Kurhany na nekropolach antycznych miast północnych wybrzeży Morza Czarnego:
Saved in:
| Main Author: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | Polish |
| Published: |
Kraków
Wydawnictwo Alter
2013
|
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Item Description: | Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: The kurgans of the ancient necropoleis in the northern Black Sea area |
| Physical Description: | 260 s., [14] s. tabl. il. kolor. - Ill., Kt. 24 cm. |
| ISBN: | 9788393445585 |
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Record in the Search Index
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| adam_text |
SPIS TREŚCI
Wstęp
.7
ι
.
Obrządek pogrzebowy
. 13
2.
Nekropole, kurhany, badania
.25
2.1
Berezari
.25
2.2.
Olbia
.29
2.3.
Pantikapajon
. 58
2.4.
Nimfajon
. 118
2.5.
Fanagoria
. 126
г.6.
Hermonassa
. 136
2.7.
Kepoi
. 141
2.8.
Gorgippia
. 143
3.
Budowa i zróżnicowanie nasypów ziemnych
. 149
4.
Typy grobów podkurhanowych
. 157
5.
Wyposażenie grobów podkurhanowych
. 169
6.
Chronologia kurhanów: geneza, rozwój, zanik
. 191
7.
Problem przynależności etnicznej zmarłych chowanych pod kurhanami
. 203
8.
Podsumowanie
. 215
Spis ilustracji
.223
Wykaz skrótów
.229
Bibliografia
. 231
Summary
. 245
Indeks
.253
SUMMARY
The Kurgans of the ancient necropoleis in the northern Black Sea area
In the beginning of the i8th century, the attention of scholars who worked on
antique issues began to be attracted by a very specific, indeed, exceptional character
of the territories of southern Ukraine and Russia, where important centres or the
ancient world, such asTyras, Olbia, Chersonesos
Taurica, Pantikapaeum,
Phanagoria
were located.
European travellers in the accounts of their journeys to the northern coast of the
Black Sea often mentioned groups or great chains of artificial hills kurgans of vari¬
ous shapes, surrounding the ruins of most of the antique cities. These mounds, and
particularly the architecture of tombs beneath them, grave goods and burial rites,
became extremely important for discovering the Greek past or those territories.
However, none of the studies published so far gives a comprehensive analysis of
the kurgans in question and an attempt of their systematization.
Піе
question of
placing these kurgans within the context of the Greek tradition of burying the dead
beneath mounds still awaits investigation. The present study was undertaken as a
result of the need to fill this gap in our understanding of the two issues mentioned
above.
The main aim of this work is the systematization
—
on the basis of the available
literature
-
of our knowledge on kurgan mounds located within the necropoleis of
ancient cities on the Black Sea northern coast. For the first time, a description of the
kurgans in individual necropoleis of the most important cities in the region, which
have been studied by archaeologists during the last two hundred years, is attempted.
In order to shed more light on the history and character of the kurgan necropoleis
of ancient cities on the Black Sea northern coast it was necessary to know the results
of the excavations conducted so far. Unfortunately, very often appropriate drawing
and photographic documentation is lacking. Some barrows were only mentioned
when describing the grave goods discovered, while the others appeared in popular
science articles devoted to broader issues in the field of the North-Pontic archaeology.
The chronological limits for the basic part of this work cover the period from the
beginning of Greek colonization on the discussed territory, that is from the found-
245
ing of the first Greek settlement on the Berezan island in the mid 7th century
ВС,
up to the decline of ancient cities in the
3rd
and 4th centuries AD. However, a real
chronological range is much broader. It is not possible to discuss the character of kur-
gan necropoleis on the northern coasts of the Black Sea without getting acquainted
with the Greek tradition of erecting tumuli over burials, and that tradition developed
already at the beginnings of the Bronze Age.
The work is divided into eight chapters. The first chapter is devoted to burial
rites present in ancient necropoleis of the Black Sea northern coasts. In the first part
of this chapter, particular elements of burial ritual were identified, described and
their role in funeral customs of individual ethnic groups buried in the necropolis in
question was determined. The second part describes the development of particular
elements of burial rite, in the first place grave types, chronologically arranged from
the archaic period till the end of the Roman period.
