vladimir Dumitrescu from Traian
-
Dealul
Fântânilor,
were discovered copper objects mentioned in the reports of
the excavations (H. DUMITRESCU, VL. DUMITRESCU,
1959,
fíg.
5/9-14;
H.
DUMITRESCU
ET AL.,
1952,
p.
135-136;
H.
DUMITRESCU,
1959,
p.
197;
EADEM, 1961a, p.
92, 95-97, 101;
IDEM, VL. DUMITRESCU,
1970,
p.
41;
H. DUMITRESCU,
1953,
p.
59;
EADEM,
1954,
p.
44, 46),
but most of them remain unpublished.
Truşeşti
monograph, recently published, a work of reference for
archaeological research in our country, also includes the metal pieces
(PETRESCU-DÎMBOVIŢA,
MARILENA
FLORESCU,
ADRIAN
С.
FLORESCU,
1999).
From the settlement of Brad (the archaeological excavations in
433
Ion Mareş
1963)
comes
an axe-pecker, published by
Alexandru Vulpe (VULPE,
1964,
p.
457-458),
and an impressive repository of objects of ornament
has been analyzed by Vasile Ursachi in a study drafted in French,
published in
1990
(URSACHI,
1990)
and republished in
1992
(URSACHI,
1992).
Copper objects found in the Eneolithic sites from Moldova
were published by
Aristotel
Crâşmaru (Drăguşeni) (CRÂŞMARU,
1970,
p.
268;
IDEM,
1971,
p.
479-483;
IDEM,
1977,
p.
23-24),
Dan
Monah (Mărgineni, Poduri) (MONAH,
1978,
p.
36, 40;
IDEM,
1986,
p.
31;
IDEM,
1997,
p.
36;
IDEM
ET AL.,
1997;
MONAH,
POPOVICI,
2000),
Nicolae Ursulescu and
Dumitru
Boghian
(Târgu
Frumos)
(URSULESCU, BOGHIAN,
1997-1998,
p.
16-17),
Constantin Matasă (Târgu Ocna)
(MATASÄ, 1964,
p.
23-24),
Anton
Niţu,
and
Constantin Buzdugan (Viişoara) (NIŢU, BUZDUGAN,
1971,
p.
97, 100),
in studies, excavation reports and in
Drăguşeni
monograph
(CRÂŞMARU,
1970,
p.
23-24).
Copper pieces coming from the settlement of Cucuteni A3
culture at
Scânteia
have been published by
Cornelia-Magda
Mantu
and
Senica
Ţurcanu
in the
Scânteia,
catalogue of the exhibition, organised
at the Museum of Moldova
(MANTU,
ŢURCANU,
1999,
p.
lì. 126
127,
no.
277-282)
and in the study published by Comelia-Magda
Lazarovici (CM. LAZAROVICI,
2005).
Copper axes from the Romanian Eneolithic have enjoyed
special attention by researchers who had concerns in this area. Thus,
within the collection
Prähistorische Bronzefunde
under the redaction
of H.
Müller-Karpe,
appeared two volumes of reference for bronze
(1970)
and copper
(1975)
axes from Romania, prepared by P**
Alexandru Vulpe (A. VULPE,
1970;
IDEM,
1975).
The second
volume contains copper axes in our country, with the typology,
chronology, spreading, with lists of pieces by typological groups,
registered on localities, with data about the context of discoveries and
the bibliography of the problem. Original pieces are brought to lifiP *y
publishing in this work, and mapping by mentioning the numbers
oí
434
Metalurgia
aramei
în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni
_____
specimens
in the lists and by types of axes is extremely effective.
As regards publication of certain copper axes on the territory of
Romania should be mentioned some important works (repertories or
catalogs) prepared by G.
Goos (GOOS,
1876),
J.
Hampel (HAMPEL,
1896),
I.
Marţian (MARŢIAN,
1920),
B. Milleker (MILLEKER,
1891),
J. F. Neigebaur (NEIGEBAUR,
1851), F. Pulsky (PULSKY,
1894; 1897), M. Roska (M. ROSKA, 1942a; 1942b), H. Schroller
(SCHROLLER, 1933)
until the end of the second world war, being
published and other special or general works, in which are treated
copper axes in the Eneolithic published by F. Ardos (ARDOS,
1936),
Dumitru Berciu
(realize a typology of copper axes and makes
references to copper metallurgy: sources, technological processes of
development, dating and use for some specimens, as well as a brief
history of research) (BERCIU,
1939,
p.
69, 83-89;
IDEM,
1941,
p.
3
and
seq.;
IDEM,
1939-1942;
IDEM,
1943),
Dorin Popescu
(publish
some unedited objects from Transylvania) (POPESCU,
1943,
p.
25-32,
37, 126).
After
1949
there appeared numerous works (studies, articles,
notes, monographs, catalogs, repertories) in which were presented
copper axes of the Cucuteni civilization area. We can notice the
publishing of the specimens from the collections of some museums or
from private collections, by including them in special works elaborated
by Viorel
Capitami
(two axes-picker from the Museum from
Bacău
and
12
axes from Moldova)
(CÃPITANU,
1971),
Ghenuţă
Coman
(axes,
Vaslui
county)
(COMAN,
1980;
IDEM,
1981,
p.
151-152),
Florea Costea
(axes from
Braşov
County)
(COSTEA,
1995),
Aristotel
Crîşmaru
(the axe from
Drăguşeni, Botoşani
County)
(CRÎŞMARU,
1971,
p.
479-483),
Ştefan Cucoş
(an axe from
Trifeşti) (CUCOŞ,
1992a), Ion. T. Dragomir
(axes from
Galaţi
County) (DRAGOMIR,
1979),
Adrian Florescu (axe-picker from
Floreşti, Vaslui
County and
reports relating to other pieces) (FLORESCU,
1954),
Dan
Monah
(axes from
Bacău
and
Neamţ
counties)
(MONAH,
1969;
IDEM,
1986)
and in collaboration with
Constantin
Iconomu (two axes-picker from
435
Ion Mareş
Moldova)
(MONAH, ICONOMU,
1993),
Ion Nestor
(an axe-picker in
Cătina, Buzău
county) (NESTOR,
1938),
Eugenia Popuşoi
(two axes
in Vaslui
county)
(POPUŞOI,
1979,
p.
301-302;
EADEM,
1987-1989,
p.
15-16, 18-19),
Zoltán Székely
(axes from the Museum of Sfantu
Gheorghe)
(SZÉKELY ZOLTÁN,
1967,
p.
327
and
seq.),
Viorica
Crişan
(axes of
Harghita
County s museums) (V.
CRIŞAN,
1994),
Ion
Mareş
(pieces from Bucovina Museum of
Suceava) (MAREŞ,
2004;
IDEM,
2009).
A rich monographic work on copper metallurgy in
Romanian Neo-Eneolithic was published by Ion
Mareş.
Volume treats
thoroughly various problems of the ancient metallurgy such as: the
discovery of copper objects, origin and processing of the copper,
typology, chronology and use of copper objects, a corpus of the
discoveries of copper pieces, deposits and occurrences of copper in
Romania, experiment, micro and macro structural analysis,
illustrations
(MAREŞ,
2002).
The author was also concerned with
other aspects of copper metallurgy, writting complex studies on:
copper processing in Cucuteni-Tripolye culture (copper axes)
(MAREŞ,
CO
JOC
ARU,
1996),
types and variants of local copper
pieces of Cucuteni-Tripolye culture (pendant
en violon)
(MAREŞ,
2007),
a deposit containing two copper pieces from
Lişmăniţa,
Botoşani
County (IDEM, 2009a), copper pieces of the Cucuteni culture
(IDEM, 2009c), the use of copper with arsenic (arsenical bronze) in
Romanian Eneolithic (IDEM,
2012).
Spectrographic analyses, performed by the
Arbeitsgemeinschaft
fúr
Metallurgie des Altertums
from
Würtembergisches Landesmuseum
in Stuttgart
and published in
1968
by
Siegfried Junghans, Edward
Sangmeister and Manfred Schröder,
include data relating to copper
objects from Romania
(JUNGHANS, SANGMEISTER, SCHRÖDER,
1968c), which we ve used in this paper (see corpus).
During several programmes and projects have been carried out
complex interdisciplinary investigations geo-chemical,
рЬУ*іс
chemical properties (micro and macro structural analysis), both for
Neolithic and Eneolithic copper objects, and for samples of copper ore
436
Metalurgia
aramei
în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni
_____
(from different mines and mining areas) in Transylvania and
Banat,
being made an important database, the results being published in a
series of studies of the researchers
Călin Beşliu,
Gheorghe Lazarovici
(BEŞLIU,
LAZAROVICI,
1990),
Gheorghe Lazarovici, Dana Pop,
Călin Beşliu,
Agatha Olariu (in
1995)
(LAZAROVICI, POP,
OLARIU,
1995),
Gheorghe
Topan,
Gheorghe Lazarovici, Adrian
Bálint
(in
1996)
(TOPAN,
LAZAROVICI,
BÁLINT,
1996).
Copper axes from South-Eastern and Eastern Europe have
enjoyed much attention from specialists, being treated differently in
the content of some works (studies, monographs, catalogs, repertories)
prepared by J. Driehaus (DRIEHAUS,
1952-1955,
p.
1-8),
T.
Sulimirski (axes from Western Ukraine and the deposit at
Horodniţa)
(SULIMIRSKI,
1961,
p.
91-96),
F. Schubert (SCHUBERT,
1965,
p.
274-295),
V. G. Zbenovič
(axes from Ukraine)
(ZBENOVIČ,
1969,
p.
135-142),
M.
Novotná
(axes from Slovakia)
(NOVOTNÁ,
1970),
В.
Jovanović
(axes from Serbia, in a work on metallurgy in Yugoslavia
Eneolithic)
(JOVANOVIČ,
1971a),
E. N. Černyh
(axes from Bulgaria,
in a ample work on mining and metallurgy in the prehistory of this
country)
(ČERNYH,
1978a, p.
89-111),
H. Todorova (axes from
Bulgaria) (TODOROVA,
1981;
EADEM,
1986),
D.
Šljivar
(axes from
Serbia)
(ŠLJIVAR,
1992,
p.
167-177)
and others (MAYER,
1977;
RIHOVSKÝ,
1992;
ŽERAVICA,
1993).
Copper metallurgy of the Tripolye culture has enjoyed special
attention by researchers, particularly after the Second World War. In a
syntheses paper published in
1949,
T. S. Passek dealt with the
discoveries of copper objects (PASSEK,
1949).
The well known
deposit with ornament objects from
Cărbuna
was published by G. P.
Sergeev (SERGEEV,
1963,
p.
135-151).
The detailed analyse of the
deposit (objects typology, dating, analogies with similar objects in
Europe, origin) was made by L. S. Klejn (KLEJN,
1968).
The metallographic analyses (macro and micro structural) of
pieces from the deposit and of some copper objects of the early
Tripolye culture were carried out by
N.
V. Ryndina, in a study in
1969
437
Ion Mareş
(RYNDINA,
1969).
The author has compiled two monographic works
on copper processing technology in Tripolye culture (phases Tripolye
A, respective Precucuteni; Tripolye
В
I, respective Cucuteni A and
Tripolye
В
II, and Cucuteni
А
-B),
both based on her own assessment,
resulted from macro and micro structural investigations, and from
interpretation of the spectrographic analyses and some experiments
(EADEM,
1971,
p.
47-135;
EADEM,
1998).
In various studies, monographs about prehistoric settlements or
in synthesis works, researchers have made references to copper objects
of the Tripolye culture and have been dealt, generally, with the copper
metallurgy issues. We mention the works prepared by A. E. Balagun,
I. V. Bidzilja, I. S. Penjak (BALAGURI, BIDZILIJA, PENJAK,
1968,
p.
7-19, 112-114),
S.
N.
Bibikov and
V. G. Zbenovič
(BIBIKOV,
ZBENOVIČ,
1985,
p.
193-206),
V. A. Dergačev
and
L V. Manzura
(DERGAČEV,
MANZURA,
1991),
V. L
Marchevici (MARCHEVICI,
1973;
IDEM,
1981,
p.
103-104),
T. G. Movša (MOVŠA,
1971,
p.
165
and
seq.;
EADEM,
1985,
p.
208-209),
M. M. Šmaglii (ŠMAGLII,
1971,
p.
205
and
seq.),
V. Haheu and S. Kurciatov (HAHEU,
KURCIATOV,
1993,
p.
101
and
seq.),
O. Şcipacin (ŞCIPACIN,
1998,
p.
69-71)
and others.
Professor
E. N. Černyh
dealt closely with the issues of old
copper metallurgy in the former Soviet Union and in other areas, in a
special work and in studies published over time
(E. N. ČERNYH,
1972;
IDEM,
1976,
p.
134-175;
IDEM,
1978).
British researcher T. A.
P. Greeves approached various aspects relating to the use of copper
m
Cucuteni-Tripolye culture, in a study published in
1975
(GREEVES,
1975,
p.
153-166).
2.
DISCOVERY CONDITIONS
Copper pieces of Precucuteni and Cucuteni civilizations
resulted, most of them, from the archaeological excavations carried out
in different investigated settlements, especially starting at the end of
the
19
century and until now {corpus, passim). In the archaeological
438
Metalurgia
aramei
în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi
С
ucuteni
sites systematically researched copper objects were discovered in
different contexts: in the levels, in housing, in household pits and
worship, in constructions for the cult (sanctuaries) and within some
archaeological complex. In situations where the copper pieces resulted
from secure
stratigraphie
conditions (closed complexes), they
constitute the chronological landmarks to date, by analogy, of similar
specimens discovered incidentally. References shall be made in
particular for typological categories of pieces that are relevant
guidelines for such a methodological approach to the problem, valid
being the case of the copper axes. Not the same thing happens with
copper objects that have had a long evolution, and typologically, have
not undergone major changes: some types of chisels, hooks, knives,
fishing rods, links, bracelets, rings, beads, needles.
A considerable number of copper objects were found by
incident, some of which are isolated discoveries. In most cases there
are data about the location and context of the discoveries, but in others
(corpus) are missing. It must be noted a preference for keeping the
precious copper objects, both for the value of the metal, as well as for
their use, such as some hammer-axes
Vidra
type, which were stored in
the sanctuaries
(Mărgineni,
no.
2404),
in dwellings (Cucuteni, no.
2379;
Lupeşti,
no.
2399;
Reci,
no.
2459)
or also in dwelling, an mixed
form
axe (Drăguşeni,
no.
2321),
axes-picker
Jászladány
type, variants
Petreşti (Stânca,
no.
2488,
near a cross shaped fireplace) and Brad
(Brad, no.
1989,
in the dwelling), flat axes
(Valea Şoşii,
no.
2589
in
the dwelling).
We also note the presence of copper beads in a large number,
over
2.500
copies (they outnumber the other copper objects), both in
the repositories
(Ariuşd, Brad, Hăbăşeşti),
and in the settlements, in
layers of culture, housing, household pits. Many are the perforators and
the needles found in settlements, in dwellings, in pits.
For the discoveries conditions we have proposed an analysis of
the copper objects by types (see Chapter
5)
and in order to avoid
439
Ion Mareş
repetition, I noted with A. the findings in the settlements, with B.
deposits and with C. incidental discoveries.
3.
COPPER PROVENANCE
Mineral deposits of copper ore, on the surface of the Earth s
crust as a result of geological processes, are found in the native state,
or in chemical combination: sulphides, tellurium, arsenic, oxides,
carbonates (MANUAL,
1978,
p.
27;
P.
DĂNILĂ,
M.
DANILA,
1982,
p.
29
and
seq.)
and others. Copper has a high affinity for sulphides and,
in this case, is in pirometasomathic and
hydrothermal
sulphuric ores.
The richness of resources with copper ores from Romania (see
chap.
8,
passim) has facilitated unambiguously the exploitation and use
of the metal in prehistory and in subsequent periods. Arguments which
support this statement emerges indirectly from the large amount of
copper in the pieces made from this metal found on Romania territory
(MARES,
2002),
and in areas with rich copper resources (see Chapter
8).
The subject remains a matter of the future and will be clarified
through the detection and operation of archaeological investigation in
the former mining sites. To hazard on a field of the unknown for an
issue of assumptions is slippery matter and does not bring relevant
explanations to be taken into consideration. However, it is a fact that in
the period of Romanian Eneolithic, during the classical civilizations
(Gumelniţa, Sălcuţa, Petreşti,
Tiszapolgár, Bodrogkeresztúr, Cucuteni),
we rationally discuss about a copper metallurgy that is touching
outstanding performances by the technologies used in the processing of
this metal and by obtaining some typological categories of varied
pieces and in quantities much higher compared to other European areas
(MARES,
2002).
Starting from existing data, we try to outline the essential side
of the field: mining. This economic activity implies the existence of
specialized workers, miners, connoisseurs of copper
min««
techniques, even complicated (even today) but, at the same time,
ingenious for the starting period of the metallurgy.