Chapter two is devoted to the description of the major kurgans in the necropoleis
of ancient cities located on the northern coast of the Black Sea. It contains infor¬
mation about the research performed on individual kurgans, tombs found beneath
them, and the most important finds discovered during the excavations performed
since the beginning of the 19th century. Due to sometimes very fragmentary infor¬
mation and poor archaeological record, some kurgans are only signalled and listed,
while the others are described in more detail. The individual necropoleis are de¬
scribed in geographical order (from west to east) and the kurgans in the order of their
investigation by the discoverers.
Chapters three to seven give the analysis of particular aspects connected with the
kurgan mounds in the necropoleis of ancient cities on the Black Sea northern coast.
The process of building and types of earthen mounds (chapter
3),
particular grave
types (chapter
4)
and types of artefacts found during the excavations (chapter
5)
are
described. The genesis, development and disappearance of the custom of erecting
kurgans are analyzed (chapter
6).
The problem of ethnic identity of the people in¬
terred under the mounds is addressed here as well (chapter
7).
The results of the studies and the conclusions concerning particular aspects of the
discussed topic are presented in chapter eight, which is a summary of this work.
Burial rituals of people inhabiting ancient cities on the Black Sea northern coast
were subject to various changes during almost one thousand years of their existence.
These changes resulted from internal, socio-economic and political reasons as well as
from the external ones. The first included, above all, an intensive growth of affluence
among the Black Sea colonists, while the latter resulted mainly from contacts with
the local barbarian tribes, but also from trade and cultural contacts with broadly
understood ancient world.
With the development of Greek colonies in the Black Sea, their growing econo¬
my and increasing social stratification, the burial rite was undergoing a permanent
evolution as well. Burial rite became not only the indicator of a social position of the
246
deceased, but also a symbol of bonds with family, lineage and a whole community of
the citizens.
One of the most spectacular manifestations of burial rite was the custom of erect¬
ing kurgan mounds over the graves. This custom became widespread in Greek colo¬
nies in the Hellenistic period
—
the heyday of ancient cities on the Black Sea northern
coast.
The question thus arises: what caused such a sudden need for this element of
burial rite? Did not the inhabitants of Greek colonies really know this custom before?
This seems unlikely. Erecting kurgans (tumuli) over graves was known in almost all
of Europe already since the beginnings of the Bronze Age. Also the people inhabiting
Greece started burying their dead under earthen mounds at that time. This tradition
reached its apex in the middle Bronze Age.
Kurgan mounds
ofthat
period were round and small. In some cases mounds were
reinforced with stones, and had stone crepidomas built around them. Usually, they
were erected over single cremation graves, in which a male or female was buried.
However, some mounds played a role of family grave or poliandron. In some cases
the kurgans were the cenotaphs commemorating warriors probably who fell fighting
outside their homeland.
Despite various political turbulences, migrations and invasions in the later pe¬
riods, the tradition of erecting tumuli not only survived, but even became more
significant. Burials beneath tumuli were reserved for the heroes who fell in the battle
or for the individuals who rendered great services to a local community. Particularly
important were the works of Homer, which for good introduced and established
among the Greeks the tradition of burying their heroes under earthen mounds.
All through the Geometric, Archaic and Classic periods, the Greeks were reward¬
ing the citizens of merit with burials beneath tumuli. It was so in the Athens' ne¬
cropolis of Kerameikos, although the most impressive example is of course the Soros
at Marathon
—
a huge tumulus covering the remains of the heroic Athenians who
defended their homeland from the Persian invasion.
The tradition of erecting tumuli flourished again from the mid 4th century on¬
ward and in the Hellenistic period, when there appeared the need to emphasize the
prestige and significance of the deceased. This custom was observed in the burials of
the Macedonian dynasty members, magnificent examples of which are seen in the
royal necropolis in
Vergina.
In the Hellenistic period, the meaning of erecting tumuli
changed to a certain degree. The earthen mound was not only an evidence of "heroic
death", but it also became a manifestation of material status and social position of
the deceased.