440
_____
Metalurgia
aramei
în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni
_____
Some copper resources in Romania have been known and used
from the Eneolithic to obtain objects. Remain that the results of future
archaeological research to certify the hypotheses expressed in
connection with the old mining.
The richness of natural copper resources from Romania (see
chap.
8)
constituted an important support for the development of
copper metallurgy in the Eneolithic. Detection and exploitation of
those rich resources (prospecting and mining) in prehistory is
indirectly evidenced, both, by morpho-functional categories, morpho-
technical groups of pieces produced from this metal and their number,
as well as by direct discoveries of copper ore, pieces of native copper
in some Neo-Eneolithic settlements
(MARES,
2002,
p.
60-61).
In Eneolithic were used native copper ores, sulphuric, oxides
and copper with arsenic ores. As shown in the next chapter, most of the
objects are produced from native copper, with or without
accompanying natural elements.
4.
PROCESSING OF COPPER IN PRECUCUTENI AND
CUCUTENI CIVILIZATIONS
Identifying the technologies involved in copper metallurgy from
Romanian Neo-Eneolithic, in general, for each morpho-functional
category and morpho-technical group defined and, in particular, for
each studied object, was and is under the attention of specialists who
have concerns in this area
(MARES,
2002).
We remind the important
projects concerning of macro and micro structural investigations
(metallographic and spectrographic) on some objects and samples of
copper, conducted from
1980
onwards, initiated by professor
Călin
Beşliu
(University of Bucharest, Department of Nuclear Physics), in
collaboration with researchers at the National History Museum of
Romania in Bucharest, extended later at the National Museum of
Transylvania; other museums in Transylvania and
Banat (Reşiţa,
Satu
Mare, Romania)
have initiated and implemented a project
(1991-
1992),
coordinated by the National Museum of Transylvania and
441
Ion Mareş
supported by Romanian Institute of Thracology
(1992-1993),
Mineralogy Museum and the Department of Mineralogy-
Petrometalogeny, from
Babeş-Bolyai
University in
Cluj
(1991-1993),
Reşiţa
Museum
(1992)
and other institutions
(BEŞLIU,
LAZAROVICI,
1990;
L
AZARO
VICI,
POP,
BEŞLIU, OLARIU,
1995;
TOPAN,
LAZAROVICI,
BÁLINT,
1996).
Projects regarding
this area of research of the copper objects in Romanian Eneolithic runs
since
1996
in the Local Laboratory of Restoration and Conservation of
Bukovina
Museum, but the results are modest and in its beginnings
(see Chapter
11).
Through the data presented above we affirm that in Precucuteni
and Cucuteni there was a copper metallurgy practised by professional
craftsmen, who used in this area both mechanical procedures of
processing (forging, rolling, cutting, grinding, welding, bending,
punching, stamping, sharpening, tempering, twisting, and possibly
figurative beating), and the techniques of reduction, melting and
casting.
The first stage of copper metallurgy is marked when in
Neolithic and Early Eneolithic were used mechanical techniques of
processing copper objects, making it possible that the experience of the
craftsman in the recalled field to be based on a combination of
knowledge gained from practicing metal blacksmiths (copper, gold).
It is true that the small quantity of copper objects suggest this stage of
initiation in the field of ancient metallurgy in the Early Eneolithic, but
we take into account the fact that archaeological investigations so far
represent only a small percentage compared to the number of
unexplored archaeological stations.
The second stage of the copper metallurgy is carried out with
the use of the techniques for reduction, melting and casting, along with
the mechanical ones. It is more difficult due to lack of metallography
analyses, to point out exactly which are the oldest pieces made by
casting. However, through the data presented above and below (see
chap.
5
and corpus) we can speak of a metallurgy of copper, with all
442
_____
Metalurgia
aramei
în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi
С
ucuteni
_____
its characteristic features, from the Developed Eneolithic (middle or
classic), in the cultures
Gumelniţa,
phases A, B,
Sălcuţa,
phases III,
IV,
Petreşti,
stages
А
-B,
B,
Tiszapolgár,
phases A, B, cultural group
Decea
Mureşului,
Bodrogkeresztúr
phases I, II, Cucuteni, phases A, A-
B,
В
(MARES,
2002,
p.
84).
About copper metallurgy, in every sense of the word, we can
discuss as Edward
Sangmeister
points
(SANGMEISTER, 1975,
p.
297),
since was obtained
metallurgie
molten copper either from a
sulphuric or oxide mineral, or from copper ore (chapter
3, 8)
and this
was possible when there were technical premises, temperatures over
1000°C.
We are convinced that copper melting was related to the
development of kilns for burning pottery. It is clear, however, that for
copper melting, which occurs at 1085°C, and the reduction of ore at
about 700-800°C (NESTOR,
1954,
p.
43;
IDEM,
1955,
p.
2;
A.
VULPE,
1973,
p.
218;
IDEM,
1976,
p.
134;
MARES,
2002,
p.
85)
was
necessary to obtain these temperatures, the contact with the burning
techniques of ceramics in kilns being obvious (BERCIU
(1967,
p.
203;
RENFREW,
1969,
p.
36;
A. VULPE,
1973,
p.
217;
IDEM,
1976,
p.
135;
MARES,
2002,
p.
85).
Temperatures of up to 700°C are ascertained for burning the
fine ceramics of
Vădastra
I culture
(A. VULPE,
1973,
p.
218;
IDEM,
1976,
p.
135),
the burning of graphite painted ceramics of
Kodjadermen-Gumelniţa-Karanovo
VI culture was made at about
1050°C (by testing and making the chemical analysis of a fragment of
graphite painted ceramic by J. Frieman is set the mentioned
temperature and the fact that the vessel was burned in a reducing
atmosphere, deliberately controlled; REFREW,
1969,
p.
38,
pi. VII
and
annex II from p.
42-43;
see also
A. VULPE,
1973,
p.
218),
and for
painted with gold powder ceramic of this culture is noted a firing
performance of 1200°C (LICHARDUS, LICHARDUS-ITTEN,
1985,
p.
375).
Temperatures range from about
700
and 1050°C were attained
in the evolved kilns for burning ceramics, this being called with
Ion Mareş
reverberation, discovered in the Cucuteni A3 stage to the Cucuteni B2
stage
(COMŞA, 1976a,
p.
361-364;
IDEM, 1976b, p.
27-30;
IDEM,
1976b, p.
99-101;
ALAIBA,
2007,
p.
67-76, 116-118).
In a monograph on pottery craft, Ph. Ruxandra Alaiba make out
a Repertoire of the sites of Precucuteni
-
Cucuteni
-
Tripolye
-
Horodiştea - Gordineşti
civilizations, in which were discovered kilns
for burning ceramics (ALAIBA,
2007,
p.
119-147).
Unquestionable
that the metallurgist craftsmen have used such facilities for melting
and casting of copper, but kilns with traces of processing (molten
metal, slag etc.) have not been discovered until now in Cucutem-
Tripolye civilization. To raise the temperature in the kilns was alleged
the use of blowers, tubes (connecting pieces) of clay, which were
attached to the end of bellows. Such pieces were discovered in some of
the cucutenian settlements (EADEM, p.
70).
It is important the
information about the existence of the remnants of some kilns perhaps
metallurgical (disturbed by the treasure hunters) in the Eneolithic tell
of
Poduri
-
Dealul
Ghindarli,
but these have not yet been
archaeologically researched
(MONAH,
POPO
VICI,
2000,
p.
4).
The main raw material used in the manufacture of metal objects
in Romanian Eneolithic, as the spectral analyses are documenting, is
the native copper, with or without accompanying natural elements (in
proportions almost insignificant)
(MARES,
2002,
p.
85).
Also, for the
middle and final Eneolithic is adding the copper-arsenic alloy
(intermediate phase specific to Cu-As alloy or the arsenical bronze)
m
proportions more or less than
1
percent arsenic in solid metal, which
was obtained from sources of ores with such chemical composition
(detected by the smell of garlic characteristic of arsenic) (IBIDEM).
An important activity in the Eneolithic copper production was
the technological process of reduction of copper ores. The results of
the reduction have created the widening of the availability of usmg
copper ores. The separation of copper from ore (the case of copper
oxides) is performed, as it was found, at a temperature of
700-800
C,
through reduction (NESTOR,
1955,
p.
2;
RENFREW,
1969,
p. 36;
444
_____
Metalurgia
aramei
în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni
_____
RYNDINA,
1971,
p.
53,
reference
23;
A. VULPE,
1973,
p.
218;
IDEM,
1976,
p.
135;
GREEVES,
1975,
p.
154).
By reducing the
copper oxides was obtained a malleable metal, which was processed
either in this form (plastic deformation by forging) (RYNDINA,
1971,
p.
53,
reference
23;
GREEVES,
1975,
p.
154-155),
or by its re-melting
(elimination of the impurities by refining) and casting. Refining
process during development (thermal refining by puddling) was
highlighted in two copper axes micro-structurally investigated
(MARES,
2002,
p.
361-364).
On the preference between the two
techniques of obtaining copper, melting and reduction, we can t
pronounce, but both were used in VI millennium B.C. in Anatolia
(ESIN,
1981,
p.
110).
Using a solid fuel with a low content of sulphur
and phosphorus (charcoal) is documented by spectral analyses made
for two copper axes
(MARES,
2002,
p.
361-364).
The operations of
reducing copper ore required the use of charcoal (charcoal) with which
was being made the mixture in the crucible and cover it in the kiln
(GREEVES,
1975,
p.
158).
From the settlement of Cucuteni A3 at
Hăbăşeşti
come, by some
authors (RYNDINA,
1971,
p.
112,
fig.
24/3-5;
GREEVES,
1975,
p.
158)
a few small burnt clay crucibles, but these are, as I have
indicated, and on another occasion
(MAREŞ, COJOC
ARU,
1995-
1996,
p.
192,
footnote
35),
miniature pots (VL. DUMITRESCU
ET
AL.,
1954,
p.
385^1.
CXI).
In the level of Cucuteni
В
culture, from the Eneolithic tell at
Poduri,
near a cross shaped fireplace was found, a crucible used
perhaps for melting metal (no.
2454),
the others being found in the
Cucuteni A2 level of the site (no.
2455, 2456, 2457).
Until recently, the existence of Eneolithic workshops where
craftsmen have manufactured copper objects was at the level of
assumptions, but the discovery made in the Cucuteni
В
settlement from
Brânzeni VIII,
the point
Sâece
(Republic of Moldova), confirmed the
assumptions. On the bottom of a pit dug near a dwelling in the
mentioned settlement were found three fragments of a clay crucible
445
Ion Mareş
(with wall thickness from
1.5
to
1.8
cm), which preserves the traces of
green colour, a block of metal slag (considering the curvature was
calculated the diameter of the crucible, close to its bottom, of
45-47
cm, taking into account the approximate volume and density of the
molten copper was found that it reach a weight of
40-45
kg of metal)
and a miner hammer with a circular flute (MARCHEVICI,
1996,
p.
210-211).
These findings demonstrate that in the settlement has been
functioning a workshop for melting and casting of imported copper,
according to V. I. Marchevici, the author of the researches in the
Carpathians, Dobrogea or Rodopi (IBIDEM, p.
211).
The data are also
relevant for the reporting of trade in raw materials from areas where
there were deposits of copper (see Chapter
3).
We have resumed and supported in a study the hypothesis of the
existence in the Eneolithic, of itinerant masters which, taking with
them the necessary materials (native copper, semis, tools), have
developed in settlements different metal objects
(MARES,
COJOCARU,
1995-1996,
p.
188-189).
The hypothesis is suggested
both by the fact that there are great distances from the copper deposits,
in the case of many cucutenian-tripolian sites in which have been
discovered objects (references are made especially for axes category),
and by that not every member of a community could know or apply the
techniques at all simple such as reduction, melting and casting of
copper, alongside the other adjacent activities of the elaboration
process by casting
(MARES,
2002,
p.
86).
The diffusion of the metal through economic exchange in the
form of semis (ingots, bars, plates, metal sheets, wires) of the raw
material (especially native copper pieces) and of finished objects is
evident. The routes on the metal diffusion could be determined when
spectral analysis results will allow the division in chemical groups of
all series of pieces, and the comparisons with similar series from other
areas (Central, South-Eastern and Eastern Europe) will make possible
eventual repartitions to producing mining centres, in general and
m
446
Metalurgia
aramei
în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni
particular.
In any case, if we take into account only the deposits with
copper objects in the area of Precucuteni-Cucuteni-Tripolye cultures
(Ariuşd, Brad, Cărbuna, Căinări, Conteşti, Hăbăşeşti, Horodniţa,
Lişmăniţa, Fundu Văii)
and their geographical distribution (see the
maps), we can find the proximity of copper resources in the Carpathian
Mountains.
Macro and micro structural investigations on copper objects of
Tripolye
А, В І, В
II culture (Precucuteni, Cucuteni A,
А
-B,
B) have
documented both the local production, and the economic exchange
relationships with copper semis from the areas with such ore deposits
(Carpathian and Balkan) (RYNDINA,
1969,
p.
21-41;
EADEM,
1971;
EADEM,
1998).
Same thing was noted and by us, stressing local
production of some types of axes and axes-hammer with two edges
disposed in cross from Cucuteni-Tripolye culture
(MARES,
COJOC
ARU,
1995-1996,
p.
200),
obvious and for other categories of
objects
(MARES,
2007).
From the data presented in this chapter result that the
production area of the Carpathian is highlighted (mining and
metallurgy) by possible fireplaces, centre of production and workshops
in Transylvania and Moldova, in relation to the civilizations
Precucuteni
-
Cucuteni
-
Tripolye, as well with
Petreşti
-
Tiszapolgár -
cultural group Decea
Mureşului
-
Bodrogkeresztúr,
Gumelniţa
-
Cernavoda
I. It is also considered important, links with other mining
areas and of production of copper, in the Balkan-Carpathian
metallurgical province, hypothetical worded of
E. N. Černyh
(statistical processing of data obtained from the micro structural
studies and of spectral analysis allowed the development of a general
chart of spreading of the different chemical groups of copper in the
main regions of Balkan-Carpathian metallurgical province and by E. B.
Černyh,
we can speak of the existence of at least three areas: South-
Eastern
-
including precincts of Tripolye and
Gumelniţa,
South¬
western and Western of Bulgaria and North of Yugoslavia, with
Vinča-Pločnik,
Sălcuţa
civilizations and southern variants of
447
Ion Mareş
Tiszapolgár,
Bodrogkeresztúr cultures,
middle Transylvanian-
Danubian
and a possible fourth North-Carpathian area in Slovakia,
Ukraine Carpathians and Southern Poland)
(ČERNYH,
1976,
p.
182
and
seq.;
IDEM, 1978b, p.
175-176
and
seq.,
fig.
3, 4;
for the
beginnings of metallurgy in Slovakia and in North Carpathian
Mountains metallurgical area, see
NOVOTNÁ,
1990,
p.
69
and
seq.).
The entering of the carriers of
Cernavoda
I culture at the Lower
Danube, in sync with the phases of the Cucuteni A3
-
Gumelniţa
A2, Bi
(synchronizations established on the basis of imports of ceramic
between the phases of Cucuteni A3
-
Gumelniţa
A2, B! and between
Cucuteni A4
-
Gumelniţa
B2, such as discoveries in the levels of
Gumelniţa
A2 phase from
Brăiliţa,
level
Ha, Lişcoteanca - Movila
Olarului, Movila Moş Filon, Movila din Baltă, Carcaliu
and from
Gumelniţa B!
phase at
Brăiliţa,
level lib,
Gumelniţa, Căscioarele; VL.
DUMITRESCU,
1964,
p.
53-57;
COMŞA, 1987a, p.
81-89;
POPOVICI, HAŞOTTI,
1988-1989,
p.
291-297),
completed by other
discoveries at
Hârşova
(ceramic fragments, from Cucuteni A3-A4 stage,
coming from a dwelling in the first phase of the
Cernavoda
I culture)
{IBIDEM, p.
291-297,
pi.
1
and
2),
or:
Cernavoda
I, first stage
-
Cucuteni A3/A4
-
Gumelniţa
В!
-
Sălcuţa III
-
Tiszapolgár
В
-
Vinca
-
Pločnik
(MANTU,
1995,
p.
218),
led to the disappearance of some
types of axes-hammer and of slim flat axes (see chap.
5)
in
Muntenia
and North-Eastern Bulgaria
(A. VULPE,
1976,
p.
147).
In Bulgaria,
the penetration of eastern populations is synchronized with the stage
Cucuteni
A4,
late Krivodol,
Bodrogkeresztúr
I, during the transition
period (TODOROVA,
1981,
p.
2-3,
fig.
1
and p.
5-9).
In Thrace and
North-Eastern Bulgaria are in this period, axes-pecker and flat axes
(EADEM, p.
5, 44, 45,
and
seq.).
In the final Eneolithic, axes-hammer (types: Cristur,
Székely
and
Holič,
Nádudvar,
Agnita,
Mezőkeresztes),
axes with cylindrical
hammer-arm (types:
Iara,
Siria, Corneşti),
axes-pecker (types:
Jásladány,
Kladari,
Târgu Ocna,
Nógrádmarcal),
double-hoe
(Hortobágy
type), the double-axes no longer appear
(MARES,
2002,
Ρ-
448
_____
Metalurgia
aramei
în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucoteni
_____
86).