Probably, a similar process took place in Greek colonies at the northern coast of
the Black Sea.
Initially, the citizens in this region were burying their dead in simple graves,
especially in pit graves. Small kurgans were raised over some of these burials, as is
247
confirmed by the examples from Berezan, dated to the 7th century
ВС.
It seems that
at that time, under the influence of the Homeric tradition, earthen mounds were
reserved exclusively for the heroes who fell in the battle.
In the 5th century
ВС,
niche graves appeared in the necropoleis of the North-
Pontic ancient cities. From about mid 4th century
ВС
onward, niche graves were
gradually evolving and transforming into huge chamber graves, later built of stone.
This grave type became the most popular sepulchral construction over which the
kurgans were raised.
In general, the appearance of the first kurgans in the North-Pontic necropoleis
is associated with the local barbarian tribes, mainly the Scythians. Most often it was
assumed that the Greeks adopted this custom at about 4th century
ВС,
which is
connected with the appearance of stone chamber graves. However, this statement is
based on the assumption that the Greeks were unfamiliar with the tradition of bury¬
ing the dead under kurgans.
Such opinion is in contradiction with the Greek tradition of commemorating
their dead heroes with burials under earthen mounds. As was mentioned earlier, this
tradition dates back to very distant times. Before starting the colonization, as well
as during this process, in Greece and in the Greek part of Asia Minor the dead were
buried under earthen mounts all the time. It is not possible that the Greek colonists
did not know this tradition.
Therefore it seems that the origins of kurgans in ancient necropoleis in the north¬
ern Black Sea zone cannot be linked with only one ethnic group. The kurgans existed
in the region already in the Bronze Age, and the Greeks, who were arriving to the
area, from the 7th century
ВС
onward, were erecting them for their dead, in agree¬
ment with their own customs and tradition.
The above-mentioned mounds in the Berezan necropolis confirm the fact that
the kurgans were built in the North-Pontic ancient necropoleis since the very begin¬
ning of the Greek colonization. Larger kurgans began to be constructed in the 5 th
century
ВС
and from that period much more kurgans are known. The examples in
the necropoleis of Pantikapaeum, Nimphaion or Phanagoria survived until today.
Kurgan burials reached the height of their development in the 4th—
3rd
centuries
ВС,
when most of the kurgans were built and when they were the most impressive
and spectacular. One can mention here the splendid stone chamber graves under the
Royal and Melek-Tshesmensky kurgans in the necropolis of Pantikapaeum.
One should also stress the importance of economic development of Greek colo¬
nies at that period. At that time, one can notice increasing ethnic distinctions be¬
tween the people buried under the kurgans in the necropoleis of the North-Pontic
ancient cities.
After the period when the custom of erecting kurgans died out due to the dete¬
rioration of economic situation in the colonies
(2nd—1st
centuries
ВС),
this habit
revived again in the first centuries AD. However, the kurgans built at that period
were much smaller than the Hellenistic ones. The most interesting examples are the
248
so-called Zeus Kurgan and a mound built over the tomb of Euresibios and Arete in
the necropolis of a large Greek colony in Olbia. Both are dated to the
2nd
century
AD.
The end of the custom of raising kurgans is dated for the
3rd—
4th centuries AD.
At that period only the already existing mounds were used. It was undoubtedly a
consequence of a progressing decline of the North-
Pontic
Greek colonies under the
pressure exerted by barbarian tribes.
The investigations led in the North-Pontic ancient necropoleis made it possible to
reconstruct in outline the structure of mounds and the whole ritual accompanying a
burial beneath kurgan. This reconstruction could not however be complete, due to
a very fragmentary and cursory documentation of the excavations. Sometimes the
documentation is simply lacking.
When erecting a mound, first it was necessary to choose and prepare an appro¬
priate location. Next, the construction of the tomb for the deceased was beginning.
Most often kurgans were built after placing the body in a grave, as the remains of
funeral wakes found in the mounds evidence it. Only in the case of the largest, stone
chamber graves a mound had to be erected simultaneously with a tomb due to the
constructional reasons.