Explanations shall be linked to ethno-cultural transformations in
this period of forming of the new cultures. The small quantity of
copper objects compared to the preceding period shows a reduced
metallurgical activity (less than
2
to
2.5
kg of metal)
(A. VULPE,
1974,
p.
245;
IDEM,
1976,
p.
151-152).
The use of copper with arsenic deposits in order to obtain
copper-arsenic alloy (arsenical bronze) starts from developed
Eneolithic and continues into the Bronze Age
(MARES,
2012).
Instead of closing, we express the conviction that all of the
information summarized in this chapter will be assigned new values on
the processing of copper in Romanian Neo-Eneolithic, if will be
completed in the future the macro and micro structural studies for most
copper objects.
5.
COPPER PIECES FROM PRECUCUTENI AND CUCUTENI
CIVILIZATIONS. TYPOLOGY, CHRONOLOGY AND USE
A. TOOLS
The morpho-fimctional category contains copper objects that
have served as tools in general, being used by Precucuteni and
Cucuteni communities. In the present stage of research it is difficult to
specify the utility of different types of copper tools (applicable and for
other categories of components: tools and weapons, weapons), not
disposing of the results of traseology analyses, that haven t been made
until now.
A.I. Chisels
Morpho-technical group
(tipologic
code A.L) consists of the
following types:
АЛЛ.
Long thin chisels, discoveries at:
Poduri
(no.
2424),
Târgu Frumos
(no.
2503),
Târpeşti
(no.
2512);
АЛ.З.
Perforating-chisels (copies have the transversal section
circular (no.
2513,
Tárpesti)
or square
(Târpeşti,
no.
2514),
the
proximal extremity is thin, the distal part thicker, is ending with a
straight or skew cutter, with edges that do not exceed ends (no.
2513,
Târpeşti)
or narrow
(Târpeşti,
no.
1539).
449
Ion Mareş
A.3.
Hooks for fishing rods
In this morpho-technical group (tipological code
A3.)
may be
classified in several variants (subtypes) which are generally
distinguished by the transversal section of the stem and by the shape of
the grip of the yarn:
A.3.1. Fish hooks with thread clamping ring for wire,
circular transversal section (round, oval) (Bod, no.
1965, 1966;
Poduri,
no. 2424A;
Târpeşti,
no.
2517;
Traian, no.
2543, 2544);
A.3.2. Fish hooks with thread clamping ring for wire,
rhomboidal transversal section (no.
2515,
Târpeşti);
Fish hooks of
unknown shape
(Izvoare,
no.
2394,
Ruginoasa, no.
2461).
A.4. Hooks
The morpho-technical group {typological code A.4.) includes a
piece from
Târpeşti
(no.
2542).
A.5. Perforators morpho-technical group (typological code
A.5.) include several types determined by shape and by transversal
section of the rod:
A.5.1. Perforators with circular transversal section (round,
oval), sharp peak (some with bone handle)
(Ariuşd,
no.
3,
Drăguşeni,
no.
2322,
Hăbăşeşti,
no.
2362,
Izvoare,
no.
2388, 2389,
Târpeşti,
no.
2518
and Vorniceni, no.
2592, 2592);
A.S.I. Perforators with the transversal section rectangular
in proximal part and circular (round, oval) in the distal part (to the
sharp peak), some with bone handle
(Ariuşd,
no.
4,
Bodeşti
-
Frumuşica,
no.
1983,
Cucuteni, no.
2307-2314,
Ghelăieşti,
no.
2331,
Hăbăşeşti,
no.
2362, 2363,
Izvoare,
no.
1205,
Let, no.
2396,
Poduri,
no.
2425-2439,
Scânteia,
2474,
Târgu Frumos,
no.
2491,
Târgu Ocna,
no.
2510,
Traian, no.
2545-2549, 2592
and Vorniceni, no.
2594);
A.5.3. Perforators with the transversal section rhomboidal
and the peak sharp
(Târpeşti,
no.
2521 ).
A.5.4. Perforators with the transversal section circular
(round, oval) and the edges sharp (Traian, no.
2550-2554);
450
Metalurgia aramei
în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucutem
A.5.S.
Perforators with the
transversal
section
circular
rectangular
(square,
rectangular,
rhomboidal) and sharp edges
(Cucuteni, no.
2309,
Malnaş-Băi, no.
2400,
Scânteia, no.
2476,
Târpeşti, no.
2519, 2520,
Traian, no.
2591, 2592, 2560-2562
and
Vorniceni, no.
2595).
A.B.
Tools and weapons. Axes
To the
morpho-fìmctional
category of copper axes (typological
code
A.B.)
of the Precucuteni and Cucuteni culture belong many
morpho-technical groups, divided as follows:
А.ВЛ.
Axes-hammer
A.B.I.
1.
Pločnik
type (includes until now three pieces:
Dragomireşti,
no.
2320,
Poduri,
no.
2442
and
Probota, no.
2458);
A.B.1.3.
Vidra
type (includes seven axes: Cherchejeni, no.
2291,
Cucuteni, no.
2301,
Izvoare,
no.
2393,
Lişmăniţa,
no.
2397,
Lupeşti,
no.
2399,
Mărgineni,
no.
2404,
Reci,
no.
2459);
А.ВЛ.4.
Varna type, Brad variant (an axe from the deposit
with ornament objects from Brad, no.
1990);
A.B. 1.5.
Fâstâci
type (an axe from
Fâstâci,
no.
2324);
A.B.3. Axes with mixed shape (from this morpho-technical
group are part the intermediate forms between the axe-hammer
Vidra
type and the ones with two edges arranged in cross
Ariuşd
type; the
Cucuteni culture are so far three axes with mixed shape:
Bereşti,
no.
1961,
Drăguşeni,
no.
2321
and Mugeni, no.
2411).
A.B.4. Axes with edges disposed in cross (axes-pecker) (in
the archaeological literature are known as: axes with two arms
arranged in cross, pole-axe-pecker, axes with the arms arranged in
cross, axes with the orientation of the edges crossed, axe-hoes, village,
axes-hoe
(Hackenäxte),
axes with two edges crossed
(Kreuzschneidige
Äxte),
axes double-edged
(Zweischneidige Äxte),
a double
tranchant
Haché,
axe~tanglienti of adges
scuri,
perpendiculari,
cruciformes,
haches haches
disposés à deux tranchants cruciformément)
includes
the following types .
A.B.4.1.
Ariuşd
type
(eight axes-pecker, from:
Ariuşd,
no.
2,
451
Ion Mareş
Bod, no.
1964,
Floreşti,
no.
2326,
Fulgeriş,
no.
2327,
Leţ,
no.
2395,
Moldova,
no.
2409,
Sântionlunca,
no.
2469
and Slobozia,
no.
2486);
A.B.4.2.
Jászladány
type. A.B.4.2.2.
Orşova
Variant (three
pieces from
Černat
(no.
2292)
and Odorheiu
Secuiesc,
no.
2412,
2413);
A.B.4.2.4.
Petreşti
Variant (six pieces discovered at:
Bistriţa,
no.
1962, 1963,
Depresiunea Oneşti,
no. 2415A,
Plăvălari,
no.
2422,
Stânca,
no.
2488,
Trifeşti,
no.
2586);
A.B.4.2.5. Brad Variant (four pieces discovered at: Brad, no.
1989,
Fundu
Văii,
no.
2328,
Moldova, no.
1259,
Podolenii
de Jos,
no.
1368,
Sohodo^no.
1474);
A.B.4.2.6. Special forms (three pieces discovered at:
Bogdăneşti,
no.
1988,
Erbiceni, no.
2323,
Moeciu, no.
2408);
A.B.4.2.7. Unknown variants (in this group are comprised the
axes-pecker,
Jászladány
type, fragmentary kept, identifying the variant
being impossible,
Adâncată,
no.
1
A and
Fedeşti,
no.
2325);
A.B.4.4.
Târgu Ocna
type (are known the next discoveries:
Bucovina, no.
2290,
Odorheiu
Secuiesc,
no.
2414,
Piatra Şoimului,
no.
2421
and
Târgu Ocna,
no.
2504-2506);
A.B.4.4.1. Axe fragment from Cucuteni (no.
2302).
A.B.7. Picks with two arms with horizontal and sharp edge
(Pickelhacke) (the only copy of Romania comes from Crizbav (no.
2300)
and is registered as Pickelhacke.
A.B.8. Axes-hammer and double-edged axes with edges
arranged in cross, of unknown shape (these axes are mentioned
m
the archaeological literature, but many of them were lost, so that their
type can no longer be defined precisely, and others are found in the
collections of museums in the world, unpublished; of the Cucuteni
culture
areal
is a piece from Odorheiu
Secuiesc
(no.
2415).
>
A.B.9. Fragments of axes that can no longer be classified
(come from axes-hammer, or from axes-picker and cannot be
typologically determined; from the Cucuteni culture are the copies
from:
Hăbăşeşti
(no.
2360),
Malnaş
(no.
2401),
Sărata
Monteoru (no.
452
_____
Metalurgia
aramei
în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni
_____
2465, 2466),
Suceveni
(2489)
and Vorniceni (no.
2596).
A.B.10.
Flat axes
They had known in their typological development a large period
of time: Eneolithic and early Bronze. Are divided into the following
groups:
A.B.10.1. Narrow flat axes
А.В.10.1Л.
Gumelniţa
variant
(Târpeşti
(no.
2511);
A.B.10.1.2, Coteana variant (a copy from
Târgu Bujor,
no.
2490A and another from the deposit of
Cărbuna);
А.В.10.1.3.
Sălcuţa
variant
(Mereşti,
no.
2406);
A.B.lO.l^. Cucuteni variant
(Comăneşti,
no.
2293,
Conteşti
-
deposit: no.
2294-2298,
Cucuteni, no.
2303, 2304,
Valea Şoşii,
no.
2589
and
Viişoara,
no.
2590);
A.B.10.1.5.
Sălacea
variant
(Brânzeni III, R.
of Moldova).
A.B.10.2. Wide flat axes
A.B.I
0.2.3.
Petreşti
variant (from the area of Cucuteni and
Horodiştea
cultures is a piece discovered by chance at
Suharău,
no.
2490).
A.B.10.4. Flat axes of unknown shape (in this group is
included a flat axe found incidentally at
Reci,
no.
2460).
A.B.11. Knives (knife blades for shaving). From Cucuteni
culture are the copies from
Ariuşd
(no.
5),
Cucuteni (no.
2306),
Ghelăieşti
(no.
2330)
and
Târgu Ocna
(no.
2509).
В.
Weapons
The
morpho-ŕunctional
category includes the following
morpho-technical groups:
B.I. Daggers
For Cucuteni culture characteristic are the following types:
B.I.I.
Ariuşd
type
(Ariuşd,
no.
6,
Conteşti,
no. 2298A,
Poduri,
no.
2441,
Viişoara,
no.
2591).
Ariuşd
type of daggers appears in the
Cucuteni culture, probably being a local creation, and evolved, as
shows the piece at
Viişoara,
to
Bodeşti
and Cucuteni types;
B.1.2.
Bodeşti
type
(Frumuşică) (Bodeşti,
no.
1985,
Târgu
Ocna,
no.
2507);
В.1.3.
Cucuteni type (Cucuteni, no.
2305;
Hăneşti,
no.
2373,
Sărata
Monteoru, no.
2467),
453
Ion Mareş
B.1.4.
Mereşti
type
(Mereşti
(no.
2405).
B.I.
5.
Pećica
type (a dagger of this type is part of deposit in
Gorodnica II
/
Horodniţa).
B.
1.9.
Pumnale de formă necunoscută
-
un pumnal
de la
Păuleni
-
Ciuc, din cultura Ariuşd
-
Cucuteni, faza A (nr.
2418).
Daggers of unknown shape
-
a dagger in
Păuleni-Ciuc,
from the
culture
Ariuşd
-
Cucuteni, phase A (no.
2418).
C. Ornaments
C.I. Bracelets
The morpho-technical group contains the following types:
C.I.I. Spiral bracelets
From the Cucuteni culture, are known the following specimens,
whole and fragments found in:
Ariuşd
(no.
56, 57, 60-62),
Cucuteni
(no.
560),
Hăbăşeşti
(no.
1126-1128),
Izvoare
(no.
1191-1193),
Ruginoasa (no.
2462),
Scânteia
(no.
2470)
and
Târgu Frumos
(no.
2494, 2501).
C.1.2. Bracelets with overlapping ends
Are known so far the specimens found in:
Bodeşti
(no.
1986),
Brad (no.
1991, 1992),
Poduri
(no.
2443)
and
Târpeşti
(no.
1548).
C.1.6. Bracelets with unknown shape
In this category are included the pieces mentioned in the
archaeological literature, some were lost or is not known the place of
storage, others are original, but also fragments that cannot be
determined anymore. Bracelets and fragments come from: Bod (no.
1967-1979),
Scânteia
(no.
2471),
Târpeşti
(no.
2526),
Târgu Frumos
(no.
2502)
and
Traían
(no.
2564).
C.2. Links
The morpho-technical group includes the following types:
С.2Л.
Links with overlapping ends
Discoveries are at Brad (no.
1993, 1994,
as part of the deposit
with ornament objects), at
Malnaş
(no.
2402)
and at
Târgu Frumos
(no.
2495).
C.2.2. Open links
They are made of copper wire with transversal or circular
454
_____
Metalurgia
aramei
în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni
_____
section
at
Brad (no.
1993, 1994),
or rhomboidal, with thinned ends,
one sharp, another cut obliquely
(Târpeşti,
no.
2527).
C.2.3. Closed links
One single piece of this type was discovered at
Hăbăşeşti
(no.
2368).
It is made of metal wire with circular transversal section,
slightly flattened.
C.2.4. Links of unknown type
The group includes the pieces mentioned in the archaeological
literature, with discoveries at
Poduri
(no.
2444, 2445),
Truşeşti
(no.
2587).
C.3. Rings
In this morpho-technical group includes the following types:
C.3.2. Open rings
Discoveries at:
Ariuşd
(no.
9),
Izvoare
(no.
2379),
Târpeşti
(no.
2528, 2529),
Traian (no.
2565).
C.3.3. Closed rings
The pieces discovered at Ruginoasa (no.
2463)
and Traian (no.
2566).
They are made of copper wire with circular transversal section,
being closed.
C.3.4. Loop rings (spiral)
Discoveries at:
Hăbăşeşti
(no.
1159, 1160),
Poduri
(no.
2448)
and Traian (no.
2567, 2568).
C.4. Beads
Morpho-technical group (typological cod C.4.) of ornaments
includes the following beads types:
0.4.1.
Tubular beads (cylindrical)
Discoveries at:
Ariuşd
(no.
21-1959; 1960;
here also ring
shaped beads), Brad (no.
1995-2007),
Cucuteni (no.
2317),
Târgu
Frumos
(no.
2496),
Târpeşti
(no.
2530),
Traian (no.
2569)
and
Vorniceni (no.
2597).
C.4.2. Round beads (pearls)
Discoveries at: Brad (no.
2271-2286)
and Traian (no.
2570,
2571).
455
Ion Mareş
C.4.3.
Ring shaped beads
(circular)
Discoveries at:
Ariuşd
(no.
21-1959),
Brad
(no.
2008-2270),
Hăbăşeşti
(no.
2335-2357)
and Scânteia
(no.
2480-2482).
C.4.5. Bead shaped as a canine of deer
A single copy of this sort was discovered at Traian (no.
2572)
and is so far unique for Romanian Eneolithic.
C.5. Cufflinks
In this typological group are included two pieces from
Hăbăşeşti
(no.
2369-2370).
Сб.
Earrings
A copper object from
Izvoare,
deformed by fire, seems to be an
earring or an amulet; has a meniscal shape and a circular transversal
section (no.
2381).
C.8. Pendants
/
Amulets
Are included in this morpo-technical group the types:
С&ІЛ.;
0.8.1.2.
Anthropomorphic pendants/amulets with
full disc (round and oval discs, convex)
Are part of this typological series the convex discs, of round
shape (Brad, no.
2287;
Hăbăşeşti,
no.
2358
and probably no.
2359;
Târpeşti,
no.
2531, 2532,
probably round) or oval (Brad, no.
2289);
0.8.1.3.
Pendant
/
disc-button
One piece of this kind (no.
2288)
was found together with other
two convex disks of copper (no.
445, 447),
in the dwelling from Brad,
close to the place where was discovered the deposit.
C.8.2.
En violon
anthropomorphic pendants/amulets {en
violon
idols or flat idols Trojan type or flat statuettes
en violon)
The most ancient
en violon
anthropomorphic pendants/ amulets
made of copper come from the settlement from Alexandrovka, in
Ukraine (one original piece, the storage place not being known, dated
in early Tripolye/Precucuteni III culture)
(DERGAČEV,
1998,
p.