The mound structures were differentiated. Usually they were built using soil ac¬
quired in the closest vicinity. Some were built of a number of subsequent layers
of soil, clay, gravel and stones. Each layer was carefully compacted, in single cases
mounds w^ere covered with stones, which formed a kind of a stone coat keeping the
mound together. Such complex, multi-layered construction ensured great stability
and durability of the kurgans.
Additionally, kurgan mounds were reinforced by crepidomas surrounding them,
made usually of well-dressed stone slabs, or
-
less frequently of rough stone.
The largest kurgans at the necropolis of the ancient cities at the northern coast of
the Black Sea reaches a height of
2
5m, the smallest ones
— 3—4
m. The most common
are the tumuli of a height between
5—
10m. It should be highlighted here, that there
are the heights of the preserved mound. At the moment of their erection, kurgans
were much higher.
As it was mentioned above, most researchers attribute the appearance of kurgan
burials among the Greeks on the Black Sea coast to the influences from the local
barbarian tribes. However it seems that it is practically impossible to give a complete
explanation of the direction of the kurgan burial development and possible borrow¬
ings. Tumuli were widespread both in the Mediterranean and in the Black Sea basin
already since the Neolithic. At present, we can focus on the determination of ethnic
identity of the people buried beneath individual kurgans.
Ancient Greeks living on the Northern coast of the Black Sea buried their dead in
several types of tombs. This diversity also refers to graves beneath earthen mounds.
249
Generally, the types of graves beneath the barrows, can be distinguish using the cri¬
terion of the ground, in which they were made or the criterion of the materials from
which they were built.
In the first case we can distinguish the graves that were dug in the soft surface
such as earth or clay, and the graves that were cut in the rock. In the vast majority of
cases, beneath burial mounds we are dealing with the first type. Tombs carved into
the rock only occurred at a later period in the necropolis of Pantikapaion.
Due to their construction the tombs beneath kurgans can be classified according
to the following division:
—
earthen graves (pit, niche or small chamber tombs),
—
cist graves built of terracotta tiles,
—
cist graves built of dried bricks,
—
stone-built cist or chamber tombs.
Within these groups there are of course many types and variations.
Ethnic identity is, however, not easy to establish, as there is no rigorous bound¬
ary between the burials typical of the Greeks and barbarians. Also burial rites were
very much the same. The elements of grave equipment, such as pottery, jewellery or
weapons are of little help too, although until recently weaponry was considered as
indicating Scythian burials. But as the Greeks also buried their battle-fallen warriors
equipped with weapons, we must be particularly careful when using this criterion for
determining the ethnic affiliation of the deceased.
It seems that only the graves equipped with characteristic "athlete in palaestra"
set (i.e. lekythoses, aryballoses, alabastrons, strigils and sometimes Panathenaic am¬
phorae) can be considered as being typical burials of the Greeks. A respective "pure
barbarian" inventory is unknown in ancient necropoleis on the Black Sea cost.
The kurgans in the North-Pontic necropoleis should be treated as burials of the
local elite. The elite created its characteristic burial rite, borrowing some elements
from both the Greek and indigenous "barbarian" cultures. It seems that ethnic dis¬
tinctions were definitely less important here.
Almost always, the burials beneath kurgans were very lavishly equipped. It is
particularly evident in the Hellenistic period. But also earlier graves, although not so
impressive, were extremely luxurious. This is interesting, because at that time graves
on the territory of Greece did not manifest luxury they can even be called poorly
equipped. Therefore the opinion that contacts with the local population influenced
the lavishness of Greek kurgan burials in the North-Pontic region seems correct. An¬
other reason for this richness can be described as a certain "regress" of Greek colonists
to the stage of military democracy, when grave equipment manifested the wealth of
the deceased.