23)
and from the hoard of
Cărbuna
(Republic of Moldova) deposit that
includes
35
beads-plates whole and fragmentation, grouped by V.
Dergačev
(who published the whole archaeological material from
456
_____
Metalurgia
aramei
în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni
_____
Cărbuna),
as follows:
13
plates with
evident
anthropomorphic features,
14
plates with signs strongly outlined or conventionally
anthropomorphic, and
8
plates with simple shapes, without specific
anthropomorphic signs {IBIDEM, p.
30-39,
no.
5-39,
fig.
4/5, 6; 5/7, 8;
6/9, 12; 7/13-17; 8, 7, 18-23; 9/24-30, 10/31-35; 11/36-39).
From
Ruseştii
Noi
(Republic of Moldova) comes an
en violon
anthropomorphic pendant/amulet, dated in Tripolye BI
/
Cucuteni A
(RYNDINA,
1971,
p.
120,
fig.
25/7, 21/4;
GREEVES,
1975,
fig.
3/29;
MONAH,
1997,
p.
138;
DERGAČEV,
1998,
p.
23),
close regarding
the shape of some pieces from the thesaurus at
Cărbuna.
A copper anthropomorphic pendant, similar to the pieces from
Cărbuna
thesaurus, was discovered in the level Cucuteni
Ai
from the
cucutenian tell of
Poduri - Dealul
Ghindarvi (no.
2451).
In the site Cucuteni A3 from
Truşeşti - Ţuguieta, Botoşani
County, was discovered in
1951
a flat
en violon
idol, of metal, in a pit
near the North-East corner of the dwelling VI (no.
2588).
An
en violon
pendant/amulet was discovered in the settlement
from
Traían
-
Dealul Fântânilor, Zărneşti
village,
Neamţ
County, in
the level of Cucuteni
А
-B
(no.
2573).
C.8.3. Simple pendants
/
amulets
A fragment of simple pendant was discovered in the site from
Izvoare
(no.
2380).
A.C.IO. Tools and ornaments. Needles
In this morpho-functional category are contained some series of
copper needles that have been used both as tools in productive
domestic activities, as well as for the pinning of parts of clothes or for
hair-catching.
A.C.lO.l.l. Needles with circular transversal section (round,
oval), sharp peak
Discoveries at:
Izvoare
(no.
2383),
Mihoveni (no.
2407),
Poduri
(no.
2449),
Scânteia
(no.
2473),
Sfantu Gheorghe (no.
2485),
Târpeşti
(no.
2534, 2535)
and Vorniceni (no.
2598).
457
Ion Mareş
А.СЛ0Л.2.
Needles with rectangular transversal section,
sharp peak
The discovery from
Izvoare
(no.
2382).
А.СЛ0Л.З.
Needles with sharp ends
Discoveries at:
Hăbăşeşti
(no.
2365)
and
Malnaş
(no.
2403).
А.СЛ0.2.
Needles with ear
Discoveries at: Bod (no.
1980),
Bodeşti
(no.
1987),
Hăbăşeşti
(no.
2364)
and
Izvoare
(no.
2385, 2386, 2387).
А.СЛ0.4.
Needles with loop
A characteristic of this type of needle is the bent over of the
proximal part in order to form a flattened loop
(Izvoare,
no.
2384),
the
peak of the piece being sharpened. The sample do not differs in general
from C.I
0.2.
category (needles with ear).
А.СЛ0.5.
Needles with conical head
A copy from
Corlăteni
(no.
2299)
is made of copper wire with
circular transversal section, has sharpened head, and the distal
extremity ends in the form of cone trunk with the large base in the top.
СЛ0.
Needles used as ornaments
We include in this morpho-technical group the types:
СЛ0.6.
Needles with their heads in the form of two opposite
spirals (volute)
From
Ariuşd-Cucuteni
culture is known a single copy,
fr°m
Ariuşd(no.
15).
СЛ0.8.
Needles of unknown shape
The group {typological code
C J
0.8.)
comprises the copper
needles mentioned in archaeological literature (mostly unpublished)
and fragments that cannot be categorized.
Discoveries at:
Ariuşd
(no.
10),
Păuleni
-
Ciuc (no.
2416, 2419,
2420),
Poduri
(no.
2450),
Târpeşti
(no.
2536),
Traian (no.
2574, 2575)
and Vorniceni (no.
2599,2600).
СЛ1.
Spirals
In this typological group we include a fragment of
(volute), with three spires, worked with rectangular transversal section
458
_____
Metalurgia
aramei
în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni
_____
wire, discovered in the level of Precucuteni culture, unspecified phase,
from
Poduri
(no.
2450).
C.12. Spiral glasses
A copy of this typological group was discovered in dwelling
11
of the Tripolye settlement from
Veselý Kut
(Ukraine).
D.
Diverse
The morpho-functional category includes a series of copper
objects which are directly linked to the metallurgical activity of the
Eneolithic:
D.I.
Pads
Discoveries at:
Ariuşd
(no.
11)
and Traian (no.
2576).
D.2. Blades
Discoveries at:
Izvoare
(no.
2391, 2392).
D.3. Plates
Discoveries at: Traian (no.
2577, 2578).
D.4. Bars, ingots
Discoveries at:
Poduri
(no.
2452)
and
Târpeşti
(no.
2540).
D.5. Amorphous pieces
Discoveries at: Cucuteni (no.
2319),
Hăbăşeşti
(no.
2372),
Iţcani
(nr.
2375),
Scânteia
(no.
2483, 2484),
Târgu Frumos
(no.
2497-
2500),
Traian
(no.
2579).
D.6.
Cast iron scraps, ore and stones of cupric
Discoveries at:
Sărata
Monteoru (no.
2468)
and Traian (no.
2580,2581).
Dating and spreading: from the Cucuteni
А
-B
phase are the
pieces from Traian (no.
2580, 2581),
and from the stage of the
Cucuteni B2 the ones from
Sărata
Monteoru (no.
2468).
D.7. Wires
In this group are included the copper wires, with two variants:
0.7.1.
Wires with circular transversal section (round, oval)
D.7.2. Wires with rectangular transversal section
Discoveries at:
Ariuşd
(no.
12, 13, 14),
Bod (no.
1981, 1982),
Păuieni
-
Ciuc (no.
2417),
Poduri
(no.
2453),
Scânteia
(no.
2472),
Târpeşti
(no.
2437-2541)
and Traian (no.
2582-2585).
459
Ion Mareş
D.8.
Nails
Typological group include a piece from
Scânteia
(no.
2477).
D.9. Objects of unknown shape
Discovered at
Hăbăşeşti
(no.
2371).
D.H.
Crucibles
Four crucibles were discovered in the Eneolithic tell of
Poduri,
two in the level of Cucuteni A2
(2455, 2476),
one in the Cucuteni A,
unstratified (no.
2457)
and another in the level Cucuteni Bi (no.
2454).
The pieces are documenting, along with other discoveries (see corpus,
Poduri
and ch.
3),
the practicing of copper metallurgy in the
archaeological site from
Poduri.
6.
THE CORPUS OF THE COPPER OBJECTS FROM
PRECUCUTENI AND CUCUTENI CIVILIZATIONS
The corpus of the discoveries of copper objects was drawn up
on localities (village, town, city, County), using the current
nomenclature
(GHINEA,
1996-1998).
In the corpus were included the
categories, typological groups, types and variations of objects made of
copper in our classification, the pieces being individualized by the
above mentioned code, for statistical processing of the data. Almost
every object got a number that is found in the references in the text and
in maps. I considered that this methodology used for the corpus is
more efficient and allows browsing of the material in a uniform
manner. Using another variation, drawn up on the kinds of objects, it
would result in a continuous repetition of localities where have been
discovered in various typological series of pieces, which is found as a
matter of fact in the paper and in illustration.
Often we were unable to give a maximum accuracy number to
the studied pieces, because in the literature is not specified their
number and objective reasons have prevented us from knowing them
directly: some are original materials, others were lost, and to others we
have not had access.
460
_____
Metalurgia
aramei
în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni
_____
7.
CONCLUSIONS
Metalworking
(copper and, in a small quantity, gold and silver)
in Cucuteni- Tripolye culture constitutes, along with the other details
of the economic life, a remarkable development, within the framework
of the old metallurgy
(MARES, COJOCARU,
1996;
MARES,
2002).
Featuring copper resources located in particular in the area of
the Eastern Carpathians Mountains
(MARES,
2002,
p.
55-61, 347-
355),
the communities of Cucuteni-Tripolye civilization have known
and used it for the manufacture of tools, weapons and ornaments.
Local copper metallurgy, practiced by professional craftsmen, is
documented by archaeological discoveries from some sites belonging
to Cucuteni culture
(MARES,
COJOCARU,
1996,
p.
192-193,
reference
36;
MARCHEVICI,
1996;
MARES,
2002,
p.
85-86).
When
talking about copper metallurgy in Romania Neo-Eneolithic, I
approached many of the issues of this economic activity and I
highlighted the existence in developed Eneolithic (middle or classic) of
a Carpathian production area, mining and metallurgical, and a
metallurgie
centre with several precincts and metal processing
workshops
(MARES,
2002,
p.
86;
IDEM,
2004,
p.
248).
Two workshops of copper metallurgy have been discovered in
the cucutenian sites from
Branzem-Sâece (Basarabia)
(MARCHEVICI,
1996)
and from
Poduri
-
Dealul
Ghindarti
(MONAH
ET AL.,
2003,
p.
40, 49).
The mentioned centre was in interdependence with the other
copper production areas in the Balkan-Carpathian metallurgical
province, hypothetical worded by
E. N. Černyh (ČERNYH,
1976,
p.
182
and
seq.;
IDEM,
1978
b, p.
175-176,
fig.
3-4).
It also has been brought to actuality the hypothesis of the
existence of itinerant craftsmen, who created in the settlements metal
pieces (copper, gold, silver), being distances of hundreds of kilometres
between the mining resources of the Balkans, Carpathians, Caucasus,
and the cucutenian-tripolian sites where have been discovered copper
objects
(MARES,
2002,
p.
86).
461
_________________________
Ion Mareş
_________________________
The movement of
metal
in various forms (native copper pieces,
plates, ingots, bars, wires) within the economic trade is evident in the
area of Cucuteni-Tripolye culture. Macro and micro structural
investigations (metallographic and spectrographic), carried out on
copper objects of this civilization, have documented both the local
production, and the exchange with copper semis, the economic paths
being from the Carpathians and the Balkans (RYNDINA,
1969,
p.
21-
41;
EADEM,
1971;
EADEM,
1998).
In a study on copper metallurgy in Cucuteni-Tripolye culture, I
underlined the local production of some types and variants of axes-
hammer and axes-pecker
(MARES,
CO
JOC
ARU,
1996,
p.
200).
We
include and other types and variations of objects which, in our opinion,
have been developed and used in Cucuteni-Tripolye civilization,
without separating them categorically of some similar productions that
are in use during this period.
The results of the spectral analysis performed for copper pieces
in Romanian Eneolithic confirm the use of copper with arsenic ore.
The places where these resources are, have not been identified. It
remains to be established the source of supply, with this ore, possible
from Transylvania and
Bukovina
(MAREŞ,
2012).
Copper ore was used for the development of some objects of
copper-arsenic alloy (intermediate phase specific to Cu-As alloy or
arsenical bronze). The ores have been found after the characteristic
smell of garlic of the arsenic, being used for the development of
various categories of pieces (chisels, axes, daggers, razor blades, knife,
perforators, needles, rings, bracelets).
Copper with arsenic (arsenical bronze) is more durable in
comparison with native copper. In the middle and final Eneolithic is
added the copper-arsenic alloy (the intermediate phase specific to Cu-
As alloy, or arsenical bronze) in proportions more or less than
1
percent arsenic in solid metal.
462
_____
Metalurgia
aramei
în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni
_____
Copper-arsenic alloy was obtained by chance by the craftsmen
of Eneolithic, by reducing copper ores with arsenic and by elaborating
objects.
The professionalism of the craftsmen who have crafted objects
of copper with arsenic is high, if one takes into account the fact that the
technological process in the development of such components, requires
experience in sorting, melting and processing the ore (refining, casting,
forging, finishing), because arsenic evaporate easily when melted (at
the rate of about
80%)
and is toxic.
With regard to the use of copper with arsenic is found to result
in increased toughness after cold processing, keeping this feature even
on hot forging period; also, this alloy (even with less than
1 %
arsenic)
may be superior to copper in terms of its metallurgy, due to the
increased degree of solidification and the effect of arsenic as an
oxidizer.
8.
DEPOSITS AND OCCURRENCES
OF COPPER IN ROMANIA
Cupric ores in Romania
(MARES,
2002,
p.
347-356)
are
situated in the Carpathian Mountains chain, with the exception of the
deposit from
Altan Tepe,
Tulcea County (map
1).
9.
EXPERIMENT
The experiment shown below
(MARES,
2002,
p.
357-358,
p.
65-69),
proposes to restore the technology of casting an axe with two
arms disposed in cross, in the collection of the
Bukovina
Museum
(CORPUS, no.
2426).
10.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF COPPER AXES WITH
TRANSVERSAL HOLE FROM ENEOLITHIC
(MARES,
2002,
p.
371-372)
In a table are distributed by geographical provinces the copper
axes discovered in Romania.
463
Ion Mareş
11.
ANNEX
In the annexes are presented six reports of chemical and
metallographic analysis, conducted at the Local Investigation,
Preservation and Restoration Laboratory of the
Bukovina
Museum of
Suceava.
12.
ARCHAEO-ZOOLOGICAL DATA RELATING TO THE
METALLURGY OF THE CUCUTENI CULTURE
The work realised by Ph.
Florentina
Carmen Oleniuc is unique
for the prehistory of Romania, by presenting the original data
concerning detected traces of metals in the form of pastel coloured
spots (blue, green, pink, red and yellow-greenish), located on the fauna
debris recovered from seven archaeological sites of Cucuteni culture.
13.
THE CORPUS OF THE DISCOVERIES OF ARCHAEO¬
ZOOLOGICAL MATERIALS REFERING TO THE CUCUTENI
CULTURE S METALLURGY
It includes the discoveries of Cucuteni A and
В
phases, in the
archaeological sites from:
Iţcani
-
Ferma Agricolă
2,
Româneşti
-
Chetriş, Feteşti
-
La Schit, in Suceava
County,
Fulgeriş
-
La Trei
Cireşi Poduri
-
Dealul Ghindaru, in Bacău
County,
Târgu Neamţ
-
Dealul Pometea, in Neamţ
County and
Sărata Monteoru, in Buzău
County.
464
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Mareş, Ion 1957- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)140235493 |
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| building | Verbundindex |
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| era | Geschichte 4000 v. Chr.-3000 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 4000 v. Chr.-3000 |
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| geographic_facet | Cucuteni Piatra Şoimului |
| id | DE-604.BV041458416 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-10T00:57:11Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9786069332948 9789736663970 |
| language | Romanian |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-026904820 |
| oclc_num | 867153152 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 DE-384 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 DE-384 |
| physical | 612 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |
| publishDate | 2012 |
| publishDateSearch | 2012 |
| publishDateSort | 2012 |
| publisher | Ed. Univ. "Ştefan cel Mare" din Suceava [u.a.] |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Mareş, Ion 1957- Verfasser (DE-588)140235493 aut Metalurgia aramei în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni Ion Mareş Suceava Ed. Univ. "Ştefan cel Mare" din Suceava [u.a.] 2012 612 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Copper metallurgy in the civilizations Precucuteni and Cucuteni Geschichte 4000 v. Chr.-3000 gnd rswk-swf Metallurgie (DE-588)4074756-6 gnd rswk-swf Cucuteni (DE-588)4230781-8 gnd rswk-swf Piatra Şoimului (DE-588)7656784-9 gnd rswk-swf Cucuteni (DE-588)4230781-8 g Piatra Şoimului (DE-588)7656784-9 g Metallurgie (DE-588)4074756-6 s Geschichte 4000 v. Chr.-3000 z DE-604 Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=026904820&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=026904820&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Mareş, Ion 1957- Metalurgia aramei în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni Metallurgie (DE-588)4074756-6 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4074756-6 (DE-588)4230781-8 (DE-588)7656784-9 |
| title | Metalurgia aramei în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni |
| title_auth | Metalurgia aramei în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni |
| title_exact_search | Metalurgia aramei în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni |
| title_full | Metalurgia aramei în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni Ion Mareş |
| title_fullStr | Metalurgia aramei în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni Ion Mareş |
| title_full_unstemmed | Metalurgia aramei în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni Ion Mareş |
| title_short | Metalurgia aramei în civilizaţiile Precucuteni şi Cucuteni |
| title_sort | metalurgia aramei in civilizatiile precucuteni si cucuteni |
| topic | Metallurgie (DE-588)4074756-6 gnd |
| topic_facet | Metallurgie Cucuteni Piatra Şoimului |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=026904820&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=026904820&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT maresion metalurgiaarameiincivilizatiileprecucutenisicucuteni |