It should be emphasized that contrary to the thorough studies concerning kur¬
gans
οι
the barbarian tribes (above all the Scythians) who inhabited the territories
250
of the present-day southern Ukraine, the Greek kurgans from this area have not
been comprehensively investigated so far. There are only a small number of Russian-
language publications (in majority the articles, not larger studies) referring either to
individual necropoleis of ancient cities or to various issues connected with kurgan
tombs. Till today, no comprehensive publication dedicated to kurgan burials in the
necropoleis of ancient cities on the Black Sea. northern coast has appeared. There
is also lack of studies discussing the burial type in question against a broader back¬
ground, with references to the Mediterranean and all area of the ancient culture
influences.
The present publication fills, at least partially, this gap and contributes to the
studies of this aspect of Greek civilization on the Black Sea. The ample description
of all the mounds and tombs beneath kurgans is a part of the publication and consti¬
tutes, as it seems, a good starting point for preparing Corpus tumulorum
—
the need
of which and its idea were postulated already at the end of the 20th century.
251 |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Machowski, Wojciech 1972- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1089860005 |
| author_facet | Machowski, Wojciech 1972- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Machowski, Wojciech 1972- |
| author_variant | w m wm |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV041063930 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)856801710 (DE-599)BVBBV041063930 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Schwarzmeer-Gebiet Nord (DE-588)4363739-5 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Schwarzmeer-Gebiet Nord |
| id | DE-604.BV041063930 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-08-27T00:20:04Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9788393445585 |
| language | Polish |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-026040988 |
| oclc_num | 856801710 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | 260 s., [14] s. tabl. il. kolor. - Ill., Kt. 24 cm. |
| publishDate | 2013 |
| publishDateSearch | 2013 |
| publishDateSort | 2013 |
| publisher | Wydawnictwo Alter |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Machowski, Wojciech 1972- Verfasser (DE-588)1089860005 aut Kurhany na nekropolach antycznych miast północnych wybrzeży Morza Czarnego Wojciech Machowski Kraków Wydawnictwo Alter 2013 260 s., [14] s. tabl. il. kolor. - Ill., Kt. 24 cm. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: The kurgans of the ancient necropoleis in the northern Black Sea area Gräberfeld (DE-588)4071980-7 gnd rswk-swf Kurgan Hügelgrab (DE-588)4128840-3 gnd rswk-swf Schwarzmeer-Gebiet Nord (DE-588)4363739-5 gnd rswk-swf Schwarzmeer-Gebiet Nord (DE-588)4363739-5 g Gräberfeld (DE-588)4071980-7 s Kurgan Hügelgrab (DE-588)4128840-3 s DE-604 Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=026040988&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=026040988&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Machowski, Wojciech 1972- Kurhany na nekropolach antycznych miast północnych wybrzeży Morza Czarnego Gräberfeld (DE-588)4071980-7 gnd Kurgan Hügelgrab (DE-588)4128840-3 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4071980-7 (DE-588)4128840-3 (DE-588)4363739-5 |
| title | Kurhany na nekropolach antycznych miast północnych wybrzeży Morza Czarnego |
| title_auth | Kurhany na nekropolach antycznych miast północnych wybrzeży Morza Czarnego |
| title_exact_search | Kurhany na nekropolach antycznych miast północnych wybrzeży Morza Czarnego |
| title_full | Kurhany na nekropolach antycznych miast północnych wybrzeży Morza Czarnego Wojciech Machowski |
| title_fullStr | Kurhany na nekropolach antycznych miast północnych wybrzeży Morza Czarnego Wojciech Machowski |
| title_full_unstemmed | Kurhany na nekropolach antycznych miast północnych wybrzeży Morza Czarnego Wojciech Machowski |
| title_short | Kurhany na nekropolach antycznych miast północnych wybrzeży Morza Czarnego |
| title_sort | kurhany na nekropolach antycznych miast polnocnych wybrzezy morza czarnego |
| topic | Gräberfeld (DE-588)4071980-7 gnd Kurgan Hügelgrab (DE-588)4128840-3 gnd |
| topic_facet | Gräberfeld Kurgan Hügelgrab Schwarzmeer-Gebiet Nord |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=026040988&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=026040988&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT machowskiwojciech kurhanynanekropolachantycznychmiastpołnocnychwybrzezymorzaczarnego |